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Physics Notes 2010

Core Module 1: Space
Contextual Outline
Scientists have drawn on advances in areas such as aeronautics, material science, robotics, electronics, medicine
and energy production to develop viable spacecraft. Perhaps the most dangerous parts of any space mission are
the launch, re-entry and landing. A huge force is required to propel the rocket a sufficient distance from the
Earth so that it is able to either escape the Earths gravitational pull or maintain an orbit. Following a successful
mission, re-entry through the Earths atmosphere provides further challenges to scientists if astronauts are to
return to Earth safely.
Rapid advances in technologies over the past fifty years have allowed the exploration of not only the Moon, but
the Solar System and, to an increasing extent, the Universe. Space exploration is becoming more viable.
Information from research undertaken in space programs has impacted on society through the development of
devices such as personal computers, advanced medical equipment and communication satellites, and has
enabled the accurate mapping of natural resources. Space research and exploration increases our understanding
of the Earths own environment, the Solar System and the Universe.
This module increases students understanding of the history, nature and practice of physics and the
implications of physics for society and the environment.
SI Units
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x

Gravity is a force of attraction that exists between any two masses

o Usually a very small, if not negligible force
o When one or both of masses is as large as a planet the force becomes significant
o Weight is the force on an object due to a gravitational field vector quantity

W = mg
x

W = force exerted (N) on mass m,

m = mass (kg),
g = field vector or acceleration due to gravity (N kg-1 or m s-2)

Gravitational field vector field within which a mass will experience a force
o Direction of field line at any point is towards centre of the Earth
o Field vector: a single vector that describes the strength and direction of a uniform vector field
o For a gravitational field, the field vector is g same as direction of associated force
o Net force applied to a mass will cause it to accelerate according to Newtons 2nd Law g also represents
acceleration due to gravity

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Gravitational potential energy (Ep): the energy of a mass due to its position within a gravitational field
o Equal to the work done to move the object to the point
o Work done is the measure of how much energy is required to displace an
object a specified distance
o Ground is our defined zero level Ep = 0
Ep = work done to move to the point
= Fs
= (mg) x h = mgh!

Ep = mgh

Ep = gravitational potential energy (J)

m = mass (kg),
g = acceleration due to gravity (m s-2),
h = height (m)

o If an object is moved against the gravitational field, positive work is done acquires energy
o If an object is moved with the gravitational field, negative work is done loses energy
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On a large scale, Ep defined as the work done to move an object from infinity (or some point very far away)
to a point within a gravitational field
o Ep = 0 at an infinite distance from the planet
o Strange side effect as a consequence
Because gravitation is a force of attraction work must be done on an object to move it from a point, x, to
infinity gains energy Ep

Ep = -G m1m2
r

Ep = gravitational potential energy (J)

G = 6.72 x 10-11
m1 = mass of planet (kg),
m2 = mass of object (kg),
r = distance separating centres of masses (m)

Put another way, the work that would be done in moving an object from a very large distance away from
a planet to its current distance = Ep
Negative sign indicates work done by the system (not on the system) in moving an object from a very
large distance away to its present distance
Negative work represents Ep lost by the system as objects are brought together (converted into other
forms of energy, most probably KE)
Since Ep reduced below the zero level it is appropriate that it should appear as a negative value
Missing energy lends stability to a system e.g. Earth would need to get energy back from somewhere if
it were to separate from the Sun can be thought of as binding energy since the lack of this energy binds
a system together

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T^2 (s)

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Length of Pendulum vs. T^2
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3.5
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2.5
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2
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1.5
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1
0.5
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0.60
0.80
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Length (m)
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O,.#$'+'%.("'0:")'?@'Q&0/"',Q.#$,'J7").03,K'.#,%"+3'0<'+',.#$/"',Q.#$')"362",'%&"'"))0)'.#:0/:"3'Q.%&'
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M+)+//+_'"))0)'Q&"#'("+,6).#$'%&"'/"#$%&'0<'%&"'7"#36/6('(+9'+<<"2%'%&"':+/6"'2+/26/+%"3'<0)'$'
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Variations in the value of g

o Geographical location minor variations in value of g around Earths surface occur because:
Lithosphere varies in thickness & structure due to factors such as tectonic plate boundaries & dense
mineral deposits places where thick/dense will experience greater gravitational force
Earth not a perfect sphere flattened at poles therefore g will be greater at poles closer to centre
Spin of Earth creates a centrifuge effect that reduces the effective value of g
- Effect greatest at equator, no effect at poles
o Altitude formula for g shows value of g varies with altitude above Earths surface
As altitude increases, g decreases dropping to zero only when altitude

me
re  altitude
2
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Mass
Radius
Radius
g on
'
(kg)
(km)
(m)
Surface
Weight of a 100kg
Body
Centre
(3 sig. '
(3 sig.
(3sig.
(m/s/s)
person on surface
'
Jupiter
Saturn
Neptune
Uranus
Earth
Venus

of Orbit

figs.)

Sun
Sun
Sun
Sun
Sun
Sun

1.90E+27
5.68E+26
1.02E+26
8.68E+25
5.97E+24
4.87E+24

figs.)

figs.)

6.99E+04
5.82E+04
2.46E+04
2.54E+04
6.38E+03
6.05E+03

6.99E+07
5.82E+07
2.46E+07
2.54E+07
6.38E+06
6.05E+06

(3 sig. figs.)
= Gm/r2
25.9
11.2
11.2
9.00
9.80
8.87

(N)
= g x 100

2590
1110
1120
900
980
887

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x A projectile is any object launched into the air then left to complete their unpowered flight
o Subjected to 1 force force of gravity, & 1 acceleration g (9.8 ms-2 downwards near Earths surface)
o To simplify analysis of projectile motion air resistance is ignored
Air resistance depends on many factors such as shape, surface area & texture of the projectile as well as
velocity through the air acts as a retarding force in both the horizontal & vertical directions
Path of projectile distorted away from a perfect parabola
x The trajectory of a projectile is the path that it follows during its flight
o In absence of air resistance the trajectory of a projectile will be in shape of a parabola
o The motion of a projectile can be regarded as two separate & independent motions superimposed upon
each other first noted by Galileo
Frame of reference can be used y-axis for vertical motion & x-axis for horizontal motion
The two motions are perpendicular, & therefore independent thus we can treat them separately
Adding the vectors will produce the resulting direction and magnitude of motion at any one time
o Vertical motion subject to acceleration due to gravity, ay = 9.8ms-2 down
Symmetrical will rise up, slow to a halt, then fall back to Earth
Will speed up until, when back at its starting point, it is going as fast as it was when thrown
Time taken to fall from peak height to starting point exactly equals time taken to rise to peak height
o Horizontal motion once under way experiences no acceleration (ignoring air resistance) ax = 0 ms-2
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x Acceleration equations whenever an object changes its velocity it has accelerated

v = u + at
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Initial velocity can be resolved into vertical & horizontal components using
trigonometry
Velocity of projectile at other times during motion can be found by combining
vertical & horizontal velocities in vector addition
At the end of an objects trajectory it has the same initial velocity & same angle
to the horizontal, although it is now directed below the horizontal
Maximum height: vy FDOFXODWHy
Trip time: vy = 0, calculate t to rise to peak, double this to find trip time
Range: find trip time, calculate range using x = uxt (no acceleration)

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x Galileo was the first to conduct a mathematical analysis of projectile motion and document such work
x Instead of analysing the motion as a whole, he divided the motion into two components:
o Motion in x & y planes are independent of each other because they are perpendicular
o Vertical: realising that the vertical motion is affected by the downwards force of gravity a = 9.8 ms-2
o Horizontal: whilst the horizontal component experiences no acceleration
Also realised that the motion of a projectile is parabolic in nature, due to a uniform acceleration and a
constant horizontal motion (ignoring air resistance)
Led him to consider reference frames what all measurements are referred to
x Galileo also postulated that all objects accelerated towards Earth at same rate g same for all objects
o Heavier objects dont fall faster than lighter ones (only true if air resistance is ignored)
o Discovered by rolling balls down highly polished inclines instead of dropping them, to reduce the air
resistance.
o Enabled him to slow down the motion enough to make more accurate observations of the motion
8"> 9:;7-'(#,+%#1/(1%;,#/&#%.1-;%#6%7/1',<#'(#,%0?.#/&#,+%#*0-6',-,'/(-7#1/(.,-(,#-(4#,+%#?-..#-(4#0-4'5.#/&#
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x Escape velocity: the initial velocity required by a projectile to rise vertically & just escape the gravitational
field of a planet
o Only depends upon universal gravitation constant, mass & radius of the planet
o Escape velocity is achieved when the kinetic energy (Ek) is equal to gravitational potential energy (Ep)
At a distance of infinity both Ek and Ep = 0, similarly due to the principal of conservation of momentum
Ek and Ep must also equal to zero at the planets surface

Ek  E p

1 2 _ GMm
mv 
0
2
r
1 2 GMm
mv
2
r
2GM
v
r

v = escape velocity (m/s)

G = 6.67 x10-11 N m2 kg-2
M = mass of central body (kg)
r = radius of the orbit from the centre of the central body (m)

o Earths escape velocity is 11 200 ms-1 or about 40 000 kmh-1 same for all objects
o Greater mass of planet = greater escape velocity, greater radius = smaller escape velocity
o Does not apply to a rocket which continues its thrust well after launch
x If you throw a stone directly up will rise to a certain height & fall back to Earth
o If thrown faster will rise higher
o If thrown fast enough it should rise & continue to rise, slowing down but never falling back to Earth,
finally coming to rest only when it has completely escaped the Earths gravitational field
o The initial velocity required to achieve this is known as escape velocity
8"P Q5,7'(%#R%),/(I.#1/(1%;,#/&#%.1-;%#6%7/1',<#
x Newton wrote that it should be possible to launch a projectile fast enough so that it
achieves an orbit around the Earth
o A stone thrown from a tall tower will cover a considerable range before striking
the ground
o If thrown faster it will travel further before stopping, if thrown even faster it will
have an even greater range
o If thrown fast enough then, as stone falls, Earths surface curves away so that
stone never actually lands but orbits the Earth
o Only a thought experiment could not test
o Showed that at any altitude a specific velocity is required for an object to achieve
a stable circular orbit
7

o If specific velocity exceeded slightly, object will follow an elliptical orbit around Earth
o If exceeded further, object will follow parabolic or hyperbolic path away from earth
o This is how space probes depart Earth
8"S T4%(,'&<#)+<#,+%#,%0?#U*D&/01%.I#'.#5.%4#,/#%:;7-'(#,+%#&/01%.#-1,'(*#/(#-(#-.,0/(-5,#450'(*#7-5(1+#
x

The sensation of weight that you feel derives from your apparent weight (equal to the sum of the contact
forces resisting your true weight (W = mg))
o Includes normal reaction force of the floor on your body or the thrust of a rocket engine
x g force used to express a persons apparent weight as a multiple of his/her normal true weight (when
standing on surface of the Earth)

g force

apparent weight
normal true weight

o In a rocket the astronauts body exerts a downward weight force on the floor
& the floor meets this with an upward reaction force equal to m x g
o In addition the floor exerts an upward accelerating force equal to m x a
o Astronaut feels an apparent weight = mg + ma

Astronauts are placed under high accelerations in order to reach an orbit or escape velocity. The
measure of Gs is more sensible and applicable when considering such high accelerations.

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x A moving platform offers a boost to the velocity of a projectile launched from it if launched in the direction
of the platform
o Earth orbits sun & rotates once on its axis per day hence the Earth itself is a moving platform with 2
different motions which can be exploited in a rocket launch to gain a boost in velocity
o Less fuel necessary to achieve target velocity, ability to carry greater payloads
o Rotational motion can be exploited to achieve velocity needed for a stable orbit launching at equator
toward the east in direction of Earths rotation
Rotational velocity of the launch site relative to the Sun will add to the orbital velocity of the rocket
relative to the Earth to produce a higher orbital velocity achieved by the rocket relative to the Sun
o Orbital motion around the Sun can be exploited for deeper space missions by planning the launch for a
time of year when the direction of the Earths orbital velocity corresponds to the desired heading
Rocket allowed to orbit until direction of orbital velocity corresponds with Earths then its engines are
fired to push it out of orbit & further into space
Orbital velocity relative to Sun adds to rockets orbital velocity relative to Earth to produce a higher
velocity relative to the Sun
o Challenges:
The earths rotational and orbital motions pose a limitation to the direction and location of launches.
- Since the equator is furthest from the centre of the earth, it has the greatest rotational velocity and
launch locations are generally needed to be located near to the equator.
- In terms of the earths orbital motion, in considering interplanetary travel, our orbit in relation to
other planets must be considered, limiting the time of launch to achievable trajectories between
planets.
8

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x Rockets powered projectiles receive thrust from their engine/s for a significant portion of their upwards
flight & become more conventional projectiles only after their engines are exhausted
o A rocket engine is different from most other engines carries both its fuel & oxygen supply
o Modern rockets use either solid or liquid propellants
Both expel hot gases through a nozzle upon combustion
x Law of Conservation of Momentum during any interaction in a closed system the total momentum of
the system remains unchanged
o During a launch the momentum of the gases shooting out the rear of the rocket must be equal to the
forward momentum of the rocket itself
o In any one-second time interval:

While mass of gases during any given second is less than mass of the rocket their velocity is much
greater momenta are equal but opposite
Also

This is Newtons 3rd Law of Motion for every force there is an equal but opposite force
Rocket is forcing a large volume of gas behind it & gases in turn force rocket forward although the
two forces are equal & opposite the rocket experiences just one of them the forward thrust
o A rocket will accelerate according to Newtons 2nd Law

? a

F = ma
o A rocket is subject to the following forces:
Its weight force directed downward
Its thrust (delivered by engines) directed upward

F
m

Reaction force of ground on rocket (equal to difference between weight & thrust while rocket on
ground) directed upward
No net force until the thrust exceeds the weight of the rocket
Air resistance directed downward against motion of rocket once it has left ground significant as speed
builds but at relatively low speeds of early lift-off can be ignored
When in orbit no thrust from engines, rocket is continually falling & only experiences weight force
o A rockets acceleration will not be constant because fuel constitutes up to 90% the mass of a typical rocket
As fuel is burnt the mass of rocket decreases although thrust remains essentially constant
Additionally, g reduces slightly with increasing altitude
Air resistance decreases as air thins at high altitudes
Results in rockets rate of acceleration increasing as flight progresses & velocity increases
logarithmically
Acceleration equations above can only apply at an instant in time
#
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x Prior to lift-off rocket is stationary so only weight & reaction force felt by astronaut equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction
o Apparent weight equals true weight & occupant experiences a g force of one
x When thrust of rocket exceeds weight there is a net force upwards rocket accelerates upwards & the floor
exerts an upwards force on the occupant of (mg + ma)
o Occupant experiences a g force of ((g + a)/9.8) which is a value > 1
x Mass of rocket decreases as fuel is consumed hence acceleration & subsequent g force steadily increase,
reaching maximum values just before the rocket has exhausted its fuel
o Increasing acceleration dangerous if it becomes too high as forces may become too large to withstand
x After a multi-stage rocket has jettisoned its spent stage there is only the downward acceleration due to
gravity before the next stage is ignited has become a projectile in freefall
o a = g so g force = 0 astronauts experience a 0 apparent weight weightlessness
x 2nd-stage rocket fires & quickly develops necessary thrust to exceed effective weight at its altitude, then
starts to accelerate again
o g force greater than 1 & builds to maximum value before fuel supply is exhausted
x If third stage process is repeated
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x Uniform circular motion: circular motion with a uniform orbital speed
o Centripetal force: the force that acts to maintain circular motion and is directed towards the centre of the
circle

Fc =

mv 2
r

Fc = centripetal force (N)

m = mass of object in motion (kg)
v = instantaneous or orbital velocity of the mass (ms-1)

o Newtons 2nd Law states that wherever there is a net force acting on an object
there is an associated acceleration
Because it is on the horizontal plane gravity is not a factor
Since centripetal force is the only force acting on the motion we can say that:
Fc = mass x centripetal acceleration

? ac

v2
r

10

o Centripetal acceleration is always present in uniform circular motion. It is associated with centripetal
force & is also directed towards the centre of the circle
Even though magnitude of velocity remains unchanged the direction is constantly changing hence the
velocity of an object in circular motion is constantly changing and it is accelerating

An astronaut in orbit around Earth still experiences an acceleration due to gravity of about 8.8 ms-2
still has significant true weight
This acceleration due to gravity acts as the centripetal acceleration of the orbital motion & the
astronauts weight forms the centripetal force
Acceleration = g therefore no resisting forces acting on astronaut so no apparent weight

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Altitude

Period
(T)
Orbital
velocity

Low Earth Orbit

Geostationary Orbit
> 250km to avoid drag
Approx. 35 800km
< 1000km Van Allen belts start to appear
Upper limits of Van Allen belts
Regions of high radiation trapped by
Near edge of magnetosphere
the Earths magnetic field & pose
Radius of orbit = 42168 km
significant risk to live space travellers
Can be calculated using Keplers Law of
& electronic equipment
Periods
90 mins 5 hours
Approx. 24 hours precisely matches that of Earth
geosynchronous
At 250km approx 27900 km h-1

Affected by orbital decay

Uses

Spying (cover whole surface of the Earth at

least once per day), space shuttles, Hubble
telescope, long range weather forecasting
satellites and land surveys

Permanently over a fixed point on the Earths

surface
If over Equator would appear stationary in the
sky from Earth always located in same
direction
If not over Equator will appear from Earth to
trace a figure of eight every 24 hours
Not affected by orbital decay
Scientific, communication satellites, weather
satellites

Transfer orbit used to manoeuvre a satellite from one orbit to another elliptical
o Satellites headed for geostationary orbit placed into low Earth orbit then boosted up using a transfer orbit
o Has a higher specific orbital energy that lies between that of the lower & higher circular orbits
o In order to move a satellite into a different orbit its energy must be changed Ek rapidly altered
11

Rockets fired to change satellites velocity which will increase or decrease the Ek (and therefore the total
energy) to alter the orbit as desired
However, as soon as the satellite begins to change altitude, transformations between the Ep & Ek occur
so speed is constantly changing
o Simplest & most fuel-efficient path is a Hohmann transfer orbit
To move to a higher orbit a boost increases the satellites velocity, stretching the circular low Earth orbit
into a transfer ellipse
When satellite reaches apogee (slowest point on the ellipse & furthest point from mass) it will be at
correct altitude but will be moving too slowly rockets fired again to increase velocity to that required
for the new higher, stable & circular orbit
To move GRZQIURPDKLJKHURUELWSURFHVVLVUHYHUVHGUHTXLULQJQHJDWLYHv rocket boosts
- Boosts slow satellite, changing its orbit, first from higher circular orbit into a transfer ellipse that
reaches down to lower altitudes
- Then from perigee (closet point to mass) of the transfer ellipse changed into a circular low Earth orbit
x Elliptical orbits theory assumes orbits are circular usually slightly elliptical
o Ellipses can be round or elongated degree of stretch known as eccentricity
Circle is an ellipse with an eccentricity of zero
o Most satellites are placed into near-circular orbits
o Satellites move quickly when closest to Earth & slow down as they move further away
x Once a launched rocket has achieved a sufficient altitude it can be accelerated into the desired orbit
o Necessary speed dependent upon mass of Earth & geometry of orbit
o If speed is not reached the spacecraft will follow a shortened elliptical orbit that dips back down toward
the atmosphere, possibly causing re-entry
o If speed is exceeded the spacecraft will follow an elongated elliptical orbit taking it away from Earth
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x Keplers Law of Periods
o Period (T): the time taken to complete one orbit

r3
r3
for
planet
1
=
for planet 2
T2
T2
o Can be used to compare any two bodies orbiting the same object e.g. two planets orbiting the sun
o Alternative expression of this law is

r3
T2

for any satellites orbiting a common central mass

r = radius of the orbit of any given satellite (m)

T = the period of that satellites orbit (s)
k = a constant

o Law of Universal Gravitation can be used to derive an expression for the constant k, law becomes:

r3
T2
x

GM
4S 2

G = the universal gravitation constant

= 6.676 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
M = mass of the central body (kg)

Orbital velocity the instantaneous direction & speed of an object in circular motion along its path
o The velocity required to maintain an object in orbit
o For uniform circular motion magnitude is constant & inversely proportional to the period of the orbit

2Sr
T

orbital veloctiy

circumference of the circle

period
12

o If expression substituted in to Keplers Law of Periods a formula specific to a satellite emerges

GM
r

v = orbital velocity (ms-1)

G = universal gravitation constant
= 6.676 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
M = mass of the central body (kg)
r = radius of the orbit (m)

o Value of satellites orbit depends on mass of planet being orbited & radius of orbit
o For a satellite orbiting a planet the radius of orbit = radius of planet + altitude of orbit
o For objects orbiting same body, altitude is the only variable that determines the orbital velocity required
for a specific orbit
o Orbital velocity decreases as radius of orbit increases
o Orbital velocity is independent of the mass of the satellite
x Orbital energy any satellite travelling in a stable circular orbit at a given radius has a characteristic total
mechanical energy E
o Sum of its kinetic energy Ek (due to its orbital velocity) & its gravitational potential energy Ep (due to its
height)

From chapter 1:

For a stable circular orbit Ek is half that of Ep but positive in value

Therefore

A lower orbit produces a more negative value of E less energy

A higher orbit corresponds to more energy
Specific orbital energy (mechanical energy per kilogram)

All of this theory assumes these orbits are circular

13

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#
x All satellites in low Earth orbit are subject to some degree of atmospheric
drag that will eventually decay their orbit & limit their lifetimes
o Atmosphere very thin 1000km above Earth but sufficient friction to
cause a gradual loss of energy to heat
Loss of orbital energy = loss of altitude, spirals back towards Earth
o Accelerating process
The two forces acting on a low-orbiting satellite are its weight &
atmospheric drag
As satellite descends drag increases
- Air density increases as altitude decreases
- As satellite loses altitude some of Ep transformed into Ek & it speeds
up drag force proportional to v2 so as speed increases the drag
increases more sharply
At an altitude of 80km atmospheric drag increases sufficiently to start slowing descending satellite
braking effect rapidly builds
At around 60km atmospheric drag increases sharply, leading to huge heat & g force all but largest
satellites are vaporised
o Satellites can be lifted periodically back to intended orbital altitude by small rocket boosters
o Actual service life can be unpredictable as atmosphere itself can change e.g. an increase in solar
radiation can cause atmosphere to expand & rise up to meet a satellite, increasing drag
#
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x De-orbiting the process of deliberately leaving a stable Earth orbit & re-entering the atmosphere to return
to the surface of the Earth
o Different to orbital decay deliberate, impulsive (rapid) orbital manoeuvre resulting in an elliptical path
down to the atmosphere not spiral
o Retroburn spacecrafts rockets pointed ahead & short burn
executed to quickly reduce v & thus Ek
Required transfer ellipse must be calculated in advance to
determine when & for how long retroburn must occur to
DFKLHYHUHTXLUHGv
o Glide phase spacecrafts orbit changes & carries it down
to meet atmosphere at re-entry interface around 120 km
altitude
No further manoeuvring required but spacecraft is
speeding up again as Ep Ek as it falls
o Re-entry into & through atmosphere begins to slow down again
x Extreme heat spacecraft has a velocity of tens of thousands of km/h significant Ek
o Additionally, altitude of spacecrafts orbit means it has considerable gravitational potential energy
o As spacecraft re-enters it experiences friction with molecules of the atmosphere
Enormous Ek converted into heat & spacecraft to reaches extreme temperatures
o Best shape for re-entry is a blunt one when it collides with upper atmosphere at re-entry speeds it
produces a shockwave of compressed air in front of itself (like bow wave of a boat)
Most of heat is then generated in the compressing air & significantly less heat caused by friction of the
air against the object itself
Nose of space-shuttle kept up during re-entry & enter backwards flat underbelly
Protective heat shield still needed
Capsules ablation nose cone covered with a ceramic material (e.g. fibreglass) which is vaporised or
ablated during re-entry heating dissipates heat & carries it away
Space shuttle slower orbital speed allows it to use different approach covered in insulating tiles made
of glass fibre approximately 90% air excellent thermal insulator & conserves mass
- Must be waterproofed between each flight as they are porous
14

Decelerating g forces greater angles of re-entry = greater rates of deceleration

o Heat built-up faster as Ek is converted & higher g forces experienced by occupants of spacecraft
o Research suggested g forces on astronauts be restricted to 3 g if possible, & 8 g was maximum safe load
although symptoms such as chest pain & loss of consciousness could be experienced at this level
o Research conducted into ways to increase a humans tolerance to g forces:
Traverse application of g load is easiest to cope with blood not forced away from brain astronauts
should be lying down at take-off, not standing or sitting vertically
Eyeballs-in application of g loads easier to tolerate than eyeballs-out astronauts should lift-off
forwards (facing up) but re-enter backward (facing up)
Supporting body in as many places as possible contoured couch, built of fibreglass & moulded to suit
the body of a specific astronaut settled on using this can be subjected to loads of up to 20 g
x Ionisation blackout as heat builds up around spacecraft during re-entry, atoms in air around become
ionised, forming a layer around the spacecraft
o Radio signals cannot penetrate, preventing communication between ground & spacecraft
o Length of blackout depends upon re-entry profile
o Apollo capsule blackout 3-4 minutes whereas space shuttle suffers a longer period of 16 minutes
x Reaching the surface capsule reaches entry interface at 120 km at an angle between 5.2 & 7.2
o Then descends over a range of 2800-4600 km, continually slowing down & at some point suffering
ionisation blackout
o In last part of descent parachutes released to slow it to about 33 km h-1
o Splashes down into ocean , recovered by naval vessel
o Early Soviet capsules descended over land, ejection seats used & descended to ground by parachute
o Space shuttle has wings so pilot can control attitude of space shuttle & direct its descent to reduce g forces
During maximum deceleration, nose held up at 40 to slow
progress & present the underbelly as a protected, blunt surface
After this, flown in a series of sharp-banking S-turns to control
descent
When 500m above ground speed brakes applied (special flaps to
increase drag) to reduce landing angle, landing gear deployed &
shuttle touches down on runway
#
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x When de-orbiting spacecrafts orbit altered into a transfer ellipse that intersects the atmosphere at a desired
angle
o Shallow angle selected to minimise extreme heating & g forces that can destroy a spacecraft
o If angle is too shallow spacecraft may skip off atmosphere instead of penetrating it
o For Apollo missions optimum angle was between 5.2 and 7.2 to the horizon
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Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935)
x Played an important role in the development of the Soviet and Russian space programs
x Built first wind tunnel for his research
x Pioneer of the astronautic theory (engineering dealing with machines designed to work beyond earths
surface)
x Determined earths escape velocity: approximately 8 km/s
o Determined this could be achieved by a multi-stage rocket fuelled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen
x Suggested propulsion by reaction (thrust) derived Tsiolkovsky Rocket Equation
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2&+#$"'.#':"/02.%9'.#'(,E?'

15

o The mathematical relation between the changing mass of a rocket as it burns fuel, the velocity of the
exhaust gases, and the rockets change in velocity
o Maximum velocity a rocket can achieve determined by specific impulse of propellants & empty mass of
rocket fuel
o No rocket powered by conventional propellants can achieve relativistic velocities mass ratios become
too large
o Equation made it possible to find the exact amount of fuel required for the escape velocity of a rocket,
using the mass of the spacecraft
x His manuscripts/articles written between 1903 and 1914 are widely recognized as the first scientifically
possible proposals to use rockets for space exploration.
x Designed theoretical multi-stage rockets to back-up his research, created numerous scaled models
x First suggestion of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen as fuel: widely regarded today as the most efficient
rocket propellant
x Published over 500 articles on space travel and related subjects (although included are his science fiction
novels)
x Proposed several other innovations: metal blimp, aeroplane, spaceship, space elevator, spinning space
stations for artificial gravity, mining asteroids for minerals, space suits
o Addressed problem of eating, drinking and sleeping in weightless environments
o Biological systems to provide food and oxygen for space colonies.
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x Vector: any quantity that has both magnitude & direction, e.g. force
x A vector field can be said to exist in any space within which a force vector can act, e.g. magnetic fields
o Has strength & direction which corresponds to the vector that acts within it
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x A gravitational field is a field within which any mass will experience a gravitational force
o Surrounds any mass, vector field has both strength and direction
o Weak force so it takes a massive object to create a significant gravitational field
o A large object will have a strong gravitational field and attract other masses toward it
o If mass has little or no tangential velocity, will be dragged into the massive object and towards the
centre of the gravitational field.
o If mass has some degree of tangential velocity, will be pulled into orbit or have trajectory through space
altered by the massive object with the force acting on the object pulling it towards the massive object
o On a small scale (e.g. interior of a room) field lines or lines of force appear parallel & point down
o On a large scale can see field lines have a radial pattern & point towards the centre of a mass
o The closer to a mass, the closer the field lines indicating the field, & its force, are stronger
o Gravitational field of a planet or star extends some distance from it
o Any large object near another large object will have a gravitational field of its own & the 2 fields will
combine to form a more complex field
16

There is a point between the 2 where the strength of the field is zero gravitational attraction between
the two bodies are precisely equal but opposite in direction
Will be closer to the smaller body

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x Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation:

F = force of gravity between two masses (N)

G = universal gravitation constant
= 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
m1, m2 = the two masses involved (kg)
d = the distance between their centres of mass (m)

m1m2
d2

Describes the force of attraction between any two masses

Every mass in universe attracted to every other mass in universe
Always an attractive force & is exerted equally on both masses
Body with larger mass will be less affected a = F/m
Depends only upon the value of the two masses & their separation distance
The force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance double the distance = ! the force
Formula for acceleration due to gravity can be derived by substituting F = ma (a = g)

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

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x Gravity holds the solar system together, tying the planets to the Sun & the satellites to their planets, keeping
them on an orbital path & determining the speed of their rotations
x Deriving orbital velocity in order to launch a satellite the orbital velocity must be known
o Gravity serves as the centripetal force that maintains the orbital motion of a satellite
o By equating Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation with the centripetal force of an orbiting satellite, we
are able understand & calculate the orbital velocity required for a satellite to remain in orbit at a particular
height

FG
G

Mm
r2

?v

FC
mv
r
GM
r

v = orbital velocity (ms-1)

G = universal gravitation constant
= 6.676 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
M = mass of the central body (kg)
r = radius of the orbit (m)

Radius of orbit, r, is the sum of the radius of the central body & the altitude of the orbit
From formula, v required for a particular orbit only depends on mass of central body & radius of orbit
Vital in understanding the motion of satellites since it is required to derive orbital velocity
The greater the radius of orbit, the slower the orbital velocity required to maintain the orbit
17

Deriving the constant in Keplers Law of Periods Isaac Newton was able to determine the constant in
Keplers Law of Periods (r3/T2 = k) when devising Law of Universal Gravitation
o Important in understanding orbital motion
o *UDYLWDWLRQDO FHQWULSHWDOIRUFHVHTXDWHGWRILQGRUELWDOYHORFLW\WKHQY r/T substituted into equation
& rearranged to the form of Keplers Law of Periods

GM
2Sr
T
r
4S 2 r 2 GM
r
T2
3
r
GM
the consta nt k
T 2 4S 2
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x The slingshot effect, or planetary swing-by or gravity-assist manoeuvre, is a strategy used with space probes
to achieve a change in velocity with little expenditure of fuel
o A spacecraft deliberately passes close to a large mass (e.g. a planet) so that the masss gravity pulls the
spacecraft towards it
o Causes spacecraft to accelerate & it heads around the planet &
departs in a different direction
o Departure speed of spacecraft relative to planet is same as approach
speed relative to planet but change in direction can result in a real
change in velocity relative to the Sun
o In general, a spacecraft will approach a planet at an angle to the
planets orbital path
o By swinging behind the planet an increase in speed can be achieved
o By swinging in front of the planets path a decrease in speed is
achieved
o Interaction behaves as an elastic collision as bodies dont touch so
there are no energy loses
vi = initial velocity of spacecraft
Vi = initial velocity of planet
m = mass of spacecraft
K x m = mass of planet
vf = final velocity of the spacecraft
Vf = final velocity of the planet
Applying conservation of momentum to the collision and
conservation of kinetic energy to the collision then solving
simultaneously

o Expression represents maximum velocity achievable from slingshot effect by a head-on rendezvous
At other angles, a spacecraft achieves lower velocities
Final velocity of planet is marginally less than its initial velocity
Ek of system has been conserved spacecraft gains kinetic energy & planet loses this amount
18

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x The aether was the proposed medium for light & other EM waves, before it was realised that these
waveforms dont need a medium in order to travel
o Early 1800s physicists turned to other wave motions, e.g. water waves, to better understand light
o All of these waveforms need a medium through which to travel so believed light requires a medium
o Nobody could find such a medium but belief was very strong in existence of the luminiferous aether
o Properties:
Filled all of space
Very low density
Perfectly transparent
Permeated all matter & yet was completely permeable to material objects
Great elasticity to support & propagate the light waves
#
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x If aether existed our earth, moving through space at 30 000 ms-1 as it orbits the sun, should be moving
through the aether
o From our point of view we should experience a flow of aether past us an aether wind
o The speed of light should vary due to the presence of the aether wind
o However aether thought to be extremely tenuous so any aether wind would be hard to detect
o Many experiments designed & performed to detect it but all failed assumption that detection
mechanisms were not sensitive enough
o Definitive experiment to detect aether wind performed by A.A. Michelson & E. W. Morley in 1887
o Raced 2 light rays over 2 courses of same length, one into the supposed aether wind & one across
o Then swung the apparatus through 90 degrees to interpose (swap) the rays
o Looked for a difference between the rays as they finished the race, from which could calculate the value of
the aether wind (like a current)
19

o Method of comparing the light rays involves a very sensitive effect interference apparatus called an
interferometer
o When looking into the telescope a pattern of light & dark bands will be seen if aether wind exists, so one
light ray is faster than the other, when apparatus is rotated the interference pattern should shift
o No such shift was observed experiment repeated many times at different times of day & year, with more
sensitive equipment but no evidence of aether model ever found, null result
o Scientific community adapted theory to keep it alive, however no modification survived close scrutiny
Suggested Earth carried aether with it so that there was no relative motion
Lorentz suggested apparatus used contracted in direction of motion
#
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x 1905 Einstein showed aether was not necessary at all not influenced by Michelson-Morley result
o Michelson-Morley experiment helped scientists of 20th century to reject aether model & accept Einsteins
relativity
o Showed that light travelled at a constant speed in all directions and challenged the aether theory by
showing that there was no effect of the so called aether wind.
o Important experiment in helping others to decide between competing theories
o However, did not sway scientific belief at the time aether supporters saw null result as indication that
model needed improvement
#
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x Frames of reference are objects or coordinate systems with respect to which we take measurements
x An inertial frame of reference is a non-accelerated environment
o Only standing at rest or moving with uniform velocity
o A non-inertial frame of reference experiences acceleration
o No mechanical experiment or observation from within frame can detect if frame is moving with constant
velocity or at rest
#
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x The principle of relativity Galileo proposed that all steady motion is relative & cannot be detected
without reference to an outside point
o E.g. if travelling inside a car you cannot tell if you are moving at a steady velocity or standing still without
looking out the window
o Applies only in inertial frames of reference
o Within an inertial frame of reference you cannot perform any mechanical experiment or observation that
would reveal whether you are moving with uniform velocity or standing still
o In late 1800s belief in aether posed a difficult problem for the principle of relativity because aether was
supposed to be stationary in space & light supposed to have a fixed velocity relative to aether
Meant that if a scientist set up equipment to measure speed of light from back of a train carriage to the
front & observed that light was slower than it should be, train must be moving into the aether
This optical experiment provides a way to violate the principle of relativity where no mechanical
experiment could
20

P"V#$%.10'2%#,+%#.'*('&'1-(1%#/&#9'(.,%'(I.#-..5?;,'/(#/&#,+%#1/(.,-(1<#/&#,+%#.;%%4#/&#7'*+,#
x Around 1900, Einstein puzzled over apparent violation of the principle of
relativity posed by the aether model
o Conducted a thought experiment: if I were travelling in a train at the speed of
light & I held up a mirror, would I be able to see my own reflection?
If aether model was right, light could go no faster than the train & could
never catch up with the mirror to return as a reflection
Principle of relativity is violated because seeing ones reflection disappear
would be a way to detect motion
If principle of relativity were not violated reflection must be seen normally
which means that it is moving away from the mirror holder at 3 x 108 ms-1
This would mean that an observer on the embankment next to the train would
see that light travelling at twice its normal speed
Einstein decided principle of relativity must not be violated & reflection in
mirror must always be seen meant aether did not exist
Also decided that train rider & person on embankment must observe light travelling at normal speed
Realised that if both observers saw the same speed of light (since v = d/t) then the distance & time
witnessed by both observers must be different
o Published ideas in 1905 in the paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies which presented:
1st postulate: the laws of physics are the same in all frames of reference the principle of relativity
always holds
2nd postulate: the speed of light in empty space always has the same value, c, which is independent of
the motion of the observer everyone observes same speed of light regardless of their motion
A statement: the luminiferous aether is superfluous no longer needed to explain the behaviour of light
o A constant speed of light was extremely revolutionary because of the resulting implications:
Proved aether model was superfluous
Thought experiments, and subsequently physical experiments showed that as observed velocity
increases, time dilates, length contracts and mass increases.
Essentially this theory states that nothing in the universe is constant except for the speed of light. Hence,
mass, length and time are dependent upon the relative motion between frames of reference.
P"W#T4%(,'&<#,+-,#'&#1#'.#1/(.,-(,#,+%(#.;-1%#-(4#,'?%#2%1/?%#0%7-,'6%#
x In Newtonian physics distance & velocity can be relative terms but time is an absolute & fundamental
quantity
o Observer on embankment outside train would see light travelling twice as far & at twice normal speed
o Einsteins theory says both observer on embankment & train rider will measure the same value for the
velocity of light, called c
Could only be true if observer & rider observed different times as well as different distances (v = d/t)
o Einstein radically altered assumptions of Newtonian physics so that now speed of light is absolute & space
& time are both relative quantities that depend upon the motion of the observer
Measured length of an object & time taken by an event depends entirely upon the velocity of the
observer
o Further, since neither space nor time are absolute the theory of relativity has replaced them with the
concept of a space-time continuum
Any event has four dimensions (3 space coordinates plus a time coordinate) that fully define its position
within its frame of reference
#
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.,-(4-04#
x Metre first defined in 1793 when French government decreed it to be 1 x 10-7 times the length of the Earths
quadrant passing through Paris
x When discovered that this was incorrect, redefined as the distance between 2 marks on a bar
x In 1874 the Systeme Internationale of units was set up distance between 2 lines scribed on a bar of
platinum-iridium alloy
21

x
x

Since redefined twice to improve accuracy as technology & science improves

Current definition uses the constancy of the speed of light in a vacuum (299 792 458 ms-1) & the definition
of one second to achieve a highly accurate definition consistent with the idea of space-time
o 1 metre = the length of path travelled by light in a vacuum during 1/299 792 458 of a second
o The old meter standard would not hold with distance & time dilation posed by the absolute constancy of
the speed of light

#
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x To better understand how time is affected by relativity, Einstein analysed our perception of simultaneous
events
o The relativity of simultaneity: Einstein argued that if an observer sees 2 events to be simultaneous then
any other observer, in relative motion to the first generally will not judge them to be simultaneous
o When we state the time of an event we are making a judgement about simultaneous events
E.g. if we say school begins at 9 am we are really saying the ringing of a certain bell & the appearance
of 9 am on a certain clock are simultaneous events
Simultaneous events in one frame of reference are not necessarily observed simultaneous in another
o Thought experiment an operator of a lamp rides in middle of a train carriage
Doors at either end are light-operated at an instant in time when the operator is alongside an observer
on an embankment, the operator switches on the lamp which, in turn, opens the doors
Operator of the lamp will see the 2 doors opening simultaneously distance of each door from lamp is
same & light travels at same speed both forward & backward so doors receive light at the same time &
open simultaneously
Observer on embankment sees differently after lamp is turned on, but before light has reached doors,
the train has moved so that the front door is now further away & back door is closer
Sees light travelling forward & backward at the same speed but the forward journey is now longer than
the backward journey, so back door seen to open before front door not simultaneous
Both observers judge the situation correctly from their different frames of reference & this is a direct
consequence of the constancy of the speed of light

#X#_+%#%]5'6-7%(1%#2%,)%%(#?-..#-(4#%(%0*<#
x As an object approaches the speed of light its mass approaches an infinite value prevents any object
exceeding c
o An applied force is required to create acceleration, acceleration leads to higher velocities which leads to
increased mass, further acceleration will require even greater force
o As mass becomes infinite, an infinite force would be required to achieve any acceleration at all
sufficient force can never be supplied to accelerate beyond the speed of light
o If a force is applied to an object work is done on it energy is given to the object
o In the situation above the energy is kinetic energy as the object speeds up but at near c the object doesnt
speed up as would be expected
o The applied force is giving energy to object but object does not acquire the expected Ek acquires extra
mass
o Einstein made inference mass (or inertia) of the object contained the extra energy
o Relativity results in a new definition of energy:

Ek  mc 2

E = total energy (J)

Ek = kinetic energy
m = mass
22 (kg)
c = speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)

When an object is stationary, so Ek = 0, it still has some energy due to its mass mass energy or rest
energy

E
x

mc

E = rest energy (J)

m = mass (kg)
c = speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)

Rest energy: the energy equivalent of a stationary objects mass, measured within the its rest frame
o This equation states clearly that there is an equivalence between mass & energy

#
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x Rest frame: the frame of reference within which a measured event occurs or a measured object lies at rest
x The relativity of length as a consequence of perceiving time differently, observers in differing frames of
reference also perceive length differently (lengths parallel to direction of motion)
o Thought experiment time traveller has arranged the light clock so it runs the length of the train with
lamp & sensor located on back wall & mirror on front wall
As train passes observer on embankment, light clock emits a light pulse which travels to front wall then
returns to back wall where it is picked up by the sensor which then clicks
Journey observed by both people but what is the length of journey that each perceives?
Train traveller:
length of light journey = ct0 = 2L0

Observer on embankment: because train is moving at the same time the forward leg of the light pulses
journey is longer & the return leg is shorter

Lv

v2
L0 1  2
c

L0 = length of an object measured from its rest frame (m)

Lv = length of an object measured from a different frame of
reference (m)
v = relative speed of the two frames of reference (ms-1)
c = speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)

v2
Since 1  2 is always less than one, the length of the train as observed by the person on the
c

embankment is less than that observed by the person inside the train
Train shortens & the faster it goes the shorter it gets

23

o Length contraction: the shortening of an object in the direction of its motion as observed from a
reference frame in relative motion
The length of an object measured within its rest frame is called its proper length, L0, or rest length
Measurements of this length, Lv, made from any other inertial reference frame in relative motion parallel
to that length are always less moving objects shorten in the direction of their motion
As velocity approaches the speed of light, the observed length approaches 0
If a spaceship were blasting past a planet at near light speed, people on planet would see a very short
spaceship of nearly 0 length but space travellers wouldnt notice any change to length of ship
Travellers would observe a wafer-thin planet in their windows, since from their inertial frame of
reference it is the planet in rapid motion
Any observer sees length contracted in other frames of reference if there is relative motion
#
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x The relativity of time time is perceived differently by observers in relative motion to each other
o Thought experiment uses a light clock light pulse released by lamp & travels length of clock, then
reflected back to a sensor next to the lamp, when sensor receives pulse of light it clicks
Traveller seated in a speeding train, light clock arranged vertically with lamp at ceiling & mirror on
floor, observer watching from embankment outside train
When light pulse is released how long does it take to travel down to mirror & return to ceiling, as seen
by both the train traveller & the observer?
Train traveller in the rest frame: if L is the height of the carriage, for the total journey we can say that:
distance = 2L = ct0

Observer on embankment: from outside the train the observer sees the light
travelling along a much longer journey & its length can be determined using
Pythagoras theorem

t0

tv

v2
1 2
c

t0 = time taken in the rest frame of reference (s)

= proper time
tv = time taken as seen from the frame of reference in relative
motion to the rest frame (s)
v = relative velocity (ms-1)
c = speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)

t0 is time taken for the clock to go click as observed by the train traveller while tv is the time taken as
observed by the person on the embankment
The term
v 2 is always less than one so that tv is always greater than t0

1

c2

- Clock takes longer to click as observed by person on embankment or, put another way, the outside
observer hears the light clock clicking slower than does the train traveller
Time is passing more slowly on the train as observed by the person outside the train

24

o Time dilation: the slowing down of events as observed from a reference frame in relative motion
The time taken for an event to occur within its own rest frame is called the proper time t0
Measurements of this time, tv, made from any other inertial reference frame in relative motion to the first
are always greater moving clocks run slow degree of time dilation varies with velocity
Has been experimentally verified by comparing atomic clocks that have been flown over long journeys
with clocks that have remained stationary for the same period
Any observer sees time dilated in another frame of reference no absolute frame of reference
No inertial frame is to be preferred over another & relativistic effects are
reversible if viewed from a different frame
#
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x Mass dilation: the increase in the mass of an object as observed from a reference
frame in relative motion
o Measurements of this mass mv, made from any other inertial reference frame in
relative motion to the first, are always greater degree of mass dilation varies
with velocity moving objects gain mass

mv

m0
v2
1 2
c

t0 = mass measured in the rest frame of reference (kg)

= rest mass
tv = mass as seen from the frame of reference in relative motion
to the rest frame (kg)
v = relative velocity (ms-1)
c = speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)

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x Designers of a new kind of spacecraft claim these craft could journey to Proxima Centauri, our closest
neighbouring star, at a speed of 0.1c (10% the speed of light). If true, how long would it take?
Distance to Proxima Centauri OLJKW\HDUVRU[13 km
A speed of 0.1c = 1.08 x 108 km h-1
When distances & speeds are this large, calculation is simpler
if distance is expressed in light-years & speed is expressed in
terms of c:

o However, this is the time taken as observed from Earth space travellers will, according to relativity,
record a slightly different travel time
Method 1: if time recorded on Earth, tv, is 40 years, the
rest time, t0, lapsed on spacecraft, can be calculated using
the time dilation equation

Method 2: the occupants of the spacecraft see the

distance they have to cover contracted according to the
length contraction equation:

The spacecraft reaches its destination 73.25 days short of 40 years

25

o Big impact upon space travel when speeds become relativistic (WKHVSHHGRIOLJKW
When speeds are less than this, effects are almost negligible

Astronauts in orbit around Earth wont observe any noticeable effect but on Galatica in the course of
one Earth day
- Just over 20 mins have passed on board
- Lengths have contracted to just 1.4% of their original lengths
- The 4 light-year trip to Proxima Centauri would be completed in just over 20 days according to the
ships clock
If light takes 4 years to cover the distance how could this starship, travelling at nearly the speed of light
manage the journey in 20 days?
- As observed from Earth the starship does take 4 years; however, the clocks on the starship, both
electronic & biological are running slow so that by their reckoning only 20 days pass
x Time dilation
o Allows travel into the future at high speeds, but not back to the past
o Astronauts in a relativistic spacecraft will age slower than people back on Earth
Comparatively live longer during space travel, people on Earth will pass away before they return
(Twins paradox)
x Length Contraction:
o As a spacecraft speeds up the apparent distance to objects ahead decreases
Trips on a relativistic spacecraft will appear to cover less distance to observers in the spacecraft
o Could possibly allow travel to distant stars etc.
x Time dilation & length contraction could theoretically allow exceptionally long space journeys within
reasonable periods of time, as judged by the travellers
x Mass Dilation:
o Energy costs of achieving these speeds would be prohibitive even if possible acceleration is most energy
costly phase of a space mission
o As the speed of a spacecraft c its mass , more thrust required
Accelerations beyond 0.9c to involve ever greater forces & energy input for only marginal increases
Speeds that can be achieved limited
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