INTRODUCTION

GENERAL ASPECTS OF CORROSION, CORROSION

CONTROL AND CORROSION PREVENTION
1. Definition of corrosion
The generally accepted definition of corrosion reads as
follows:
Corrosion is thr undesired atrack of o material as a result of
chemical or electrochemical reacfions with components from
the ewironment.

Attack, decay or becoming unserviceable by physical,

mechanical or biological causes are therefore excluded.
Examples of such phenomena are superheating wear,
erosion, cavitation, swelling of plastics, decay of wood,
etc. On the other hand, corrosion is considered as including combined forms of attack in which the simultaneous
occurrence of corrosion by chemical or electrochemical
attack and the effect of the other above-mentioned causes
leads to an item becoming unserviceable at an above-normal rate. Examples of these phenomena are stress corrosion, erosion corrosion and fatigue corrosion.
The definition distinguishes between chemical and
electrochemical reactions, for corrosion can he subdivided into electrochemical corrosion and chemical corrosion. Electrochemical corrosion is the more common. By
electrochemical corrosion is meant corrosion resulting
from reaction between a metal surface and an ion-conducting environment. Such corrosion can occur if the
metal comes into contact with a liquid in which an
electrolyte (a substance which, when dissolved in water or
another solvent, is separated into ions) is dissolved or
with a melted electrolyte (for example, salts or oxides).
hlost cases of electrochemical corrosion occur in aqueous
environments such as mains water. boiler water, cooling
water, sea water, etc., solutions of salts, acids and bases, a
humid atmosphere and a wet soil. Melted salts and
organic solutions of electrolytes are used to a far lesser
extent, and therefore occur far less frequently as environment in which electrochemical corrosion can occur.
By chemical corrosion is meant corrosion resulting
from reactions between a metal surface and gases (gaseous elements or gaseous componnds). Because this form
of corrosion usually occurs at temperatures substantially
higher than ambient temperature it is also referred to as
high-temperature corrosion. An cxample of this is
sulphidation.
2. The consequences of corrosion
The coniequences of corrosion are both technical and
economic in nature. Corrosion shortens the life of production facilities and transport systems by causing their
premature collapse, sometimes accompanied by acci1988 CAE 0-A001

1991 1-4001

1991 2-A001

dents. Repairs required to remedy leakages and blockages

push up the cost of maintenance. Malfunctions in production facilities resulting from corrosion give rise to loss
of output. Contamination of products by metal oxides
and contamination of the environment can also occur as
a result of corrosion. Of the world's iron production. 10%
is lost annually by rust formation alone. The total direct
and indirect costs associated with corrosion amount to
some 4% of gross uational product, which means about
$500 per year per head of the population in the industrialized countries. Of this loss, approximately one
quarter can potentially be saved by taking appropriate
corrosion prevention measures in good time.

3. The theory of electrochemical corrosion

In the electrochemical corrosion process, there are
always at least two reactions involved, namely an anodic
or osidarion reaction, during which a metal dissolves
while releasing electrons, for example:

and a carhodrc or reduction reactron, in which the electrons formed are removed. for example.
in acidic solution:

in neutral aerated solution:

Whether a metal uill corrode, however. depends on

two factors, namely:
(i) the level of the equilibrium potential of the cathodic
and anodic reactions in relation to one another. in
which case that of the anodic rsaction should always
be lower than that of the cathodic reaction;
(ii) the speed of the corrosion reaction (that is, the
summed reactions at the anode and cathode), which
in turn depends on various factors, su+ as nature of
the reactions taking place, the concentration and
supply of the reacting substances, and the form of the
corrosion products.
In addition to the occurrence of oxidation and reduction
reactions, other factors also play a role, such as temperature, the velocity of elerrolyte movement and the resistance of rhe electrolyte.
In the laboratory, the corrosion potential and the
speed of the corrosion reaction can he accurately determined for any metal in any environment, by measuring polnrisation curves with a potentiostat.

4. Forms of corrosion

Group I

Figures 1-3 give a survey of the most commou forms

of corrosion, which have been classified according to the
degree of identifiab'ility and the aids which are required
for their identification. Group I (Fig. 1) covers the forms
of corrosion which are readily identifiable wirh the naked
eye, whilst the Group I1 (Fig. 2) forms of corrosion may
sometimes reqnirz supplemeutary analysis, and verification by means of microscopic examination is often needed
for the corrosion forms in Group IT1 ( F i g 3). A number
of comments on the various forms of corrosion are made
below, although their causes are left out of consideration.

Uniform attack; also knou-n as general corrosion, takes

place evenly over the entire surface of the metal. As a
result of this regular character and the usually well-definable regular rare of corrosion, predictions of life can
be made u~ithmreasonable limits of accuracy. Accordingly; general corrosion does not prcsent any particular
technical problems, and the application of a so-called
corrosion allowance is possible.
Localized corrosioii is far more treacllcroua in nature
and far less readily predictable, for example localized
corrosion undzmeath deposits caused by differences in

(a) Uniform attack

orio>noi s u r f n c e

(b) Localircd attack

Severe local corrosion (e.g. underneath deposits)

Crevice corrosion (often in stainless steel)

Fig. 1. Group 1: Forms of damage which are indmtifiable by visual cxaminarion

1988 CAE 0-.4002

1991 1-A002

1991 2-A002

aeration. and pitting attack caused by the presznce of

oxygen (for example in boilzrs) or as a result of the
presence of chlorides (in the case of stainless steel). The
maxitnum pit depth is the decisive factor determining the
life of a piece of equipment.
A particularly notorious form is crevice corrosion in
stainless steel which, like corrosion underneath slndge

deposits, must be attributed to differences in aeration of

the metal surface. In fact; crevice corrosion may be
considered as a special form of pitting corrosion.
Galvanic corrosion, which occurs when there is electrical contact hetween different metals which arc inkrconnected both n~etaU'ically,and via an elzctrolyte, belongs
to this group. The pitting attack aa n result of deposition
f l o w direction

(a) Velocit~phenomena

Erosion corrosion
Attack in a distinct flow pattern 1e.g irnpingemcnt attack at
c o p p e or coppzr alloys)

Localized artack downstream of irregularity (eg, welded joint,

conrtnc~ion.

Localized groovcd attack (e.8. m bends)

Erosion and cavitation

ernsmn occurs due to the presence of solid particulate matter.
droplets or azr bubbles in the m d i u m and causes uniform
wear, with a distinct flow pattern, 3s well as local erosion of
matctial

cavitation occurs due to the implosion of cavities or steam

huhhies and causes locslizcd pittiug allack with sharp edges
(see figure)

Fretlmg
Atrnck due ro rubbir.g contact

lb)

I n l e r g m n u l ~irattzck
Iniergranular corrosion. dong the grain boundaries leg. weld
decay: locnked attack nt about 1/2 cm from the weld in
stainless rteeli

(c) Exfoliation

Layer corrosior, layered swelling of the rualciial (e.g. in damp

atmosphere. in moist wil, in stagnanr hater)

Layer

~ d De-alloying
)
attack

Selective attack to alloys, one cornponenr of which is dissolved

( e g dcri~rcificarmnof brass)

Fig. 2. Group 11: Forms of damage which may require additional analycs for identification

1988 C A E 0-A003

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of noble metal particles on less noble metal is also a form

of galvanic corrosion.
Group I I

Very often a distinct flow pattern can be identified in

the corrosiotl picture. This ma? be the case in erosion
corrosion (for example at high velocity flow) and in
erosion pure and simple (for example, where a gas is
contaminated with droplets or solid particles). However,
the effect of velocity on the attack is not always associated with a distinct flow pattern, for example in the case
of erosion, or cavitation in pump impellers, or highly
localized erosion corrosion downstream of an irregularity
in a pipe.
As was already stated above in the definition of corrosion, the phenomena of erosion and cavitation cannot be
considered as f o r m of corrosion. Fretting, mechanical
disturbance of various metals due to under-lubrication,
although leading to attack. cannot strictly be classed as
corrosion either.
The phenomenon of weld decay is a form of localized
corrosion occurring about 1cm from the weld in stainless
steel. Microscopic examination clearly reveals the intergranular picture (attack along the grain boundaries) of
this corrosion.
Exfoliation is usually an advanced stage of general
corrosion. as occurs in virtually motionless aggressive
environmenrs.
Selective dissolution occurs in alloys, where one of the
metals enters into solution. This may occur layer-wise but
also plug-wise, and then leads to pitting corrosion. The
best-known example of this is dezincification of brass.

Group IT1

If static stresses are present in a metal; for example as

a result of construction and/or use, and the metal is
situated in an electrolyte. this may lead to stress corrosion. In stainless steel, stress corrosion commonly proceeds in a transgranular fashion (cracking right through
the crystals) but in other metals, such as aluminium,
copper and unalloyed steel, in an intergranular fashion.
Hence, identification requires microscopic examination.
A constantly fluctuating load may lead to cracking
caused by metal fatigue, a purely mechanical phenomenon, but if there is contact with an electrolyte, corrosion
may cause that cracking to accelerate (fatigue corrosion).
Chemical corrosion, in which gases at high temperature act on material (high-temperature corrosion). can
lead to scaling, the formation of thick oxide layers, or in
the case of hydrogen gas, to cracking as a result of
decarburization.
5. Analysis and diagnosis of damage
A certain systematic approach should be observed in
hunting the causes of corrosion. For this purpose a
number of stages can be distinguished. as indicated below. The procedure may be simplified, depending entirely
on the nature and scale of the problem. The overall result
should be a report in which recommendations are made
as to how the corrosion can be prevented in future.
Sometimes the measures to be tc&en xi11 demand a high
investment, and it will not be possible to implement them
at short notice. In such a case, recommendations should
be made for both short-term and long-term measures.

(a) Stress conorion cracking

Stress corrosion (e.g. srainless s l e d usually tranrganular)

(b) Fatlgue corrosion

Mechanical cracking due to fluctuating stress (material fatigue)

( c ) High temperature attack

Scaling, formation of a thick oxide layer (e.g. superheater rubes

in a boiler1

Internal attack ( e : . hydrogen attack of steel)

Fig. 3. Group Ill: Forms of damage which usually require verificaion by microscopic analyus; sometimes rhey arc also clearly visihle to thc
naked eye.

1988 CAE @A004 1991 1-A004

1991 2-A004

Sysrernmics for dlagnosing the causes of corrosion

(A) Gather data on the corroded part (the system)

(a) typc of construclion (descript~on, drawing.
sketch) and purpose;
(b) composition of material (type code of metal or
alloy);
(c) any pre-treatment and/or surface treatment
(coatings);
(d) contact with other n~etals.
(Bj Gather data on the corroded surface hy means of
inspection
(a) appearance (pitting uniform, criichg, flow pattern. depth. etc.) to he recorded by visual report,
photographs. drawings, etc.;
(h) corrosion products present on the surface (chcmical 'inalysis):
(c) other dcposits present on the surface. originating
from elsewhere or from the environment (chemical analysis);
id) appearance of coating (intact, pitting, blistering,
exfoliation. under-rusting, etc..).

(C) Recording the operating conditions

(a) nnnturc of the cmironment (gas, liquid, solid or
mixture);
(b) composition of environment (cl~emicalanalysis.
aggressiveness in relation to the present material,
contaminations), constant or variable (average,
ninimum/maximum);
(c) physical data (temperature, pressure, flow velocity);
(d) mechanical aspects: load (staticjdynamic, magnitude, tensile/pressure. frequency of load fluctuations);
(e) operation (cnnrinuous, intermittent, standard/
nonstandard conditions, repairs. maintenance,
inspeclions).

(b) conclusions and recommendations for short-term

u ~ dlong-term measures (to be drawn up in
consultation with the user, and taking into
account the scale of the damage).

6. Corrosion conhol
For control of the corrosion. a selection may bc made
from among the following measures:
(ij Choice of a different material. Application of
another more corrosion-resistant material. Hoxever, the
choice of material is determined not only by the corrosion resistance but also by the mechanical properties and
economic considerations.
(ii) Design modifications. By adapting the desizn,
treatment and construction, the part of the systcm can be
rendered less vulnerable to corrosion.
iiii) Applicatiou oT coatings. In this nay material can
be separated from the environment (metallic. inorganic
non-metallic or organic coatings to be applied after proper
pre-treatment).
(iv) Change of environment, for example
removal of oxygen and/or raising the pH
dosing of inhibitors
in combination with proper checks: change/control of
temperature, flow velocity, stray currents.
(v) Intervention in the reactions, in particular with
electrochemical methods such as cathodic protection (with
sacrificial a n o d r or with inert anodes with impressed
current) and anodic protection (for example to stainless
stcel).
(vi) Changing the procedures. Introduction or modification of procedures for start-up, shut-down, operation
and stoppage; recommendatioms concerning inspection,
corrosion monitoring, maintenance.

(D) Supplementary data

(a) age, time to failure of the corroded part;
(hj damage occurred before, measures taken (which
checks?);
(cj is the corrosion specific or more general in the
plant or the system'?;
(dj what checks on surface treatment (coatings)?

1
3. gathering and
appiisatmr of
corrosion data

(E) Additional examination

(a) material: identification by chemical analysis and
mechanical resting;
(b) corrosion appearance: simple microscopic examination, with application of replica technique if
necessary, non-destructive te3ting:
(c) cause of corrosion: metallographic examination,
scanning electron nicroscopy, X-ray diffraction.
etc.:
(d) corrosion measurements on-site andjor longterm tests and electrochemical analysis in the
laboratorv;
(e) litcrature rcstarch.
(F) Reporting
(a) analysis of the results and statement of the diagnosis;
1988 CAE 0-A005

1991 1-A005

1991 2-A005

of environmeni and
conditions

b. Inspectmn
and approval

Fig. 4.

7. Corrosion prevention
The analysis and diagnosis of damage as discussed in
Section 5 is required in the case of corrosion occurring in
use. The corrosion problems are solved by the troubleshooting method. It is, of course, far better not to allow
matters to reach that stage. and initiate the corrosion
control much earlier, namely at the design stage of the
systzm. This is known as corrosion prevention.
Figure 4 indicates the general aspects of corrosion
control and prevention in the various stages. with the

necessary icedbacks. 11 goes withou~saying that proper

consultation with a corrosion specialist remains of the
greatest importance.
In practice, unfortunately, we see all too often that
corrosion control is only thought of when the design is
already cut and dried. This means that by then, it i q
virtually nevzr possible to obtain a solution which is
optimal from the corrosion angle. That can only be done
by integrating corrosion control in the form of corrosion
prevention as a basic part of the design process.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED 1N THIS WORK

Alkalinity reduction

(part) removal of the carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity

From water, mostly by ion exchangers.

4naerobic

free of air or uncon~binedoxygen.

Anode

electrode at which anodic reaction predominates.

Anodic protection

electrochemical protection by
increasing the corrosion potential to a value corresponding to
the passive state.
Nore: This technique needs very
little current flow but it leads
to intensified corrosion in case
of power breakdown.

Anodic reaction

clcctrode reaction equivalent to

a transfer of positive charge
from the electronic to the ionic
conductor.
Note: An anodic reaction is an
oxidation process:
Me + Ment+ ne-.

Atmospheric corrosion corrosion with the earth's

atmosphere at ambient temperature as the corrosive environment.
Atlemperator

a heat exchanger in which the

superheated steam is cooled by
boilcr water at the outside.

Bimetallic corrosion

contact corrosion (deprecated):

Galvanic corrosion, where the
electrodes are formed by dissimilar metals or other elcctronic conductors.

Rlooming

corrosion of anodi~eddurninium by acid residues due to insufficient rinsing.

Boiler feedwater

mixture of steam condensate

and make-up water.

Carbonation of
concrete

the attack of concrete by carbon

dioxide. The calcium hydroxide
is transformed to calcium bicarbonate that is flushed hy
water.

1988 CAE 0-A007 1991 1-A007 1991 2-A007

Carbonic acid
corrosion

corrosion by water that has become aggressive by dissolved

carbon dioxide (CO, t H 2 0 -t
H2C0,
COf- + 2Ht) (see
also sweet corrosion).
Note: This corrosion causes
uniform attack in condensate
return lincs.

Carburization

the absorption of carbon into a

metal surface at high temperatures. by which carbides are
formed as a result of which the
metal becomes brittle.
hbte: Distinguish from the term
carburizing as used in metallurgy.

Cathode

electrode at which cathodic reaction predominates.

Cathodic protection

electrochemical protection hy
decreasing the corrosion potential. (See galvanic protection
and impressed current protection).

Cathodic reaction

electrode reaction equi~alentto

a transfer of negatwe charge
from the electronic to the ~ o n x
conductor.
Nore: A cathodic reactlon is a
reduction process:
Ox + n r - - Red

Caustic embrittlemznt

that form of stress corrosion

cracking occurring in carhon
steel exposed to alkaline solutions.

Cavitation

damage of a material associated with collapse of cavities

(or vapour bubbles) in the
liquid at a solid-liquid interface, in the high pressure regions of an unit.
Nore: Damage being worse st
the outlet sidz of pumps or
across control valves or orifice
plates. Minilnum internal pressure within the unit must always bc greatcr than the "bubble paint" of the liquid to avoid
this t?-pe of attack.

Cavitation corrosion

a process involving conjoint

corrosion and cavitation.
Note: Cavitation corrosion may
occur, for example, in rotary
pumps and on ships' propellers.

Cementation

the plating out action of a noble metal on a less noble metal

(e.g. copper on zinc or alunlinium).

Chelant corrosion

corrosion by a chelating agent.

Concentration corrosion corrosion cell in which the

cell
potential difference arises from
a difference in concentration of
the corrosive agent(s) near its
electrodes.
Corrosion

physicochemical interaction between a metal and its environment which results in changes
in the properties of the metal
and which may often lead to
impairment of the function of
the metal, the environment, or
the technical system, of which
these form a part.
Note: This interaction is usually of an electrochemical nature.

Corrosion cell

short-circuited galvanic cell in

a corrosion system, the corroding metal forming one of its
electrodes (see galvanic cell).

Corrosion fatigue

a process involving conjoint

corrosion
and
alternating
straining of the metal.
Note: Corrosion fatigue may
occur when a metal is subjected
to cyclic straining in a corrosive
environment. Corrosion fatigue
may lead to cracking.

Creep

Crevice corrosion

Deaerator

the continuous plastic elongation of a metal under an applied stress.

corrosion associated with, and
taking place in, or immediately
around, a narrow aperture or
clearance.
Note: The formation of a differential aeration cell. is the
cause of this corrosion.
a mostly horizontal tank in
which the boiler feedwater is
freed of dissolved oxygen (and
other gases) by intensive con-

1988 CAE 0-A008 1991 1-A008 1991 2-A008

<

tact with fresh steam, according

the laws of Henry and Raoult.
Dealkalization

see Alkalinity reduction,

Dealloying

the selective corrosion (removal) of a metallic constituent

from an alloy, usually in the
form of ions (e.g. dezincificalion).
Note: This corrosion is also
known as parting or selective
leaching.

Decarburization

see Hydrogen attack.

Demineralization

removal of all the dissolved

mineral matter from the water
by ion exchangers.

Dezincification

selective corrosion of brass resulting in preferential removal

of zinc. Dedncification is a
form of dealloying.
Note: This corrosion causes
mechanically weak copper-rich
areas in the form of plugs or
layers; sometimes both zinc and
copper corrode, but copper is
redeposited.

Differential aeration
cell

corrosion cell, in which the

potential difference arises from
a difference in the concentration of oxygen near its electrodes.
Note: The location with the
lowest oxygen content, e.g. in a
crevice or underneath deposit,
becomes anodic and will be attacked.

Economizer

a heat exchanger, placed in the

flue gases, for heat recovery by
the boiler feed water.

Electrolyte

an ionic conductor, usually in

aqueous solution.

Electroplating

electrodeposition of a t h ad~
herent layer of a metal or alloy
on an object serving as a
cathode.
Nore: This process is also
known as electrogalvanizing.

Embrittlement

severe loss of ductility of a

metal (or alloy).

End grain

The surface of the metal which

is cut perpendicular to the direction of rolling

End grain attack

Selective corrosion of the e i ~ d

grain. During the rolling of
steel, nonmetallic inclusions are
rolled out and elongated into
long "stringers" all in the direction of rolling. When the end
grain is exposed to a strong
corrodent, such as boiling nitric
acid, end graiu attack starrs at
areas where stringers are exposed on sheet or plate ends
and can aggressively proceed
down into the steel. Austenitic
stainless steels but carbon steels
as well may be susceptible to
end grain attack.

Environment

the surroundings or conditions

(physical. chemical, mechanical) in which a material exists.

Erosion

deterioration of a surface by
the abrasive action of solid particles in a liquid or gas, gas
bubbles in a hquid, liquid droplets in a gas or due to (local)
high flow velocities.

Erosion corrosion

a process involving conjoint

corrosion and erosion.
Nvre: The corrosion products
are continuously removed by
erosion, as a result of which the
corrosion is accelerated.

Exfoliation

a thick layer-like growth of

loose corrosion products (see
Layer wrrosion).
A V ~ t e Exfoliation
:
is generally
oriented in the direction of rolling, extrusion or principal deformation.

False brinelling

damage caused b y vibration between metal parts.

Fatigue

a process lcading to fracture resulting from repeated stress

cycles wc1I beloa the normal
tensile strength. Such failures
start as tiny cracks which grow
to cause total failure.

Filiform corrosion

corrosion that occurs under

some coatings in the form of
hairs or filaments progressing
across the metal surface.

Fretting corrosion

a process involving conjoint

corrosion and oscillatory slip
between two surfaces in contact.

1988 CAE 0-A009 1991 C.4009

1991 ?-A009

Nore: Fretting corrosion may

occur, for example, at mechanical joints in x'ibrating structures.

Galvanic cell

Combination of different electrodes connected in series with

an ionic conductor.
Note: The galvanic ccll is an
electrochemical source of electrical current and will produce
current when the electrodes are
connected by an external conductor.

Galvanic corrosion

corrosion due to the action of a

corrosion cell.
Note: The term has often been
restricted to the action of bimetallic corrosion cells, i.e. bimetallic corrosion.

Galvanic protection

clectrochen~icd~
protection in
which the protecting current is
obtained from a corrosion cell
formed by connecting an auxiliary electrode to the metal to
be protected.

Galvanizing (hot dip)

coating of iron and steel with

zinc using a bath of molten zinc.

General corrosion

corrosion proceeding at almost

the same rate over the whole
surfacc of the metal exposed to
the corrosive environment.
.Wore: This corrosion is also
known as overall or uniform
corrosion.

Grain

a portion of a solid mela1 in

which the atoms are arranged
in an orderly pattern. The
irregular junction of two adjacent grains is known as the
grain boundary.

Graphitic corrosion

selective corrosion of grey cast

iron. resulting in preferential
removal of metallic constituents, leaving graphite. Graphitic
corrosion is a form of dealloying.
Note: This corrosion is alsn
known as graphitization but
this term is not recommended
because of its use in metallurgy.

Heat affected zone

WAC

refers to the area adjacent to a

weld where the thermal cycle
has caused microstructural

hydrogen bubbles, evolved in

the corrosion of steel in sulphunc acid on a preferred path.
The normal steady state of low
corrosion (0.1 to 0.5 mm/yr at
ambient temperatures) will he
disrupted and grooving will result with high local corrosion
rates of 3 mm/ yr or more.

changes which generally affect

corrosion behaviour.
Hydride embrittlement

embrittlement due to the pre cipitation of metal hqdride

phases formed by the diffusion
of hydrogen into the metals
magnesium; zirconium, titanium, niobium, vanadium and
tantalum.

Hydrogen attack (high

temperature)

The occurrence of cracks or fissures owing to pressure buildup by methane gas, formed by
the reaction of atomic hydrogen diffused into the steel above
roughly 260" C and metal carbides or dissolved carbon.
Nore: This corrosion is also
known as decarburization or
methane blistering.

Hydrogen blistering

the formation of blisters on or

below a metal surface from excessive internal hydrogen pressure.
Note: Hydrogen may be formed
during cleaning, plating, corrosion, and so forth. The atomic
hydrogen diffuses into the steel.
The diffusion stops at contaminations in the steel, where
atomic hydrogen is converted
into molecular hydrogen. Pressure build-up then causes the
steel to fracture.

Hydrogen damage

a general term for the embrittlement. cracking, blistering and

hydride formation that can occur when hydrogen is present
in some metals.

Hydrogen
embrittlement

a process resulting in a decrease of the toughness or

ductility of a metal due to absorption of hydrogen.
Note: Hydrogen embrittlement
often accompanies hydrogen
formation, for example by corrosion or electrolysis, and may
lead to cracking.

Hydrogen grooving

A high local attack m the form

of grooving in carbon steel used
for storage and handling of
strong sulphuric acid. The corrosion takes place when strong
acid is not moving, by disturbing the ferrous sulphate layer as
a result of the steady passage of

Impingement attack

localized
erosion corrosion
caused by turbulence or impinging flow at certain points.

Impressed current
protection

electrochemical protection in
which the protecting current is
supplied by an external source
of electric energy.

Inhibitor

chemical substance which decreases the corrosion rate when

present in the corrosion system
at a suitable concentration,
without significantly changing
the concentration of any other
corrosive agent.
Note: A corrosion inhibitor is
generally effective in a small
concentration. In commercial
applications additives are
sometimes named as inhibitors.

Intergranular
corrosion

corrosion in or adjacent to the

grain boundaries of a metal.

lnterphak.oa

a contrast technique in which

both phase contrast and interference contrast are used together for contrasting and measuring, both for transmitted and
incident light (see detailed explanation in Background Information on the Interphakoa
Technique, pp. A13-A14).

Knife line attack

(KLA)

corrosion resulting in a narrow

slit in or adjacent to the filler,
parent boundary of a welded or
brazed joint.
Note: This corrosion is a form
of weld decay sometimes obsened on stabilized stainless
steel.

Langelier index

the Langelier index (Li) or

saturation index is a theoretically derived quantity for the
judgement of corrosive or scaling qualities of water. The index is deduced from the real
pH, and the calculated saturation pH (pH,) of the water:

Li = pH - pH,, and is interpreted as follows:

Li
Tendency of rhe
water
i 2.0
srrong scaling
tendency
+0.5
slight scaling tendency, not corrosive
0.0
in balance, pitting
possiblc
- 0.5
slightly corrosive,
not scaling
< - 2.0 strongly corrosive
Layer corrosion

Pitting corrosion

corrosion resulting in pits, i.e.

cavities cxtcnding from Lhe
surface into the metal.

Rehar corrosion

corrosion of concrete rzinforcement bars, also known as

reinforcement corrosion.

Ryznar index

The Ryznar index (Ri) or stability index is an empirically

derived quantity for the judgement of corrosive or scaling
qualities of the water. Tlus index can also be calculated from
the pH and pH, (see Langelier
index): Ri = 2 pH,-pH, and is
interpreted as fouows:
Ri
Tende~tcyof the
water
< 5.0
strong scaling
tendency
5.0-6.0 slight scaling tendency
6.0-6.5 in balance, pitting
possible
6.5-7.5 slightly corrosive
7.5-9.0 strongly corrosive
,9.0
very strongly corrosive

Sandelin phenomenon

this phenomenon was discovered by Mr. Sandelin and refers

to the growth on of the zeta
alloy layer during the galvanizing process of silicon-killed steel
s i t h Si content of 0.2-0.458.

Season cracking

a term usually applied to stress

corrosion cracking of brass, in
ammoniacal environments.

Selective corrosion

corrosion of an alloy whereby

the components react in proportions which differ from their
proportions in the alloy (see
also dealloying).

Shcr ardinng

the coating of iron and steel

with zinc by heating iin contact
with zinc powder at a tcmpcrature below the melting point of
zinc.

Sigma phase

a hard, brittle. nonmagnetic intermediate phase with a tetragonal crystal structure? containing 30 atoms per unit cell,
space group P42/mnm, occurring in many binary and ternary
alloys of the transition elements. The composition of this

corrosion of internal layers of

wrought metal, occasionally resulting in exfoliation, i.e. detachmcnt of mattacked laqers.

Liquid metal embrittle- emhrittlement of a metal

caused by penetration oI otlm
meit (LME)
molten metals.
Magnetite

Fe,O,. black iron oxide which

is formed in water or steam in
the case of deficiency of oxygen. It is magnetically attractable.

m-Alkalinity

the acid consumption in m e d l

on titration of water up to p H
4.2.

Metal dusting

accelerated deterioration of
metals m carbonaceous gases a1
elevated temperatures to form a
dustlike corrosion product.

hlicrobiologically
induced corrosion

corrosion associated with the

action of nlicroorganisms prcsent in the corrosion system.
.Vote: This corrosion is also
known as biological or n1ic1-obial corrosion.

WIG)

Nirriding

Oxygen scavenger

thc absorption of nitrogen

atoms by a metal; it may remain dissolved. or form metal
nitrides.
a chemical substance which
liberates the boiler feed water
from oxygen by means of a
chemical reaction. An oxygcn
scavenger is used instead of or
in addition to a deaerator.
the acid consumption in meq/l
on titration of alkaline (boiler)
water up to pH 8.2.

phase in the various systems is

not the same and the phase
usually exhibits a wide range in
homogeneity. Alloying with a
third transition element usually
enlarges the field of homogeneity and extends it deep into the
ternary section.
Sigma-phase
emhrittlement

embrittlement of iron-chromium alloys (most notably

austenitic stainless steels) caused by precipitation at grain
boundaries of the hard, brittle
intermetallic signla phase during long periods of exposure to
temperatures between a p proximately 560 and 980C
(1050 and 1800F). Sigmaphase emhrittlement results in
severe loss in toughness and
ductility, and can make the embrittled material susceptible to
intergranular corrosion.

Stainless steel

all steels with a chromium content of at least 13%.

Steam hlanket~ng

reduction of wall thickness of

the upper part of the inclined
water tubes of a steam boiler
due to magnetite (Fe,O,) flaking off. caused b) insufficient
cooling.

Stray-current

current flowing through paths

other than the intended circuits.

Stray-current
corrosion

corrosion due to stray-current.

Note: The metal is attacked at
the spot where the current
leaves.

Stress corrosion

a process involving conjoint

corrosion and straining of the
metal due to residual or applied
stresses.
Note: Stress corrosion is specific to particular metals in particular solutions. Carbon steels
in hot alkali solutions, austenitic steels in hot chloride solutions and copper based alloys
in solutions containing ammonia can be susceptible.

Stress corrosion
cracking (SCC)

cracking due to stress corrosion.

Sulphate-reducing
bacteria

these bacteria, of which the

genus Desulphoribrio is the
most common, reduce sulphates to sulphides in anaerobic
conditions (e.g. in nou-aerated
well water or under deposits in
aerated water). The sulphide attacks steel and other metals.
The presence of hydrogen or
organic matter accelerates this
corrosion.

Sulphidation

the reaction at high temperatures of a metal or alloy with a

sulphur-containing species to
produce a sulphur compound
that forms on or beneath the
surface of the metal or alloy.

Sweet corrosion

this term is used in oil and gas

production for carbon dioxide
corrosion. which often causes
pitting and localized attack, in
oil or gas-producing systems.

Tin plague

recr)stallization of tin due to

the allotropic transformation
from /3 to a tin that occurs
below the temperature of 18" C.
The tin becomes brittle and disintegrates into powder.

Transgranular
cracking

cracking through the grains or

crystals of a metal.

Under-deposit corrosion corrosion associated with, and

taking place under, or immediately around. a deposit of
corrosion products or other
substance.
Noze: The corrosion is the result of the formation of a differential aeration cell.
Weld decay

a term applied to areas ad jaceut to welds of certain alloys

which have been subjected to
intergranular corrosion because
of metallurgical changes in the
alloy (commonly applied to
certaln grades of stainless steel).