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eukaryotic cells
nonmotile
heterotrophic (use organic compounds a carbon source; they cant make their own sugars; no
photosynthesis)
can tolerate higher osmotic pressure and lower moisture than bacteria
larger than bacteria and have more cellular and morphologic detail
cannot tolerate the high temps. that bacteria can (fungal spores arent as resistant as bacterial spores)
most are aerobic; some are facultative anaerobes (ex. yeasts) & some are anaerobes
most, with exception of unicellular species, have a vegetative structure called a mycelium (a
multinucleate mass of cytoplasm enclosed within a system of rigid, branched, tube-like filaments called
hyphae).
hyphae can be coenocytic (undivided network of branching tubes) or have septa (cross walls).
cells walls are composed of cellulose, chitin (contains nitrogen - also found in the exoskeletons of
insects, crayfish, etc.), or a combination of the two.
2.
Sexual Reproduction - Occurs by producing sexual spores, which form following sexual fusion of
gametes (similar to sperm & eggs). Types: zygospores, ascospores, & basidiospores.
nonfilamentous, unicellular
used to prepare bread, wine, beer, etc. (fermentation of carbohydrates produces ethanol &
carbon dioxide) ex. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (cervesa means beer in Spanish)
some are pathogenic; ex. Candida albicans (causes yeast infections, thrush; see below)
2. Molds - characteristics:
filamentous, multicellular
have a vegetative structure called a mycelium (a multinucleate mass of cytoplasm enclosed within
a system of rigid, branched, tube-like filaments called hyphae).
hyphae can be coenocytic (undivided network of branching tubes) or have septa (cross walls).
also possess reproductive hyphae which produce different kinds of spores (discussed above and
below)
Characteristics: includes molds with septate hyphae and some yeasts; ascospores (sexual
spores) develop within sacs called asci (sing. ascus); also produce conidiospores (asexual
spores).
b. Examples:
1.) Saccharomyces cerevisiae - yeast is used to make beer, bread, wine; cervesa means
beer in Spanish.
2.) Trichophyton - causes athlete's foot (tinea pedis); ringworm of the feet; other species
infect different parts of the body (dandruff, nail fungus, jock itch)
3.) Penicillium spp. - conidiospores form long chains on branching conidiophores, creating a
brush-like structure that looks like a broom (penicillus means brush"); some species
produce the antibiotic penicillin.
4.) Aspergillus spp. - form long chains on a globelike conidiophore; cause aspergillosis, a
pulmonary disease of animals & humans; infection is often secondary to tuberculosis,
immunodeficiency, & steroid therapy.
5.) Histoplasma capsulatum - causes Mississippi Valley fever (histoplasmosis); can get
from bird droppings and bat guano; endemic disease in this area; pulmonary disease.
6.) Candida albicans - part of our natural flora; opportunistic; becomes a problem when
defenses are weakened or balance of microbes is upset (ex. from antibiotic treatment);
cause of vaginal & intestinal yeast infections & thrush in the mouth ("cottage cheese
patches") - called candidiasis.
2. Basidiomycetes (Club Fungi)
a. Characteristics: many form basidiocarps (mushrooms, puffballs, or shelflike bodies on
trees); some are molds, a few are yeasts; produce conidiospores; also produce basidiospores
(sexual spores); basidiospores form on the "gills" of mushroom basidiocarps.
b. Examples:
1.) Amanita - poisonous mushroom; toxin causes a mycotoxicosis
2.) Cryptococcus - yeast cells surrounded by a capsule; causes fatal meningitis
(cryptococcosis); transmission inhalation of contaminated dust; found in 8% of AIDS
patients.
3. Deuteromycetes (Imperfect Fungi)
a. Characteristics: called the imperfect fungi because no sexual stage has been observed; we
put them in this group until a sexual stage is observed; these fungi grow as yeasts or molds;
identify on basis of shape & arrangement of their conidiospores (asexual spores); some
species are pathogenic; many of these fungi have recently been placed in other phyla.
G. Dimorphic Fungi - Some fungi switch between a single-celled yeast phase of growth & a mycelial phase
(called dimorphism); discovered by Pasteur; some species will switch if oxygen supply decreases. Pathogenic
dimorphic fungi are mycelial outside of the host & single-celled inside the host. With pathogenic species, it
is usually high body temperature that causes the switch. Candida changes in response to the higher nutrient
concentrations found in the body. The problem with dimorphism is that single cells are more readily spread
in bloodstream, leading to systemic infections.
H. Mycoses (Fungal Diseases)
Humans usually acquire fungal disease from nature; they are not highly contagious.
Some produce toxins that are hallucinogenic; ex. muscarin - produced by a mushroom
A. General Characteristics:
Unicellular eukaryotes.
The protistan lineages continue into the kingdoms of plants, fungi, and animals.
Heterotrophs
Most reproduce asexually by fission (one cell divides to form 2 identical daughter cells & budding; some
(ex. Plasmodium that causes malaria) under go schizogony (multiple fission). Sexual reproduction occurs
by conjugation, the fusion of vegetative cells, or by the fusion of specialized gametes called
gametocytes.
Some have complex life cycles, requiring multiple hosts and changing their morphology (ex. Plasmodium
uses the mosquito as an intermediate host)
Trophozoite - active, motile, feeding stage of protozoans; parasitic stage that causes the disease in the
host.
Cyst - resistant, inactive stage; how diseases are usually transmitted by the fecal-oral route; usually
more useful than trophozoites for lab identification.
4.
c. Cryptosporidium - form cysts; cause enteritis & diarrhea; can occur in water supplies; can also
be transmitted by fecal-oral transmission from kittens/puppies; resistant to chlorine (it can
survive full-strength Chlorox!); threat only AIDS patients and those immunocompromised; no
effective treatment found.
d. Pneumocystis carinii - may be a fungus!!; causes pneumocystis pneumonia; spread in
respiratory droplets; common in AIDS patients.
1. Trematoda (Flukes) - all parasitic of vertebrates; have complex life cycles that include sexual and
asexual phases; they require at least 2 kinds of organisms to complete the cycle - they reach sexual
maturity in a primary or definitive host (always a vertebrate), their larval stages develop or become
encysted in an intermediate host (usually an invertebrate).
a. Clonorchis sinensis (Chinese or Human Liver Fluke)
Adults live in bile ducts (in the liver) of humans (definitive host)
Intermediate hosts: snail (first) and fish (second)
Life cycle: a snail ingests the eggs; the eggs hatch & release a larval stage which goes through
several transformation before finally forming a tadpole-like cercariae; the cercariae bore
through the flesh of the snail, & escape into the water; they swim until they find the
appropriate species of fish; they encyst in the muscle tissues of the fish (forming
metacercariae); the adult flukes develop in livers of humans who eat raw, infected fish; eggs
of the parasite are excreted in the feces; when human feces end up in ponds, etc., snails
ingest the eggs & the cycle repeats itself.]
b. Schistosoma mansoni (Schistosomes or Blood Flukes) - adults live in circulatory system; spiny eggs
break through the blood vessel wall and through the gut wall to be expelled in feces; eggs hatch into
cercaria in water; cercaria then penetrate skin when a person is bathing or swimming; cause spleen
and liver enlargement, dysentery, and cirrhosis of the liver
2. Cestoda (Tapeworms) - intestinal parasites of vertebrates; no digestive system like in trematodes &
nematodes; they absorb nutrients through their tegument!
Morphology: scolex (head) with suckers and/or hooks (for attachment), proglottids (body units - each
one has male and female reproductive organs): immature proglottids (closest to the scolex), mature
proglottids (next closest to the scolex), and gravid proglottids (furthest from the scolex - in these
proglottids, the uterus is filled with eggs).
General life cycle of tapeworms: the gravid proglottids break off and are passed in the definitive host's
feces; larval forms hatch when the eggs are ingested by the intermediate host; larvae then encyst in the
intermediate host (called a cysticercus or bladder worm); adult worms usually develop in the definitive
host when raw or poorly cooked infected meat is eaten. Examples:
a. Taenia solium (pork tapeworm) reaches a length of 2-7 meters; primary host: humans, etc.;
intermediate host: swine
Humans can be infected with the adults by consuming rare pork containing cysticerci larvae;
larvae then develop into adults in digestive tract of the human.
Humans can also be infected with larval forms when they accidentally ingest eggs (they get them
from other infected humans who contaminate food, etc. with the eggs when they dont use proper
hygiene after going to the bathroom). In this case every organ in the body may harbor
cysticerci. When a cysticercus dies, it releases toxins and usually causes a severe allergic
reaction, which is sometimes fatal.
b. Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) reaches a length of 5-25 meters; primary host: humans, etc.;
intermediate host: cattle, sheep, etc.; life cycle similar to that of
T. solium above; beef riddles
with encysted larvae is called measly beef.
c. Echinococcus granulosus (dog tapeworm); small - only 3 proglottids long; typical life cycle:
dogs are infected by adults when they eat raw butchered livestock containing larvae (ex. raw
bones, etc.)
eggs are passed in feces of dog; livestock eat vegetation with eggs when grazing
larvae hatch and encyst in the muscle tissue of livestock
Humans can get hydatid cysts (larvae) from ingesting the eggs (the eggs are passed in feces of dog,
dog licks himself, then dog licks your face). These cysts develop in the liver, lungs, and brain. Each
fluid-filledcyst, containing many larvae, can reach the size of a grapefruit.
d. Dipylidium caninum (dog & cat tapeworm) - often seen in children; flea is the intermediate host - it
eats the eggs on an animal; larvae develop in flea; if a dog, cat, or human ingests the flea, the adult
will develop. Note: Larvae are not transmitted through the bite of the flea!!
e. Hymenolepis nana (dwarf tapeworm) - most common tapeworm of humans in the world; intermediate
host is a grain beetle; humans can ingest the eggs in cereals and other foods that contain parts of
the insects; intermediate host is optional (meaning that if you ingest the eggs of this worm, you get
an adult infection).
B. Nematoda (Nematodes)
General characteristics:
Nematodes are everywhere!!!! They are freeliving in soil, fresh & salt water, & are parasitic in plants
and animals.
Dioecious (separate sexes).
Possess a nonliving cuticle, which is secreted by the epidermis and is resistant to the digestive
enzymes of the hosts.
More highly developed than flatworms.
Adults do not latch onto the host like the tapeworms.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Wucheria bancrofti
5.
6.
adults live in lymph nodes where obstruction of lymph vessels leads to grotesque enlargement of
these nodes & to a condition called elephantiasis
a mosquito is the intermediate host.
Dirofilaria immitis - causes heartworm disease in dogs; a few cases in humans & cats; mosquito is
intermediate host.
7.
Trichuris trichiura - (whipworm) - adults partially embed in the mucosa of the large intestine; each adult
produces 1,000-7,000 eggs/day!