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OnBoard Diagnostic II (OBD II) HELP

Real information you can use to diagnose your car or truck
Copyright AA1Car.com

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The Malfunction Indicator Lamp (MIL) or CHECK ENGINE light as it is more commonly called, is essentially an emission
warning light. If the light comes on, it means the Onboard Diagnostics II system (OBD II) has detected an emissionsrelated problem. OBD II is designed to turn on the MIL light if a problem occurs that may cause emissions to exceed
federal limits by 150 percent. The problem has to occur more than once, and it must be significant enough to create a
potential emissions problem (one serious enough to prevent a vehicle from passing an emissions test).

In the real world, the MIL lamp often comes on for what seems like trivia reasons (like a loose gas cap). But there's no
way to know what's triggering the light until the vehicle is diagnosed. The problem may be something minor that has little
or no effect on driveability, or it may be something more serious that is affecting engine performance.
The mysterious nature of the MIL lamp, which most people call the "Check Engine" light, terrifies and confuses a lot of
motorists. Except for a few luxury vehicles that actually display a fault message when the MIL lamp comes on, most

provide no information whatsoever other than something is wrong. The motorist has no way of knowing if the problem is
major or minor -- or what it will ultimately cost to have the problem diagnosed and repaired.
Some motorists, on the other hand, seem unfazed by warming lights. As long as their vehicle continues to run, they see
no urgency to have their engine checked, to slow down or to do anything out of the ordinary. Others are optimists and
hope that if they keep on driving, the light will magically go out. Sometimes it does, much to their relief. But when the light
refuses to go out, or it comes and goes like the ups and downs of the stock market, they panic and don't know what to do.
Some motorists who are befuddled by a Check Engine light will seek out the least painful (and cheapest) solution which is
to take their vehicle to an auto parts store that offers a "free diagnosis." The diagnosis consists of plugging in a code
reader into the DCL connector and reading out the code. The auto parts stores who offer a free diagnosis service say the
code will usually reveal the nature of the problem so the motorist can decide what to do next. They're hoping, of course,
that the motorist will buy a part from their store and install it themselves to fix their problem. And if that doesn't work, that
the motorist will buy another part and install that in hopes it will solve the problem. And when that doesn't work, that the
motorist will buy yet another part and install it themselves in hopes of fixing he problem. You get the picture.
Anyone who repairs late model vehicles today for a living knows that diagnosing complex emissions and driveability
problems is not as simple as reading a code and replacing a part. OBD II is a great system that has a tremendous
amount of self-diagnostic capability, but it only identifies faults in particular circuits or systems. It does not tell you which
component to replace. That can only be determined after doing additional diagnostic work to isolate the fault.
Some problems such as misfires and evaporative emission (EVAP) leaks can be very challenging to nail down. Misfires
can be caused by ignition problems, fuel problems or compression problems. The underlying cause might be fouled spark
plugs, bad plug wires, a weak ignition coil, dirty injectors, a shorted or open injector, low fuel pressure, a vacuum leak, a
leaky head gasket, burned exhaust valve or a camshaft with a bad lobe. No simple plug-in diagnosis will give you the
answer until you do a lot of other checks.
To make matters worse, some of these friendly auto parts stores will also erase the code(s) after they've given their
customer the diagnosis. Erasing the code turns out the MIL light -- at least temporarily -- which provides some relief for
the poor motorist. But it may also make the job of diagnosing the fault harder if valuable diagnostic information that you
might have needed was erased.

OBD II & EMISSIONS TESTING

Another diagnostic issue that's becoming more of an issue with OBD II is that a growing list of states are now
substituting an OBD II emissions test for a tailpipe test. The OBD II test is quick and easy, goes not require an expensive
dyno or emissions analyzer, and gives a pass/fail indication in a minute or less. There's no risk of damage to the vehicle
(as may be the case when running a vehicle on a dyno), and the reliability of the OBD II test is actually better than a
tailpipe emissions test. Why? Because the OBD II system monitors emissions 24/7 365 days a year. There are no
arbitrary cutpoints that can be fudged one way or the other to pass or fail more or less vehicles. Everybody dances to the
same tune and must meet the same standards.
OBD II is also much better at detecting evaporative emissions leaks, and a drop off in converter efficiency. If the MIL light
is on and there's a code for an EVAP or converter problem, you can usually bet the problem is real. The problem may not
have any noticeable effect on driveability or performance, but technically it is in violation of the standards -- and must be
fixed before the MIL light will go out and say out.
OBD II monitors evaporative emissions by checking for fuel vapor leaks once a drive cycle. OBD II does this by applying
vacuum or pressure to the fuel tank, vapor lines and charcoal canister. If it detects no airflow when the EVAP canister
purge valve is opened, or it detects a leakage rate that is greater than that which would pass through a hole 0.040 inches
in diameter (0.020 inches for 2000 and up model year vehicles), it indicates a fault.
If you find a P0440 code that indicates a fuel vapor leak, finding the leak can be a challenge. The first place to start is the
gas cap. A loose-fitting or damaged cap can allow enough air leakage to set a code. To find a leak in a vapor hose, you
may need a leak detector that uses smoke and/or dye. A 0.020 inch hole is the size of a pin.

PLUG-IN DIAGNOSTICS

All OBD II-equipped vehicles have a common J1962 16-pin diagnostic connector and use the same "generic" fault codes.
This means all you need is an OBD II-compliant code reader or scan tool to check readiness status, and to read and clear
codes. The state emission programs require vehicle inspection facilities to use a more sophisticated plug-in tool that also
records vehicle data for record keeping purposes, but otherwise they are using the same basic scan tool technology as
everybody else.
To access the OBD II system all you have to do is plug a code reader or scan tool into the 16-pin connector (note: there
are no "manual flash codes" on OBD II systems). The connector is usually located under the dash near the steering
column. But on some vehicles, it can be hard to find. On many Hondas, the plug is located behind the ashtray. On BMW
and VW, it is behind trim panels. On Volvo, the plug is next to the hand brake. On Audi, you'll find it hidden behind the
rear seat ashtray.

THE OBD II PLUG-IN TEST

An OBD II test is a simple plug-in computer check that verifies four things:
1. The Vehicle Identification Number (VIN).
2. That the vehicle's OBD II system is ready (all required readiness monitors have been set).
3. The status of the MIL lamp. The lamp must be functioning correctly and come on when commanded to do so.
Otherwise, it must be off indicating no codes.
4. That the vehicle has no diagnostic trouble codes that would cause the MIL lamp to come on.
OBD II monitors misfires, converter efficiency, catalyst heater (if used), the evaporative system, air injection system (if
used), fuel trim, oxygen sensors, exhaust gas recirculation (if used), secondary air system (if used), the coolant
thermostat (starting in 2000), positive crankcase ventilation system (starting in 2002) and even the A/C systems on some
2002 and newer vehicles.
If a situation develops in any of these monitored systems that could cause a real or potential emissions problem, OBD II
will watch it, set a code and eventually illuminate the MIL. Most OBD II codes take time to mature and will not turn on the
MIL lamp immediately. OBD II may wait until it detects the same problem on two separate drive cycles before it converts
a pending code into a mature code and turns on the MIL lamp. The bottom line here is if the light is on, the vehicle will
NOT pass an OBD II plug-in test. The problem must be fixed and the MIL light must stay out before the vehicle will pass.

READINESS ISSUES
One of the EPA's requirements for using a plug-in OBD II check in lieu of a tailpipe test is to make sure the OBD II system
has run all of its monitors and that the monitors have all passed. But there's a catch. Some import vehicles have
readiness issues when it comes to setting all the OBD II monitors. Consequently, the EPA currently allows up to two
readiness monitors not to be set prior to testing 1996 to 2000 model year vehicles, and one readiness readiness monitor
for 2001 to 2003 vehicles.
When OBD II runs a self-check on a particular component or system, it lets you know by setting a readiness "flag" or
indicator which can be displayed on your code reader or scan tool. If OBD II has run all the available monitors and all the
monitors have passed -- and no faults have been found -- the vehicle should pass the OBD II plug-in test. But if all the
required monitors have not run, the vehicle can't be given an OBD II test. The motorist must drive the vehicle and come
back again, or take a tailpipe test if that is an option.
If OBD II detects a fault when running a monitor, the setting of a code may prevent the remaining monitors from running.
A bad oxygen sensor, for example, will prevent the catalyst monitor from running. Getting all the monitors to run can be
tricky on some vehicles. Each monitor has certain operating requirements that must take place before the self-check will
run.
To set the converter monitor, for example, the vehicle may have to be driven a certain distance at a variety of different
speeds. The requirements for the various monitors can vary considerably from one vehicle manufacturer to another, so
there is no "universal" drive cycle that will guarantee all the monitors will be set and ready.
As a general rule, doing some stop-and-go driving around town at speeds up to about 30 mph followed by five to seven
minutes of steady 55 mph highway speed driving will usually set most or all of the monitors. Consequently, if you're
checking an OBD II system and discover that one or more of the monitors have not run, it may be necessary to test drive

the vehicle to set the remaining monitors. With the EVAP monitor, the vehicle may require a certain period of inactivity
(such as setting overnight) and certain ambient temperature conditions (such as above freezing) before the EVAP monitor
will run.
Some vehicles with known readiness issues include 1996-98 Mitsubishi models (which require a very specific drive
cycle), and 1996 Subaru and Volvo 850 Turbo (turning the key off clears all the readiness flags, so don't turn the vehicle
off after driving). On 1997 Toyota Tercel and Paseo, the readiness flag for the EVAP monitor never will set, and no dealer
fix is yet available. Other vehicles have often have a "not ready" condition for the EVAP and catalytic converter monitors
include 1996-98 Volvo, 1996-98 Saab, and 1996-97 Nissan 2.0L 200SX.

DRIVE CYCLES
If the MIL lamp comes on while driving, or remains on after starting the engine, it means OBD II has detected a problem.
The lamp will usually remain on -- unless the fault does not reoccur in three consecutive drive cycles that encounter the
same operating conditions, or the fault is not detected for another 40 drive cycles. If OBD II sees no further evidence of
the problem, it will turn off the MIL lamp and erase the code.
An OBD II drive cycle is not just turning the ignition key on and off or starting the engine. A drive cycle requires starting a
cold engine and driving the vehicle until the engine reaches normal operating temperature. The next drive cycle doesn't
begin until the engine has been shut off, allowed to cool back down and is restarted again. On some vehicles, the drive
cycle also includes the cold soak time between trips. On some vehicles, the EVAP monitor won't run unless the vehicle
has sit for eight hours. There no way to bypass or get around such requirements, so you have to do what ever the system
requires. And if that means waiting, you have to wait.

READING DTC CODES

If OBD II has detected a fault, you should find one or more "generic" codes (which start with the prefix "P0"), and maybe
one or more "enhanced" codes (OEM specific codes that start with a "P1"). All OBD II compliant code readers and scan
tools should be able to display generic codes, but some do not display all the OEM enhanced codes. As a result, you may
not get the full picture of what's going on if you're using a tool with limited capabilities. The same goes for accessing many
OBD II diagnostic features such as history codes, snapshot data, and special diagnostic test modes that require two-way
communication and special scan tool software. For example, some of the OBD II diagnostic features that are currently
accessible with an OEM factory scan tool are not yet available on aftermarket scan tools. This may limit your ability to
diagnose and repair certain types of problems.

An inexpensive Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) or smart phone with scanner software and cable, or even a DIY type of
code reader can be used to read and clear most OBD II codes on 1996 and newer vehicles. This type of tool can often be
used to make a quick diagnosis, and in many cases you don't need anything else. But for advanced diagnostics, you
need a professional grade scan tool or software package with advanced capabilities.
For some jobs, you may also need a tool that can graph or display waveforms. That means buying a digital storage
oscilloscope if you don't buy a high end scanner that can do both. Most scan tools display data stream values, which is
what the PCM tells it to display. If the PCM is misreading a sensor input or is substituting bogus information, you have no
way of knowing without actually testing the circuit or component in question. That's where a scope comes in handy.
When a scope is hooked up to a sensor or circuit, it shows what's actually going on inside that device or circuit. Voltage is
displayed as a time-based waveform. Once you know how to read waveforms, you can tell good ones from bad ones.
You can also compare waveforms against scan tool data to see if the numbers agree (which is a great way to identify
internal PCM faults). A scope also allows you to perform and verify "action-reaction" tests. You can use one channel to
monitor the action or input, and a second, third or fourth channel to watch the results. For example, you might want to
watch the throttle position sensor, fuel injector waveform, crank sensor signal and ignition pattern when blipping the
throttle to catch an intermittent misfire condition.

OnBoard Diagnostics II Guide

for Windows XP, Vista or 7

A Quick Reference Guide for all 1996 & newer vehicles

Driveability Diagnostics, OBD I & II

By Steve Zack - SPX Technical Trainer and Chuck Eaves -Technical Specialist, JA Echols & Assoc
Since the dawn of on-board diagnostics (OBD) in motor vehicles, the process of diagnosing driveability
problems are the same as always, and very different, too. When OBD I evolved into OBD II in 1996, the
electronic part of diagnosing driveability problems became a little easier. This is because the electronic
network on OBD II vehicles became much more comprehensive and changed almost all mechanical
functions that controlled the powertrain into electro/mechanical functions.
There are three indispensable tools to diagnose OBD system problems and make the proper repairs.
These tools and how to use them will be explored in some detail.
Scan Tool Diagnostics
The first tool well talk about is the scan tool. In general terms, there are two types of scan tools. One
is referred to as a Code Reader. These simple electronic tools are useful and will read and erase all
OBD emissions codes. Some will also give the code description, but not all code readers do this. A true
scan tool, however, will read and clear OBD codes, and will do the same on enhanced and subsystem codes. These enhanced codes are OEM-specific, with OEM assigned numbers. These codes
cover the entire electronic control spectrum beyond purely emissions. Beyond driveability, the codes
will cover the HVAC, IPC, BCM, ABS, SRS, and electronic-bus communication systems. The true scan
tool will also do many other important and useful things, and these will be discussed later.
Most of you have already noted the superior functionality of the OBD II system compared to the OBD I
system. Some of the enhanced capability of the OBD II system will be found on OBD I. Most, however,
will not. As already mentioned, OBD II was adopted across the board in 1996. You will find a couple of
models of each manufacturer that introduced OBDII as early as 1994. These early OBD II vehicles were
early production models, and usually employed both the OBD II 16 pin connector and the vehiclespecific connector to access the other systems.
Just remember, the scan tool reads and reports to you what the vehicles computer system is doing and
saying. If the computer system in the vehicle cant know or do a certain thing, like reading ignition kV,
the scan tool cannot give you this information. The scan tool, then, is the interface between you and the
vehicles computer system.
There are two other tools, both of which have been around for quite a while, which are very important in
diagnosing OBD problems. One is the technician; in other words, YOU. There will never come a day
when the technician will not be absolutely essential to diagnose and repair OBD problems. No scan tool
can fix the vehicle, and the scan tool will often only point you to the problem area. Your job is secure if
you are willing to keep up with ever-advancing technology. This requires an on-going investment in
education and tools. This will never change. Scan tools dont fix cars, you do! If you do your job well,
you will make a very nice living fixing everything, but nothing more, than your customers vehicle
requires.
Part of your investment in your diagnostic future is in updating your scan tool. The electronic world will
never stop moving and improving. Do not get angry with your scan tool distributor for offering you the
latest update when it becomes available. Out-of-date software or hardware is like having only three
points on your Philips screwdriver. It will still work, sort of, for a while maybe. Dont wait. Update
your tool every chance the manufacturer gives you. Youll appreciate the difference the first time you
use your tool, especially if youve just updated your OTC Pegisys, Genisys, or Nemisys . The
functionality improvements OTC has added to the additional diagnostic information year-to-year in the
OTC family of scan tools are nothing short of remarkable.

The third and last electronic diagnostic tool that we will address is the oscilloscope, or scope for
short. Simply put, the purpose of a scope is to put a picture on a screen of the electrical activity that is
going on in whatever you are testing. This picture is a constantly moving line trace, or graph, called a
pattern. The scope info on the screen is live, not processed as with a scan tool. This fact makes
scope information more accurate and more current than scan tool data, which first has to be processed
by the vehicles computer, then again by the scan tool. Scan tool data is almost always reliable, but
should be verified by a scope (or a digital multi-meter) before the repair is made. Otherwise, you may
find yourself reading codes and pulling parts, over and over. This approach will be very unpopular with
your customer, and will cost you money.
A high-quality scope can be expensive, and many techs simply dont know how to use one. The
Genisys and Pegisys, by OTC , are very easy to use, full-function scan tools with a 2 or 4-channel
lab/engine analyzer scope. The price is surprisingly reasonable, especially when compared to the
competition. OTCs scope module for the Genisys is a full-function 4-channel 4-color scope that
accurately presents all automotive voltage from mV through kV levels. The new OTC Pegisys has an
ultra-high speed 2 channel scope built in, with all the advanced capability of the Genisys 4 channel
model, but with 2 channels for easier operation.
Before beginning the in-depth discussion of how to best use your scan tool, a few basic understandings
are in order. You ASE Master Techs out there, just bear with us a little bit.
OBD I codes (early 1980s through 1995) use two and three digit numbers without letters. They are all
manufacturer assigned. OBD II codes (1996 up) consist of a letter followed by four numbers. There are
four different letters for OBD II, and they are as follows:
P Powertrain codes, meaning engine and transmission. All emission codes start with P.
B body codes
C chassis codes
U communication-bus/network codes
In the P code group, if the first number is 0 (zero), all the codes are generic. This means that any
light truck and car sold in America from 1996 on share the same P0 codes. The codes mean the exact
same thing on all vehicles. P1 codes, however, are OEM assigned, and mean whatever the
manufacturer wants them to mean as long as they are powertrain related.
The meaning of the second number in the P0 codes is as follows:
1 Fuel metering, things like MAF, MAP, O2 sensors, etc.
2 Fuel metering, but injector and injector circuit only
3 Misfire and ignition
4 Emission controls, like EVAP, EGR, CAT, etc.
5 Vehicle and idle speed control
6 - and 7 Transmission
The last two numbers give you the specific identification within the general system. Example: P0101.
This means powertrain, OBD II emissions, fuel metering, mass air flow meter.
In the OBD II system, there are three types of codes. These are Current, Pending, and History. A
current code will set the check engine light after one, two, or three consecutive similar trips,
depending on which Monitor detects the problem. The conditions that the Monitor evaluates before
deciding to illuminate the Check Engine Light are called Enabling Criteria. This fancy term simply
refers to the process the vehicles computer goes through in deciding whether the problem is
reoccurring and serious enough to set a code and turn on the light.

The check engine light is correctly called a MIL, or Malfunction Indicator Light. Well call it a MIL
(not MIL light). The MIL only illuminates if the problem is a P code, emissions related. All check engine
light codes are correctly called diagnostic trouble codes, or DTCs. Lets just use codes for DTC.
Its easier.
Current, Pending, and History codes (OBD II only)
Many current codes will set the MIL when it comes out of Pending and into Current. If the MIL
illuminates as a result of an emissions code, a History code will be recorded, and a Freeze Frame
recording will be stored. A Freeze Frame recording saves one frame of data on several PID items such
as RPM, VSS, MAP and/or MAF, IAT, ECT, etc. Accessing the Freeze Frame recording will give you an
idea of just what the vehicle was doing when the MIL set. DO NOT clear your codes first. All Pending
and Freeze Frame info will disappear when your code/s are cleared.
If you are using the OTC Pegisys, Genisys or Nemisys , you can save the codes and Freeze Frame
to tool memory before you clear your codes. The Pegisys and Genisys will automatically record a
datastream list if a MIL sets while you are communicating with the vehicle. The Genisys and Nemisys
recording is a staggering 1,000 frames, approximately 82 before, and 918 after the MIL illuminates, and
the Pegisys can record an infinite number of frames. This Automatic Data Stream Recording will not
disappear when the codes are cleared, and can be saved to your OTC Pegisys or Genisys, printed,
transferred to a USB jump drive, and/or your shop computer.
NOTE: If the battery in the vehicle is disconnected for any reason, the PCM will loose
any Code information it had stored. Of course, all radio, mirror, seat, and HVAC memory
will be cleared also. I recommend a Memory Saver if the vehicles battery has to be
disconnected.
Your tool and equipment distributor has a variety of these devices
available, at a reasonable cost. Be sure to get one with enough amperage to last as long
as the vehicles battery is to be disconnected.
A Pending Code can erase itself before the light comes on if the problem goes away and stays away for
two or three consecutive similar trips. If this happens, no History code or Freeze Frame will be stored.
A History code is the medium and long-term storage of a Current code in the computers memory, and is
strictly for the use of the technician in analyzing a new problem. The History code provides the tech a
record of code activity in the recent past. The History code is not an active code; it is a recorded event.
The History code carries no Freeze Frame data with it.
The History code will self-clear from the computers memory after 80 trips (for Continuous Monitors), or
40 trips (for Non-Continuous Monitors). However, some vehicles software will keep the History codes
for 256 key-starts. Chrysler is an example of key-start count for History code memory.
There are four specific levels of codes. These levels indicate the priority of the code, and are explained
as follows. Of course, a priority letter is only assigned to a code when there are multiple codes at the
same time.
Type A codes: The MIL will be triggered on the first trip with the type A codes, and will record a freezeframe record. Type As should be repaired first.
Type B codes: The MIL will trigger on the second or third trip with Type B, and a freeze-frame will be
recorded. Type B codes should be addressed after the type A codes have been dealt with.
Type C codes: Non-emissions related, these codes will store a History record, and should have a third
place priority.

Type D codes: Non-emissions related, and will not store a freeze frame or a History record. Repair
these codes last.
Code Categories
There are three categories of codes within the OBD II system. They are Electrical, Mechanical, and
Rational. Each type of code is specific in its setting criterion.
Electrical codes deal with the electrical circuit and its supply source. These codes can be set by a
below-standard voltage supply and ground issues, as well as actual circuit failures. An Electrical code
will set when extreme or sudden changes in voltage data is noticed when no changes in engine load or
circuit operation are observed. An example is a TP sensor which suddenly shows a voltage of less than
.2v. This type of fault is monitored by the Comprehensive Components Monitor, and therefore sets a
code instantly upon parameter failure.
Mechanical codes deal with devices having a mechanical function, such as the passing of fluids or
opening and closing of passages. A good example is an EGR passage that may be partially plugged, not
allowing the correct volume of exhaust gas to flow. This mechanical code is monitored by the EGR
Readiness Monitor. This Monitor uses several EVAP and engine sensors to watch for a change in value
outside the pre-set parameters, setting a code on the second trip cycle.
Rational codes are set when a sensor does not meet its criterion of operation. An example of a Rational
code would be the MAF sensor showing a very high volume of air flow with low engine RPM, a small
throttle opening, and no indication of an increase in engine load. This type of MAF PID would indicate an
out-of-calibration MAF based on what the other sensors show. In this example, the MAF sensor would
not be used by the PCM for fuel control.
Each of the above three code types is tested by the Readiness Monitor dedicated to the particular
emissions system involved. When a component fails to meet the standard set by the manufacturer
during its trip cycle, the component is further monitored for a given period of time. When the
component parameters are still not met after the drive cycle is satisfied, a failure is recorded and the
MIL is illuminated. The particular components parameters are recorded and shown in the Component
Parameters (Mode 6) section of Special Tests.
Failure Type Byte DTC
There is now a new DTC numbering system in town. An example of this new system is P0110:1C-AF.
The additional digits at the end of the DTC indicate the Failure Type Byte. When a FTB appears on the
end of the DTC it will be used by the PCM to give more information about the failure. Many DTC numbers
provide enough of a description with the alpha and 4 digits. However, many do not and as a result it is
sometimes difficult to determine the exact failure from the DTC without a lot of diagnostic work. An FTB
will be added to certain DTCs when necessary to add a more detail description of the failure leading
you to a simpler diagnosis. In the past, P0110 indicated an Intake Air Temperature Sensor Circuit
which may be problems with any of the wiring between the sensor and the PCM, or the sensor itself are
at fault. With the new indicator at the end of the fault code (1C-AF), the DTC now gives a more complete
description of the failure. This example is indicating the Intake Air Temperature Sensor itself is out of
range.
Monitors (OBDII only)
Another significant difference between OBD I and II is the onboard diagnostic testing called Monitors.
The Monitors are active tests of up to eleven electronic systems in the OBD system. Not all OBDII
vehicles support all 11 Monitors, however. In fact, two Monitors in particular have never been activated.
One is the A/C Monitor, planned before r-134 became the standard mobile refrigerant used in the US. R134 was judged to be much less harmful to the atmosphere compared to r-12, so the AC monitor has
never been used.

The other Monitor never activated is the Heated Catalyst. The engineering principal behind heating the
catalytic converter quickly is the same as heating the O2 sensors: get the cat and the O2 sensors on line
within seconds, not minutes. However, the electrical current required to get a catalytic converter up to
operating temperature with a heater, and within seconds, is still waiting on the 42v system. This
relatively high-voltage electrical system is sure to become a reality one day, but technical and cost
challenges have to be overcome first.
The Monitors that the OBDII system runs are divided into two groups: Continuous, and Non-Continuous.
The Continuous Monitors run their diagnostic tests on three emission control systems continually as
long as we have key-on, engine running. These Monitors are:
1 - Misfire
2 - Fuel System
3 - Comprehensive - The Comprehensive Monitor looks for open or shorted circuits, and data that is out
of range. All OBDII compliant vehicles run these three Monitors.
The Non-Continuous Monitors run their diagnostic tests once per trip, but not continuously. These
Monitors include:
1 Oxygen sensor
2 Oxygen sensor heater
3 Catalyst
4 Heated catalyst (not used)
5 EGR system (not universally used)
6 EVAP system
7 Secondary air system (not universally used)
OBD II compliant vehicles run all Continuous Monitors and most of the Non-Continuous monitors. A very
few OBD II engines do not need an EGR valve, so do not run that Monitor. Almost all Californiacompliant systems use secondary air systems, so they will run that Monitor. Most Federal-compliant
engines do not.
As already stated, when a MIL is illuminated as a result of an emissions related code, an action called
Freeze Frame is initiated by the PCM. A freeze frame is a snapshot of 8 or 10 PID items. These
recordings are required by EPA regulation to capture loop status (open or closed), engine load, coolant
temperature, and fuel trim, manifold vacuum (MAP), RPM, and DTC priority. Some PCMs may add
vehicle speed, throttle position, ignition advance, and trips since the MIL was last cleared.
Advantage Pegisys , Genisys and Nemisys
An extremely useful and unique function of the OTC Pegisys , Genisys , and Nemisys is Automatic
DTC Datastream Recording . If an OTC scan tool is communicating with the vehicle while in
Datastream when a code happens to set, much of the datastream list will be recorded into the Pegisys ,
Genisys , or Nemisys memory. This recording will not be erased when the codes are cleared and can
contain from 11 to 45 or more PID items. Unlike the freeze frame feature of all OBD II PCMs, the
Genisys DTC Datastream recording captures up to 1,000 frames, and the Pegisys an infinite amount
of frames, not just one. Every recorded PID can then be graphed and printed to plain paper using a
regular HP type inkjet printer. With available ConnecTech software, all Genisys recordings can be
uploaded into your desktop or laptop computer and stored in a file of your choice. The OTC Nemisys
offers uploading its recorded information into a computer via an included CD ROM. The OTC Pegisys
and Genisys can off-load their recordings onto a USB drive plugged into the tools USB port.
OBD System Hardware
In both the OBDI and II systems, the vehicles computer (PCM from now on) deals with three main pieces
of hardware: actuators, sensors, and switches. The PCM receives data from sensors and switches,
and commands and actuators accordingly. The PCM is programmed by the manufacturer with

algorithms to compare what it sees to what it expects to see. A pre-determined difference in expected
input or output for a given length of time or trip count will trigger a code. However, the PCM is only so
smart! It cant think outside of the box (get it?). Verify the code before you start yanking parts. Your
OTC scope or meter is your best friend here.
Incidentally, some literature and technicians refer to the PCM as the ECM (Electronic Control Module).
The two are the same thing. The term ECM, though, is more often used when referring to OBDI systems.
A note of interest: PCMs from the 1980s until 1993 or so had their operational memories loaded on a
replaceable PROM. To correct or update one of these early PCMs you would replace the existing
PROM with the correct new one. As a rule, no special tools are needed, except a wrist grounding strap.
After 1993, the PCMs had to be reprogrammed or reflashed, to correct or update its operation. The
new system, known by its SAE number, J2534, is a web-based reflash method. Great news : OTC will
offer the J2534-2 multi-vehicle, all modules reflash program as optional software for the OTC Pegisys .
.
Modes of Vehicle Operation
Both OBD I and II systems operate with two basic modes: open loop then closed loop. Open loop is the
mode in use when the engine is first started, and remains in effect until the oxygen sensors (referred to
as O2 sensors) begin to operate. In open loop, the fuel mixture is richer than normal so the engine will
run smoothly until the ECT (engine coolant temp sensor) tells the PCM the engine has warmed up. This
rich mode works like the choke on a carburetor-equipped engine. The HC and CO emissions are very
high in this mode, but the O2s dont start operating until the exhaust stream reaches 600-650 degrees.
When the O2s do come online, the vehicle switches to the closed loop mode where the O2s now control
the fuel trim. In cold-weather conditions, it may take up to 15 minutes for the O2s to come online. Its
even possible for working O2s to kick out if the vehicle idles for a good while allowing the exhaust
stream to cool down below 600 degrees. If this happens, the vehicle will return to open loop, and this
may increase exhaust emissions. However, some OEMs use embedded PCM information to take over
fuel trim when and if open loop occurs.
In about 1990, the OEMs began installing O2 sensors with heaters built into them. These heaters bring
the O2 sensors on line in as little as 15 seconds, and they stay on as long as the engine is running. Since
the average trip time is quite short in the US, the tailpipe pollution per trip is reduced significantly, as
the vehicle stays in closed loop longer.
When OBD II became law in 1996 on most autos and light trucks sold in America, significant changes
and improvements were built into the new on-board diagnostic system. One very important change was
the addition of a second O2 sensor. This second sensor was located in the exhaust pipe at the outlet of
the catalytic converter. V-6 and V-8 engines with true-dual exhaust will have two of each. The
additional O2 sensor/s enabled the PCM to closely and accurately monitor the condition and efficiency
of the catalytic converter. A P0420 (bank one), or a P0430 (bank two) code will be set if the PCM sees
the trailing O2 sensor indicating a rich mixture similar to the front sensor for a given length of time.
A brief glossary of a few key OBD system component terms will make the following sections easier to
understand.
AIR: Also referred to as Secondary Air System (or SAS), used to enhance cat converter efficiency.
ECT: Engine Coolant (sensor) Temperature. Sometimes known as CTS: Coolant Temperature Sensor.
MAP: Manifold Absolute Pressure. This refers to the pressure (vacuum) in the intake manifold.
BARO: Barometric (ambient) pressure sensor, used to set a baseline pressure to calibrate the MAP.

MAF: Mass Air Flow meter. Not found on all vehicles, the MAF meter is a real-time real-volume meter,
which reports actual airflow through the engine. A MAF equipped vehicle can compensate for increases
or decreases in intake air flow and exhaust flow and adjust fuel trim accordingly. A MAP-only system
cannot do this. The fuel delivery in a MAP-only system is programmed into the PCM by the OEM
engineers. This system can only adjust to expected conditions within the factory-programmed values.
TPS: Throttle Position Sensor. Note: The new throttle-by-wire systems use two sensors, comparing
one against the other.
VSS: Vehicle Speed Sensor.
HO2S: Heated Oxygen Sensor. Well just call them O2 sensors. All of them are heated these days.
CKP: Crankshaft position sensor, used to report RPM, monitor ignition timing and misfire.
CPS: Camshaft Position Sensor, used to identify cylinder #1.
EGR: Exhaust Gas Recirculation.
KNS: Knock Sensor, used to retard timing to eliminate pre-ignition and spark knock.
PID: Parameter Identification aka Datastream
Before we address a few specific repair strategies, lets look at an overview of what the OBD system is
doing during three different trips. The first trip well look at will have the vehicle fully warmed up, and
driving at a steady cruise of around 55 or so mph.
Steady cruise: The engine is at operating temperature, so the OBD system is in closed-loop. The PCM is
relying on inputs from the MAP, TPS, ECT, and CNK, and CPS. The TPS shows only slight variations as
the driver (or cruise control) adjusts power to maintain the desired cruise speed. When the driver adds
a little power to climb a slight grade or to increase cruise speed slightly, the PCM sees a drop in vacuum
(MAP) and a slight rise in TPS voltage. The PCM commands an increase in injector pulse width and
retards the timing. This latter adjustment increases dwell time, improving fuel burn. If the vehicle is
equipped with a MAF sensor, the MAP is referenced primarily to verify MAF and TPS signals.
When the demand for more power is satisfied, the PCM reverses everything it did above. The injector
pulse width narrows and the timing advances. These actions return the vehicle to cruise/fuel mileage
mode.
The O2 sensors are looking at all this activity, and are sending data to the PCM continually. The lead O2
sensor(s) (sensor 1) sends a varying voltage to the PCM several times a second. When the oxygen
content of the exhaust stream is rich (low O2 content), the voltage signal sent to the PCM can be close to
1 volt. The full rich signal is actually about 800 mV to 900 mV. When the PCM sees such a signal, it will
then narrow the pulse width to full lean, driving the O2 sensor to about 100mV to 200 mV. The length of
time the pulse width is held wide or narrow determines the actual fuel delivery. Take note that an O2
sensor should cross between rich and lean at least 7 times a second on OBDII systems at 2500 rpm or
greater. O2 sensors will get tired over time and the cross counts will fall to a level that hinders
efficiency. If you are working on a high-mileage engine with the original O2 sensor(s), it may be money
well spent if your customer will authorize you to replace them. Even with no codes in the PCM, fresh
O2s can produce a noticeable improvement in performance, mileage, and emissions.
In OBD II, the trailing O2 sensor (sensor 2) is in place to send a signal to the PCM, which should show a
much lower content of fuel (high O2) than sensor 1 is reporting. The voltage swings for O2/2 should be
between 430mV and 470mV. However, if the exhaust coming out of the cat closely resembles the

exhaust going in for three consecutive trips, the PCM will store a P0420 (bank one) and/or P0430 code
(bank two), and illuminate the MIL.
The full rich to full lean cycle may seem to be a rather primitive strategy to handle fuel delivery (called
fuel trim). However, the catalytic converter has to have it this way. The catalytic converter is
designed to oxidize HC and CO into H2O and CO2, and reduce NOx to CO2, H2O, and N2. When the O2
sensor approaches a rich condition the PCM will command a lean injector pulse width, causing
combustion to release the unused O2. The catalytic converter will store this O2 in its ceramic substrate.
As the O2 sensor approaches a lean condition, the PCM will command a rich injector pulse width,
producing CO. This causes the catalyst temperature to rise dramatically, causing the NOx, CO, and HC
to vaporize, separating into individual elements of C, H, N, and O. As this occurs, the O2 in the ceramic
substrate will oxidize with the C element to form CO2, and a single O element will oxidize with two H
elements to become H2O. The N element will then attach with another N to form N2.
At steady cruise, the PCM will command the EGR to crack open just a bit. The EGR gas is rich in HC,
allowing the PCM to reduce pulse width and alter the ignition timing. The EGR gas causes the HC to
oxidize, lowering combustion temperature, much like adding luke-warm water to boiling water until the
boiling stops. With these results there will be an improvement in emissions and highway fuel mileage.
For a more detailed treatment of the exhaust stream and how you can use it to diagnose driveablilty
issues, please see 5 Gas Diagnostics, by Steve Zack, available at www.genisysotc/training.
Acceleration: What happens when the driver wants to accelerate? The PCM strategy calls this
acceleration enrichment mode. On many V8 and high performance V6 engines, the PCM keeps the O2
sensors in closed loop, even during moderately heavy throttle opening. But many engines will briefly
revert to open loop during acceleration, especially WOT. Heres how acceleration enrichment mode
works in those engines:
During hard acceleration, the PCM relies on voltage data, first from the TPS, then from the MAF (if
equipped), MAP, and CKS/CPS. When the driver drops the hammer, TPS will peg at about 4.3v to 4.7v.
The MAP voltage signal will increase (vacuum decrease), and MAF frequency will increase because of
the increased air volume. Engine RPM aids the PCM in knowing just how much additional fuel the engine
needs to meet the drivers power demands. The injector pulse width will increase to keep the air-fuel
ratio correct for maximum acceleration. The timing will be retarded and dwell will increase. The
increased dwell will provide additional voltage available at the coil to allow a longer oxidation process
needed by the spark plug. This process also lessens spark knock. The transmission controller will
delay up-shift points to hold a lower gear allowing a higher engine speed for more power and vehicle
speed. The shift feel will be firmer and quicker. The torque converter will disengage as necessary to
allow more RPM, adding torque and horsepower.
The MAP sensor is a very sensitive device, and can even sense a slight change in vacuum between
individual cylinders. Because of the MAPs ability to do this, this sensor is a primary sensor in fuel
control. The engineering program that accomplishes this is a seldom talked about PCM strategy called
Timing MAP. Timing MAP uses vacuum variations between cylinders to adjust individual cylinders
pulse width as well as control individual ignition timing, keeping the cylinders in relative balance.
During hard acceleration, a greater amount of fuel will be used. This sudden increase in fuel will cause
an increase in unburned HC and CO. The increases are moderate, and the ignition timing is retarded to
compensate. The bigger problem is an increase in NOx due to a sharp increase in combustion
temperature. The EGR is used to control combustion temperatures that will cause the formation of NOx.
The EGR flow is tightly controlled, so the small amount of EGR diluting the fresh air/fuel mixture will
cause no reduction in engine performance.
Deceleration lean-out mode: In DLOM, open loop, the PCM utilizes the TPS, MAP and CKP sensors to
maintain proper fuel trim. As the driver begins to slow the vehicle, the first input to the PCM, just as in

acceleration mode, is the TPS. The TPS tells the PCM that the throttle is closed to slow the vehicle.
Injector pulse width is decreased and timing is advanced. As air volume decreases, the engine vacuum
will rise. MAP sensor voltage will begin to drop, and the PCM continues to command a leaner air fuel
mixture. As the vacuum begins to stabilize, the MAP sensor will report that the vacuum level has
returned to normal. At this point, the fuel trim reverts to Closed Loop, returning fuel trim settings to the
O2 sensors.
As mentioned before, OBD II control strategies differ primarily from OBD I by the constant testing and
evaluation of the emissions related parameters, sensors, switches, and actuators, and the electrical
circuits that serves them. This testing is done by a series of Monitors. All this testing and evaluating is
done to ensure the vehicle is performing to the minimum emissions standards set forth by the EPA. To
trigger emissions DTC and set the MIL, the component or system must exceed 1.5 times the standard.
The government certification test is known as FTP, or Federal Test Procedure. This is an approximately
7 minute version of the 4 minute IM (Inspection and Maintenance) test.
The emissions Monitors operate much like a Ford KOER self-test. The difference is that the Monitor
testing is performed during a normal driving period with speeds and times similar to the Federal IM240
inspection routine. (IM means inspection-maintenance)
The IM240 Emissions Test satisfies the EPA standards for emissions system performance. This test
procedure consists of a 7-part drive cycle, all done with the drive wheels secured between the two
rollers of a chassis dynamometer and a tailpipe probe feeding a gas analyzer.
Before the testing is started, the engine is warmed up at least 40 deg. F, reaching 160 deg. F. This step
puts the vehicle in closed loop. A Monitor watches for this and will only let the testing begin after these
steps are done successfully.
A drive cycle occurs over a period of time, with varying speeds and loads. A Trip is a completion from
start up to shut down. All Monitors must be run, or the trip is invalid. A similar trip is a second trip
taken immediately after the first trip. The RPM must be within 375 of the previous trip, and the load must
not vary more than 20% of all previous conditions. This similar trip is required for any Monitor that
requires two or three trip cycles to set two or three flags which will illuminate the MIL.
In addition, before the test can begin, the following must be in good operating condition: RPM, ECT,
BMAP, and IAT. The Monitors will not run until the vehicle is in Closed Loop mode. The effected Monitor
will run if the MIL is on. In addition, the Monitors will not run if the TPS or MAP is fluctuating, indicating
varying speed and load. The Acceleration Enrichment or the Deceleration modes cannot be operating.
For the first part of the test, Part A, the vehicle idles for exactly 2.5 minutes, with the A/C and rear
defroster turned on. During this time, the O2 sensor heaters, the AIR system (if equipped), Misfire, and
the EVAP purge Monitors are run. In Part B, the vehicle accelerates to 55 mph at throttle. Here, the
misfire, fuel systems, and purge Monitors are run. In Part C the vehicle runs at a steady 35 mph for 3
minutes where the HO2S, EGR, purge, Fuel Trim, and AIR monitors are run. In Part D, the vehicle
decelerates from 55 to 20 mph where the EGR, Fuel Trim, and purge Monitors are run. In Part E, the
vehicle accelerates to 55 to 60 mph at throttle. Here the misfire, Fuel Trim, and purge Monitors are
run. In Part F, the vehicle operates at a steady 55 to 60 mph for approximately 5 minutes. The catalyst,
misfire, HO2S, EGR, purge, and fuel trim monitors are run. In Part G, the vehicle decelerates, ending
the test drive cycle while running the purge and EGR monitors. If all Monitors run successfully, the
vehicle will pass its emissions testing, and all Monitors will indicate ready.

For OBDII testing, no tailpipe emissions are directly tested. All the information gathered by the test is
communicated to the IM machine and the State government by the PCM through the OBDII port under
the dash. No dyno is needed for OBD II testing, and the results cannot be successfully tampered with.
More on Monitors and how they work
Continuous Monitors
Misfire Monitor: This Monitor can pick up a misfire in the engine and set one of two codes. A P0300 is a
random misfire (multiple cylinders). A P03?? is a specific-cylinder id. The Monitor cannot provide the
reason for the misfire, e.g. ignition, fuel, or mechanical. The CKP, using an algorithm programmed into
the PCM, detects the tiny slowing of the crankshaft when incomplete combustion takes place in the
affected cylinder/s. After a sample of from 200 to 1,000 crankshaft revolutions (depending on OEM
strategy), if the problem persists, the MIL is turned on.
Note: There are actually three separate Misfire Monitors, Types One, Two, and Three. The differences
in the three are as follows:
The OEMs and SAE assigned misfire types one and three as two-trip misfire monitors. This two-trip
strategy acts exactly like all two-trip events. That is, on the first misfire detected by the PCM, the misfire
will be recorded as a Pending Code, with no MIL. If the second-trip misfire is detected, the MIL will
come on, and the code will be stored as active.
A Type Two misfire indicates a much more severe misfire problem. As such, the MIL will be commanded
on during misfire trip one. The one-trip MIL will be either steady or flashing. If the MIL is flashing, the
catalytic converter is in imminent danger of severe damage. Diagnose and repair the cause of a
flashing MIL immediately. It can happen that a flashing MIL can revert to a steady presentation. If this
happens, there is no longer an immediate danger to the cat. However, the severe problem can suddenly
reoccur, so do not let the vehicle out of the shop without repairing the misfire problem first.
Fuel System Monitor: This Monitor verifies that the O2 sensor cross-counts are quick enough, at least 7
times per second at 2,500 rpm or more. This applies in both short-term and long-term fuel trim modes.
This Monitor requires two consecutive similar trips to set the MIL
Comprehensive Component Monitor (CCM): This Monitor scans for open or short circuits and electrical
parameters that are out of range. This Monitor is either a one or two trip MIL, depending on the
component.
Non-Continuous Monitors
HO2S Monitor: Closed loop will occur only when the exhaust stream reaches 600-650 degrees. When
closed loop occurs, this Monitor forces the fuel trim to full rich and watches for a voltage response of

10

at least 600mV. The Monitor then forces the mixture to full lean, and watches for the voltage to go
below 300mV. If the voltages are inadequate, or the cross-counts are too slow, an MIL will be set. This
Monitor requires two similar trips to set the MIL.
Catalyst Monitor: This Monitor will only run when the vehicle is running at a cruise speed for a minimum
of 3 to 6 minutes. The Monitor watches the cross rates of HO2S 1 compared to HO2S 2. The
downstream O2 must not cross more that 30% of the upstream O2. Mostly, HO2S 2 will stay in the lean
range, reflecting a catalyst that is burning the residual HC and CO out of the exhaust stream. This
Monitor requires three similar trips to set an MIL if a problem exists.
EGR Monitor: Steady cruise or deceleration is required to run this Monitor. When the PCM commands
the EGR to open, total intake manifold volume will be increased. The MAP watches for a vacuum drop
when this happens. If this vac drop is not detected by the MAP, a MIL will be commanded after two
similar trips.
Readiness Status
Readiness Status is a test that reviews the condition of the Monitors. If the Readiness Status records a
Monitor that did not run because of an active or pending code, that Monitor will show not ready. When
the condition that caused the failure is corrected, and the vehicle is driven in accordance with the
applicable Drive Cycle, the Monitor will then run its test, and show the message, ready.
The State OBDII IM programs require all Readiness Monitors to run successfully before a vehicle can
pass the IM test. However, some states will allow two Monitors to read not ready on 1999 and older
vehicles and one not ready on 2000 and newer vehicles, as long as the MIL is not on. Check your State
regulations for details. If the MIL is illuminated, the vehicle will not pass.
Freeze Frame
This is a snapshot of one frame of data for several vehicle parameters that existed when the MIL was
triggered. The PCM is required to record the following items: Loop Status, Calculated Load (expressed
as a percent of 100), ECT, Short and Long Fuel Trim, MAP, RPM, and VSS. Some vehicle manufacturers
add a few items to this recording such as TPS, IAT, and MAF.
Note: The Freeze Frame is set the instant the MIL is illuminated. Keep in mind that the PCM always
delays setting the MIL until it is satisfied the problem is persistent (this is known as Enable Criteria).
This may take several seconds to several minutes for the Enable Criteria to set the MIL. Therefore, the
Freeze Frame may reflect conditions that may no longer be current.
Mode Six
Mode 6 is a very sophisticated function that displays, along with min/max specs, the test results of each
emission Monitor. Mode 6 information is the actual test result of the individual drive-cycle readiness
tests of both continuous and non-continuous monitors.
During each drive cycle, the PCM will monitor and evaluate the Mode 6 test results and store them in the
KAM (keep alive memory). The PCM uses a value called the Exponentially Weighted Moving Average
or EWMA, to judge whether the test result is within the acceptable parameters. As the Monitor data is
gathered by the PCM, the EWMA value is applied to the test, causing the points of the data to become
more important as the problem becomes closer to failing the test. This allows for the latest test results
to be of greater value in determining pass or fail conditions.
Note: be sure to read your Mode 6 info before you switch the vehicle off. Many vehicles
may reset Mode 6 at key-off.
Most aftermarket scan tools cannot read or display Mode 6 information at all. The OTC Pegisys and
the Genisys do a remarkable job of displaying the TID (test i.d.) and the CID (component i.d.) test
information. When the OEMs began the switch to CAN in 2003 they changed the name of Mode 6 CID

11

to MID (Monitor ID). You will find Component Parameters on the Diagnostic Menu of the Pegisys and
Genisys . Scroll to Component Parameters (mode 6), and press enter. Then scroll down through all
the Monitors.
Many of the Mode 6 data PIDS are only given a number and not identified in plain English. The OEMs
assign these TID and CID numbers to suit them and do not readily give out this information. And there is
no standard for what a TID or CID number refers to. OTC is identifying and adding English explanations
to these numbers as quickly as we can learn them. The website iatn.net is a wealth of Mode 6
information, especially for Ford and Toyota. IATN.net is available to anyone with a computer.
To cloud the issue further, the actual test result numbers may be given not in the familiar decimal
system, but in a scientific number system called hexadecimal. Hexadecimal values are reported with
a combination of numbers and letters, and are identified as Hexadecimal with a dollar symbol ($) prefix.
If you have identified what TID and CID you are dealing with, your standard Windows computer has a
calculator that will convert Hexadecimal to decimal. To do this translation, click All Programs, and then
click on Accessories. Next, select Calculator, and then click on View and select Scientific. Next, click
on Hex. Then enter the Hexadecimal value (lets use 33E as an example) in the value box. Then select
the Dec button. Voila! 33E becomes 830! Compare 830 to the min/max limit in the Mode 6 test to
determine the health of the Monitor results.

Incidentally, GM has a DTC function called Failure Records, for OBD II vehicles. This info is essentially
the same as Mode 6, and is easily read and understood.
The information given in
Failure Records, as well as in Mode 6, can be used to predict if a system is about to store a two trip
failure before the MIL is set. This info can be used as repair verification, saving you a lot of time or even
a comeback.
In Part Two of this series, we will delve into several repair strategies on the three domestic vehicle
makes. Of course, our examples will also apply to most OBDII vehicles, domestic and otherwise. These
examples are all based on real-world, common-failure events that you should find familiar, and we hope
our repair ideas will be helpful. Stay tuned

12

OBDII and Emissions Testing

Are you up to speed on OBD II? You should be because starting in 2002, a number of states have announced
plans to change their emissions testing programs over to OBD II.
Instead of doing a tailpipe emissions check on a dynamometer, an OBD II check is a simple plug-in test that
takes only seconds. Whats more, OBD II will detect emissions problems that might not cause a vehicle to fail a
tailpipe test - which means emissions test failures under the OBD II test programs are expected to be
significantly higher.
The second-generation self-diagnostic emissions software has been required on all new vehicles sold in this
country since model year 1996, including all imports. OBD II is a powerful diagnostic tool that can give you
insight into whats actually happening within the engine control system.
Unlike earlier OBD systems that set a DTC when a sensor circuit shorts, opens or reads out of range, OBD II is
primarily emissions-driven and will set codes anytime a vehicles emissions exceed the federal limit by 1.5
times.It also will set codes if there is a gross sensor failure, but some types of sensor problems wont always
trigger a code. Consequently, the Check Engine light on an OBD II-equipped vehicle may come on when there
is no apparent driveability problem, or it may not come on even though a vehicle is experiencing a noticeable
driveability problem.
The determining factor as to whether or not the Check Engine light comes on is usually the problems effect on
emissions. In many instances, emissions can be held in check, despite a faulty sensor, by adjusting fuel trim. So
as long as emissions can be kept below the limit, the OBD II system may have no reason to turn on the light.
CHECK ENGINE LIGHT
The "Malfunction Indicator Lamp" (MIL), which may be labeled "Check Engine" or "Service Engine Soon" or a
symbol of an engine with the word "Check" in the middle, is supposed to alert the driver when a problem occurs.
Depending on how the system is configured and the nature of the problem, the lamp may come on and go off,
remain on continuously or flash - all of which can be very confusing to the motorist because he has no way of
knowing what the light means. Is it a serious problem or not? If the engine seems to be running okay, the
motorist may simply ignore the light. With OBD II, the Check Engine light will come on only for emissions-related
failures. A separate warning light must be used for other non-emissions problems such as low oil pressure,
charging system problems, etc.
If the light is on because of a misfire or a fuel delivery problem, and the problem does not recur after three drive
cycles (under the same driving conditions), the Check Engine light may go out. Though you might think the
vehicle has somehow healed itself, the intermittent problem may still be there waiting to trigger the light once
again when conditions are right. Whether the light goes out or remains on, a code will be set and remain in the
computers memory to help you diagnose the fault.
With some exceptions, the OBD II warning lamp will also go out if a problem does not recur after 40 drive
cycles. A drive cycle means starting a cold engine and driving it long enough to reach operating temperature.
The diagnostic codes that are required by law on all OBD II systems are "generic" in the sense that all vehicle
manufacturers use the same common code list and the same 16-pin diagnostic connector. Thus, a P0302
misfire code on a Nissan means the same thing on a Honda, Toyota or Mercedes-Benz. But each vehicle
manufacturer also has the freedom to add their own "enhanced" codes to provide even more detailed
information about various faults.
Enhanced codes also cover non-emission related failures that occur outside the engine control system. These
include ABS codes, HVAC codes, air bag codes and other body and electrical codes.
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The second character in an OBD II will be a zero if its a generic code, or a "1" if its a dealer enhanced code
(specific to that particular vehicle application).
The third character in the code identifies the system where the fault occurred. Numbers 1 and 2 are for fuel or
air metering problems, 3 is for ignition problems or engine misfire, 4 is for auxiliary emission controls, 5 relates
to idle speed control problems, 6 is for computer or output circuit faults, and 7 and 8 relate to transmission
problems.
Codes can be accessed and cleared using an OBDII scan tool such as AutoTap.
MISFIRE DETECTION
If an emissions problem is being caused by engine misfire, the OBD II light will flash as the misfire is occurring.
But the light will not come on the first time a misfire problem is detected. It will come on only if the misfire
continues during a second drive cycle and will set a P0300 series code.
A P0300 code would indicate a random misfire (probably due to a vacuum leak, open EGR valve, etc.). If the
last digit is a number other than zero, it corresponds to the cylinder number that is misfiring. A P0302 code, for
example, would tell you cylinder number two is misfiring. Causes here would be anything that might affect only a
single cylinder such as a fouled spark plug, a bad coil in a coil-on-plug ignition system or distributorless ignition
system with individual coils, a clogged or dead fuel injector, a leaky valve or head gasket.
The OBD II system detects a misfire on most vehicles by monitoring variations in the speed of the crankshaft
through the crankshaft position sensor. A single misfire will cause a subtle change in the speed of the crank.
OBD II tracks each and every misfire, counting them up and averaging them over time to determine if the rate of
misfire is abnormal and high enough to cause the vehicle to exceed the federal emissions limit. If this happens
on two consecutive trips, the Check Engine light will come on and flash to alert the driver when the misfire
problem is occurring.
Misfire detection is a continuous monitor, meaning it is active any time the engine is running. So too is the fuel
system monitor that detects problems in fuel delivery and the air/fuel mixture, and something called the
"comprehensive monitor" that looks for gross faults in the sensors and engine control systems. These monitors
are always ready and do not require any special operating conditions.
Other OBD II monitors are only active during certain times. These are the "non-continuous" monitors and include
the catalytic converter efficiency monitor, the evaporative system monitor that detects fuel vapor leaks in the fuel
system, the EGR system monitors, the secondary air system monitor (if the vehicle has such a system), and the
oxygen sensor monitors.On some 2000 and newer vehicles, OBD II also has a thermostat monitor to keep an
eye on the operation of this key component. The thermostat monitor will be required on all vehicles by 2002. On
some 2002 model-year vehicles, there also is a new PCV system monitor, which will be required on all vehicles
by 2004.
The catalytic converter monitor keeps an eye on converter efficiency by comparing the outputs from the
upstream and downstream oxygen sensors. If the converter is doing its job, there should be little unburned
oxygen left in the exhaust as it exits the converter. This should cause the downstream O2 sensor to flatline at a
relatively fixed voltage level near maximum output.
If the downstream O2 sensor reading is fluctuating from high to low like the front sensor, it means the converter
is not functioning.The Check Engine light will come on if the difference in O2 sensor readings indicates
hydrocarbon (HC) readings have increased to a level that is 1.5 times the federal limit. For 1996 and newer
vehicles that meet federal Low Emission Vehicles (LEV) requirements, the limit allows only 0.225 grams per
mile (gpm) of HC - which is almost nothing. Converter efficiency drops from 99 percent when it is new to around
96 percent after a few thousand miles. After that, any further drop in efficiency may be enough to turn on the
Check Engine light. Were talking about a very sensitive diagnostic monitor.

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The EVAP system monitor checks for fuel vapor leaks by performing either a pressure or vacuum test on the
fuel system. For 1996 through 1999 vehicles, the federal standard allows leaks up to the equivalent of a hole
.040 inches in diameter in a fuel vapor hose or filler cap. For 2000 and newer vehicles, the leakage rate has
been reduced to the equivalent of a .020 in. diameter hole, which is almost invisible to the naked eye but can be
detected by the OBD II system. Finding these kinds of leaks can be very challenging.
READINESS FLAGS
An essential part of the OBD II system are the "readiness flags" that indicate when a particular monitor is active
and has taken a look at the system it is supposed to keep watch over. The misfire detection, fuel system and
continuous system monitors are active and ready all the time, but the non-continuous monitors require a certain
series of operating conditions before they will set - and you cant do a complete OBD II test unless all of the
monitors are ready.
To set the converter monitor, for example, the vehicle may have to be driven a certain distance at a variety of
different speeds. The requirements for the various monitors can vary considerably from one vehicle
manufacturer to another, so there is no "universal" drive cycle that will guarantee all the monitors will be set and
ready.
As a general rule, doing some stop-and-go driving around town at speeds up to about 30 mph followed by five to
seven minutes of 55 mph plus highway speed driving will usually set most or all of the monitors (the converter
and EVAP system readiness monitors are the hardest ones to set). So if youre checking the OBD II system and
find a particular monitor is not ready, it may be necessary to test drive the vehicle to set all the monitors.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) realized this shortcoming in current generation OBD II systems.
So, when it created the rules for states that want to implement OBD II testing in place of tailpipe dyno testing, it
allows up to two readiness flags to not be set prior to taking an OBD II test on 1996 to 2000 vehicles, and one
readiness flag not to be set on 2001 and newer vehicles. You can use the AutoTap OBDII scantool to check that
your readiness flags are set before having your vehicle emissions-tested. This can save you the aggrevation of
being sent off to drive around and come back later.
Some import vehicles have known readiness issues. Many 1996-98 Mitsubishi vehicles will have monitors that
read "not ready" because setting the monitors requires very specific drive cycles (which can be found in their
service information). Even so, these vehicles can be scanned for codes and the MIL light without regard to
readiness status.On 1996 Subarus, turning the key off will clear all the readiness flags. The same thing happens
on 1996 Volvo 850 Turbos. This means the vehicle has to be driven to reset all the readiness flags. On 1997
Toyota Tercel and Paseo models, the readiness flag for the EVAP monitor will never set, and no dealer fix is yet
available. Other vehicles that often have a "not ready" condition for the EVAP and catalytic converter monitors
include 1996-98 Volvos, 1996-98 Saabs, and 1996-97 Nissan 2.0L 200SX models.
OBD II TEST
An official OBD II emissions test consists of three parts:
1. An inspector checks to see if the MIL light comes on when the key is turned on. If the light does not
come on, the vehicle fails the bulb check.
2. A scanner similar to AutoTap is plugged into the diagnostic link connector (DLC), and the system is
checked for monitor readiness. If more than the allowed number of monitors are not ready, the vehicle is
rejected and asked to come back later after it has been driven sufficiently to set the readiness flags. The
scanner also checks the status of the MIL light (is it on or off?), and downloads any fault codes that may
be present.If the MIL light is on and there are any OBD II codes present, the vehicle fails the test and
must be repaired. The vehicle also fails if the DLC is missing, has been tampered with or fails to provide
any data.
3. As a final system check, the scanner is used to command the MIL lamp on to verify it is taking
commands from the onboard computer. If the OBD II light is on, or a vehicle has failed an OBD II

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emissions test, your first job is to verify the problem. That means plugging into the OBD II system,
pulling out any stored codes and looking at any system data that might help you nail down whats
causing the problem. Long-term fuel trim data can provide some useful insight into whats going on with
the fuel mixture. If long-term fuel trim is at maximum, or you see a big difference in the numbers for the
right and left banks of a V6 or V8 engine, it would tell you the engine control system is trying to
compensate for a fuel mixture problem (possibly an air leak, dirty injectors, leaky EGR valve, etc.).
OBD II also provides "snap shot" or "freeze frame" data, which can help you identify and diagnose intermittent
problems. When a fault occurs, OBD II logs a code and records all related sensor values at that moment for
later analysis.
Once youve pinpointed the problem and hopefully replaced the faulty component, the final step is to verify that
the repair solved the problem and that the OBD II light remains off. This will usually require a short test drive to
reset all the readiness monitors and run the OBD II diagnostic checks.
OBD II TOOLS & EQUIPMENT
You cant work on OBD II systems without some type of OBD II-compliant scanner. The AutoTap OBDII Scan
Tool is available in both PC/laptop versions and Palm PDA versions. The computing power and display of a PC
or Palm gives AutoTap a much broader range of features than the older style hand-held scantools.

The OBDII Home Page

http://www.obdii.com

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OBDII: PAST, PRESENT & FUTURE

All 1996 and newer model year passenger cars and light trucks are OBDII-equipped, but the first applications
were actually introduced back in 94 on a limited number of vehicle models.
What makes OBDII different from all the self-diagnostic systems that proceeded it is that OBDII is strictly
emissions oriented. In other words, it will illuminate the Malfunction Indicator Lamp (MIL) anytime a vehicles
emissions exceed 1.5 times the federal test procedure (FTP) standards for that model year of vehicle. That
includes anytime random misfires cause an overall rise in HC emissions, anytime the operating efficiency of the
catalytic converter drops below a certain threshold, anytime the system detects air leakage in the sealed fuel
system, anytime a fault in the EGR system causes NOX emissions to go up, or anytime a key sensor or other
emission control device fails. In other words, the MIL light may come on even though the vehicle seems to be
running normally and there are no real driveability problems.
The main purpose of the MIL lamp on an OBDII-equipped vehicle, therefore, is to alert you when your vehicle is
polluting so youll get their emission problems fixed. But as we all know, its easy to ignore warning lamps until
steam is belching from under the hood or the engine is making horrible noises. Thats why regulators want to
incorporate OBDII into existing and enhanced vehicle emissions inspection programs. If the MIL lamp is found to
be on when a vehicle is tested, it doesnt pass even if its tailpipe emissions are within acceptable limits.
WHY OBDII?
The problem with most vehicle inspection programs is that they were developed back in the 1980s to identify
"gross polluters." The tests were designed primarily to measure idle emissions on carbureted engines (which are
dirtiest at idle), and to check for only two pollutants: unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO).
The pass/fail cut points that were established for the various model years were also made rather lenient to
minimize the number of failures. Consequently, a lot of late model vehicles that shouldnt be passing an
emissions test are getting through anyway.
Efforts to upgrade vehicle inspection programs to the new I/M 240 standards have stalled because of a lack of
public and political support. The I/M 240 program would have required "loaded-mode" emissions testing on a
dyno while the vehicle was driven at various speeds following a carefully prescribed driving trace. While this was
going on, the tailpipe gases would be analyzed to check not only for total emissions. The total emissions for the
entire 240-second driving cycle would then be averaged for a composite emission score that determines
whether or not the vehicle passed the test. Also included would be an evaporative purge flow test to measure
the flow rate of the canister purge valve, and an engine off pressure test of the evaporative emission control
system to check the fuel tank, lines and cap for leaks.
The I/M 240 program was to have been required in most areas of the country that dont meet national ambient
air quality (NAAQ) standards. But after the program faltered in Maine, most states balked and only Colorado
went ahead with the program. The cost and complexity of the I/M 240 program combined with less than
enthusiastic public acceptance doomed it from the start. So its now up to the individual states to come up with
alternative plans for improving their air quality. An important element in many of those plans is OBDII.
A SHORT HISTORY WITH FAR REACHING IMPLICATIONS
The origins of OBDII actually date back to 1982 in California, when the California Air Resources Board (ARB)
began developing regulations that would require all vehicles sold in that state starting in 1988 to have an
onboard diagnostic system to detect emission failures. The original onboard diagnostic system (which has since
become known as OBDI) was relatively simple and only monitored the oxygen sensor, EGR system, fuel
delivery system and engine control module.

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OBDI was a step in the right direction, but lacked any requirement for standardization between different makes
and models of vehicles. You still had to have different adapters to work on different vehicles, and some systems
could only be accessed with costly "dealer" scan tools. So when ARB set about to develop standards for the
current OBDII system, standardization was a priority: a standardized 16-pin data link connector (DLC) with
specific pins assigned specific functions, standardized electronic protocols, standardized diagnostic trouble
codes (DTCs), and standardized terminology.
Another limitation of OBDI was that it couldnt detect certain kinds of problems such as a dead catalytic
converter or one that had been removed. Nor could it detect ignition misfires or evaporative emission problems.
Furthermore, OBDI systems would only illuminate the MIL light after a failure had occurred. It had no way of
monitoring progressive deterioration of emissions-related components. So it became apparent that a more
sophisticated system would be required. The California Air Resources Board eventually developed standards for
the next generation OBD system, which were proposed in 1989 and became known as OBDII. The new
standards required a phase-in starting in 1994. The auto makers were given until the 1996 model year to
complete the phase-in for their California vehicles.
Similar standards were incorporated into the federal Clean Air Act in 1990 which also required all 49-state
vehicles to be OBDII equipped by 1996 -- with one loophole. The OBDII systems would not have to be fully
compliant until 1999. So some 1996 OBDII systems may lack one of the features normally required to meet the
OBDII specs, such as the evaporative emissions purge test.
EARLY OBDII APPLICATIONS
1994 vehicles equipped with the early OBD II systems include Buick Regal 3800 V6, Corvette, Lexus ES3000,
Toyota Camry (1MZ-FE 3.0L V6) and T100 pickup (3RZ-FE 2.7L four), Ford Thunderbird & Cougar 4.6L V8, and
Mustang 3.8L V6.1995 vehicles with OBDII include Chevy/GMC S, T-Series pickups, Blazer and Jimmy 4.3L V6,
Ford Contour & Mercury Mystique 2.0L four & 2.6L V6, Chrysler Neon, Cirrus and Dodge Stratus, Eagle Talon
2.0L DOHC (nonturbo), and Nissan Maxima and 240 SX.
Not all of these early applications are fully OBDII compliant, but do include the major diagnostic features of the
current system.
OBDII HARDWARE UPGRADES
Dont think for a moment that OBDII is just a fancier version of self-diagnostic software. Its that and much, much
more.OBDII-equipped vehicles typically have:

Twice the number of oxygen sensors as non-OBDII vehicles(most of which are heated O2 sensors). The
additional O2 sensors are located downstream of the catalytic converter.

More powerful powertrain control modules, with either16-bit (Chrysler) or 32-bit (Ford & GM) processors
to handle up to 15,000 new calibration constants that were added by OBDII.

Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory(EEPROM) chips that allows the PCM to be
reprogrammed with revised or updated software changes using a terminal link or external computer.

A modified evaporative emission control systems with a diagnostic switch for purge testing, or an
enhanced EVAP system with a vent solenoid, fuel tank pressure sensor and diagnostic test fitting,

More EGR systems with a linear EGR valve that is electronically operated and has a pintle position
sensor.

Sequential fuel injection rather than multiport or throttle body injection. Both a MAP sensor and MAF
sensor for monitoring engine load and airflow.

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TOOLING UP FOR OBDII

To work on your OBDII-equipped vehicle, youll need an OBDII scan tool such as AutoTap for PC or Palm PDA.
THAT PESKY MIL LAMP
Most technicians are pretty familiar with the operation of the "Check Engine" or "Malfunction Indicator Lamp"
(MIL) on late model vehicles. But on OBDII-equipped vehicles, it may seem like the MIL lamp has a mind of its
own.
On 96 General Motors J-, N- and H-body cars, several rental fleets have encountered problems with the MIL
lamp coming on because motorists and fleet personnel havent been using the correct refueling procedure when
filling the fuel tank with gas. On these cars, the OBDII system applies vacuum to the evaporative emissions
control system to check for air leakage. If the gas cap isnt tight or the tank is filled while the key is on or the
engine is idling, it can trigger a false P0440 code causing the MIL light to come on. GM has not issued a
technical service bulletin on the problem, but is advising its dealers and fleet customers to reflash the EEPROM
with revised OBDII programming that waits to check the evaporative emissions system until the vehicle is in
motion.
Bad gas has also been causing some false MIL lights. When the vehicle is diagnosed, the technician finds a
P0300 random misfire code which would normally be set by a lean misfire condition due to a vacuum leak, low
fuel pressure, dirty injectors, etc., or an ignition problem such as fouled plugs, bad plug wires, weak coil, etc.
The OBDII self-diagnostics tracks misfires by individual cylinder, and considers up to a 2% misfire rate as
normal. But water in the gas or variations in the additive package in reformulated gasoline in some areas of the
country can increase the misfire rate to the point where it triggers a code.
To minimize the occurrence of false MIL lamps, the OBDII system is programmed so that the MIL lamp only
comes on if a certain kind of fault has been detected twice under the same driving conditions. With other faults
(those that typically cause an immediate and significant jump in emissions), the MIL light comes on after only a
single occurrence. So to correctly diagnose a problem, its important to know what type of code youre dealing
with.
Type A diagnostic trouble codes are the most serious and will trigger the MIL lamp with only one occurrence.
When a Type A code is set, the OBDII system also stores a history code, failure record and freeze frame data to
help you diagnose the problem.
Type B codes are less serious emission problems and must occur at least once on two consecutive trips before
the MIL lamp will come on. If a fault occurs on one trip but doesnt happen again on the next trip, the code wont
"mature" and the light will remain off. When the conditions are met to turn on the MIL lamp, a history code,
failure record and freeze frame data are stored the same as with Type A codes.
A drive cycle or trip, by the way, is not just an ignition cycle, but a warm-up cycle. It is defined as starting the
engine and driving the vehicle long enough to raise the coolant temperature at least 40 degrees F (if the startup
temperature is less than 160 degrees F).
Once a Type A or B code has been set, the MIL will come on and remain on until the component that failed
passes a self-test on three consecutive trips. And if the fault involved something like a P0300 random misfire or
a fuel balance problem, the light wont go out until the system passes a self-test under similar operating
conditions (within 375 rpm and 10% of load) that originally caused it to fail. Thats why the MIL lamp wont go out
until the emissions problem has been repaired. Clearing the codes with your AutoTap scan tool or disconnecting
the powertrain control modules power supply wont prevent the lamp from coming back on if the problem hasnt
been fixed. It may take one or more driving cycles to reset the code, but sooner or later the MIL lamp will go
back on if the problem is still there.
Likewise, the MIL wont necessarily go on if you intentionally disconnect a sensor. It depends on the priority
ranking of the sensor (how it affects emissions), and how many driving cycles it takes for the OBDII diagnostics
to pick up the fault and set a code.
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As for Type C and D codes, these are non-emissions related. Type C codes can cause the MIL lamp to come on
(or illuminate another warning lamp), but Type D codes do not cause the MIL lamp to come on.
RUNNING AN OBDII DRIVE CYCLE
Suppose youve "fixed" an emissions problem on your OBDII-equipped vehicle. How can you check your work?
By performing whats called an "OBDII drive cycle." The purpose of the OBDII drive cycle is to run all of the
onboard diagnostics. The drive cycle shold be performed after youve erased any trouble codes from the PCMs
memory, or after the battery has been disconnected. Running through the drive cycle sets all the system status
"flags" so that subsequent faults can be detected.
The OBDII drive cycle begins with a cold start (coolant temperature below 122 degrees F and the coolant and
air temperature sensors within 11 degrees of one another).
NOTE: The ignition key must not be on prior to the cold start otherwise the heated oxygen sensor diagnostic
may not run.
1. As soon as the engine starts, idle the engine in drive for two and a half minutes with the A/C and rear
defrost on. OBDII checks oxygen sensor heater circuits, air pump and EVAP purge.
2. Turn the A/C and rear defrost off, and accelerate to 55 mph at half throttle. OBDII checks for ignition
misfire, fuel trim and canister purge.
3. Hold at a steady state speed of 55 mph for three minutes. OBDII monitors EGR, air pump, O2 sensors
and canister purge.
4. Decelerate (coast down) to 20 mph without braking or depressing the clutch. OBDII checks EGR and
purge functions.
5. Accelerate back to 55 to 60 mph at throttle. OBDII checks misfire, fuel trim and purge again.
6. Hold at a steady speed of 55 to 60 mph for five minutes. OBDII monitors catalytic converter efficiency,
misfire, EGR, fuel trim, oxygen sensors and purge functions.
7. Decelerate (coast down) to a stop without braking. OBDII makes a final check of EGR and canister
purge.
BEYOND OBDII
OBDII is a very sophisticated and capable system for detecting emissions problems. But when it comes to
getting motorists to fix emission problems, its no more effective than OBDI. Unless theres some means of
enforcement, such as checking the MIL light during a mandatory inspection, OBDII is just another idiot light.
Currently under consideration are plans for OBDIII, which would take OBDII a step further by adding telemetry.
Using miniature radio transponder technology similar to that which is already being used for automatic electronic
toll collection systems, an OBDIII-equipped vehicle would be able to report emissions problems directly to a
regulatory agency. The transponder would communicate the vehicle VIN number and any diagnostic codes that
were present. The system could be set up to automatically report an emissions problem via a cellular or satellite
link the instant the MIL light comes on, or to answer a query from a cellular, satellite or roadside signal as to its
current emissions performance status.
What makes this approach so attractive to regulators is its effectiveness and cost savings. Under the current
system, the entire vehicle fleet in an area or state has to be inspected once every year or two to identify the 30%
or so vehicles that have emissions problems. With remote monitoring via the onboard telemetry on an OBDIIIequipped vehicle, the need for periodic inspections could be eliminated because only those vehicles that
reported problems would have to be tested.
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On one hand, OBDIII with its telemetry reporting of emission problems would save consumers the
inconvenience and cost of having to subject their vehicle to an annual or biennial emissions test. As long as
their vehicle reported no emission problems, thered be no need to test it. On the other hand, should an
emissions problem be detected, it would be much harder to avoid having it fixedwhich is the goal of all clean
air programs anyway. By zeroing in on the vehicles that are actually causing the most pollution, significant gains
could be made in improving our nations air quality. But as it is now, polluters may escape detection and repair
for up to two years in areas that have biennial inspections. And in areas that have no inspection programs,
theres no way to identify such vehicles. OBDIII would change all that.
The specter of having Big Brother in every engine compartment and driving a vehicle that rats on itself anytime it
pollutes is not one that would appeal to many motorists. So the merits of OBDIII would have to be sold to the
public based on its cost savings, convenience and ability to make a real difference in air quality. Even so, any
serious attempt to require OBDIII in the year 2000 or beyond will run afoul of Fourth Amendment issues over
rights of privacy and protection from government search and seizure. Does the government have the right to
snoop under your hood anytime it chooses to do so, or to monitor the whereabouts of your vehicle? These
issues will have to be debated and resolved before OBDIII stands a chance of being accepted. Given the
current political climate, such drastic changes seem unlikely.
Another change that might come with OBDIII would be even closer scrutiny of vehicle emissions. The misfire
detection algorithms currently required by OBDII only watch for misfires during driving conditions that occur
during the federal driving cycle, which covers idle to 55 mph and moderate acceleration. It does not monitor
misfires during wide open throttle acceleration. Full range misfire detection will be required for 1997 models.
OBDIII could go even further by requiring "fly-by-wire" throttle controls to reduce the possibility of misfires on the
coming generation of low emission and ultra low emission vehicles.So until OBDIII winds its way through the
regulatory process, all we have to worry about is diagnosing and repairing OBDII-equipped vehicles and all the
non-OBD vehicles that came before them.
AutoTap OBDII Automotive Diagnostic Tool
http://www.autotap.com

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Introduction To OBD II

George E. Pataki
Governor

Raymond P. Martinez
DMV Commissioner

Erin M. Crotty
DEC Commissioner

Introduction
Onboard Diagnostics, OBD,
OBD technology
benefits motorists, technicians and the
environment by monitoring a vehicles
performance every time it is driven,
identifying performance and emissions
problems immediately and providing
technicians with information to help
them quickly and accurately diagnose
and repair malfunctions

Early OBD Systems

(Pre 1996)

The first OBD systems appeared on vehicles

in the 1980s (OBD I) and monitored fuel,
ignition and emissions systems components.
When a fault was found a code was stored in
the vehicles onboard computer and in many
instances a Check Engine light was lit to
alert the driver.
Technicians could connect to the computer
and see what codes had been set and make
a diagnosis of the problem

Early OBD Systems (Pre 1996)

(Continued)

While the concept was a good one, several practical

problems were found in actual use..
No Standardization of data link connectors a
different one needed for each manufacturers vehicles
Trouble codes not consistent between manufacturers
No standardization of emissions control device and
system names between manufacturers
Criteria to light check engine light not consistent
between manufacturers
Type of stored information in vehicles computer
varied from manufacturer to manufacturer

OBD II Systems
Noting that OBD systems were valuable technology in
maintaining good performance and lower emissions in
vehicles, the U.S. EPA developed regulations that
required all vehicles meet specific and consistent
standards for OBD systems, OBD II,
II by 1996
These regulations resulted in standardization of,
Data Link Connector and location in vehicle
Terminology for vehicle emissions control components
Diagnostic trouble codes
Freeze Frame storage of engine conditions at time a
DTC is set
Requirements for lighting MIL (Check Engine Light)
Determination and recording of readiness status of
system monitors

DLC
Standardized Data Link Connector
Allows generic scan tool to be used on all
OBD II equipped systems.
Contains 16 terminals some OBD II
dedicated and some manufacturer
discretionary.
Location of DLC standardized.

Standardized Terminology
Different manufacturers used different names
/ acronyms for essentially the same
components / systems.
The Society of Automotive Engineers,
S.A.E., developed standardized terminology
for engine and emissions systems.
See Glossary in Inspectors Reference Guide
for examples.

OBD Failure Criteria

Reasons for failing an OBD II inspection
MIL does not light with key on engine off
(KOEO)
MIL is lit with the key on - engine running
(KOER)
Scan tool indicates DTCs, and MIL is
commanded on by the PCM, even if it is not lit
More than the allowable number of monitors
are found to be not ready
DLC is missing or damaged communications
failure

MIL
Malfunction Indicator Light
The MIL is a light on the dashboard to alert the
driver of an emissions related problem. The MIL
will be lit if one of the following conditions is
present,
Severe misfire which could cause catalytic converter
damage will cause it to flash on and off.
A steadily lit MIL indicates a DTC has been set.

The OBD II system can turn the MIL off on its

own if it detects that the cause of the MIL being lit
has been corrected.

DTCs
Diagnostic Trouble Codes
Prior to OBD II each manufacturer had its
own list of trouble codes.
Under OBD II all manufacturers must use a
universal 5 digit code system.

DTCs
Diagnostic Trouble Codes (Continued)
There

are two types of DTCs, 1 trip DTCs and 2

trip DTCs
A 1 trip DTC is for a condition that requires
immediate attention such as a catalyst damaging
misfire.
A 2 Trip DTC is one that a condition must be found
during 2 consecutive trips such as an EGR fault.
Most Monitors do not set a DTC and light the MIL
when a vehicle fails a test for the first time during a
DRIVE CYCLE. If a test is failed on a second
consecutive DRIVE CYCLE the MIL will light and a
DTC is stored in the vehicles powertrain control
module (PCM).

System Monitors
& Readiness Status

One of the features of OBD II testing is that the

vehicle need not be warmed up or preconditioned before doing the test.
The OBD system periodically runs what are called
MONITORS to determine if the various emissions
control devices and systems are READY and able
to operate as they were designed.
Some Monitors are CONTINUOUS monitors and
some are NON-CONTINUOUS monitors.
Monitors are run during what are called
DRIVE CYCLES

Continuous & Non-Continuous

Monitors
Some

vehicle components are

continuously tested by OBD II while
others are only tested under certain
operating conditions.

Continuous Monitors
Misfire
Fuel System
Comprehensive Components

Non-Continuous Monitors
EGR System
O2 Sensors
Catalyst
Evaporative System
Others (if vehicle equipped)
Secondary Air, Heated Catalyst,
A/C System

System Monitors
& Readiness Status
(Continued)

If a Monitor is run completely and the system /

component being tested operates properly, the
monitor is recorded in the powertrain control
module (PCM) as ready, complete or done.
Disconnecting the vehicles battery or clearing
stored DTCs from the PCM will usually reset the
monitor readiness status to NOT READY
1996 2000 model year vehicles FAIL if more
than 2 monitors are Not Ready.
2001 and Newer model year vehicles FAIL if more
than 1 monitor is Not Ready.

Drive Cycles

What constitutes a DRIVE CYCLE can vary

from monitor to monitor and across all
makes and models.

Freeze Frame
Whenever an emissions related malfunction
occurs, OBD II stores the operating
parameters (conditions) present at the time
the malfunction occurs.
Parameters recorded are, but are not limited
to:

Fuel Pressure
DTC Description
Fuel Trim Value ( Rich or Lean )
Engine Speed
Engine Coolant Temperature
Vehicle Speed
Intake Manifold Pressure
Air Flow
Open or Closed Loop Status
Engine Load
This data is valuable to assist technicians in diagnosing the
cause of the malfunction.

System Reports
The TLC equipment will continue to produce
reports as in the past.
Rejection Notices for vehicles failing an OBD II
inspection will contain the following added
information,
Status of communication with PCM
Listing of DTCs found stored
Number of monitors found Not Ready
MIL status check

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
On board Diagnostics Regulations in the U.S.A. for
light and medium duty vehicles (internal combustion engines)
are introduced to implement the air quality standards.
In this respect California Motor vehicle Pollution
Control Board (CMVOCB) was created in 1960.
California and the federal government used a
driving cycle to certify 1966 vehicles and newer
models which was referred to as either California
Cycle or the Federal Test Procedure (FTP)
The following OBD II requirements are in force:
All vehicles emission control systems and components that can affect emissions must be
monitored. Malfunctions must be detected before emissions exceed 1.5 times the standard
specified by EPA.
Malfunctions must be detected within 2 driving cycles.
If a malfunction is detected a Malfunction Indicator Light (MIL) is illuminated.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
The First major Clean Air Act was adopted by the Congress in
1970.
Congress established the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) with the overall responsibility of regulating motor
vehicle pollution to the atmosphere. Congress also identified
the Inspection and Maintenance (I/M) programs as an
alternative for improving the air quality.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
All of the previous regulations led to the appearance of the
charcoal canister, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valves, and
finally the catalytic converters in 1975.
Moreover, in 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act mandated
inspection and maintenance for vehicles used in highpollution areas affected by high Hydro carbon (HC) emissions.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
On Board Diagnostics (OBD) systems were designed to
maintain low-emissions of in-use vehicles, including
light and medium duty vehicles.
In 1989, The California Code of Regulations (CCR) known as
OBD II was adopted by the California Air Resources Board
(CARB)
OBD II is the next generation OBD system of vehicles
designed to reduce the time between occurrence of the
malfunction and its detection and repair, with the objective
to reduce hydrocarbon (HC) emissions caused by
malfunction of the vehicles emission control system.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
OBD II system is designed to satisfy EPA regulations which
limit the amount of HC emissions from the vehicle.
OBD II will also minimize the damage to other vehicle
systems or components.
Such diagnostic systems are implemented by incorporating
additional software and hardware in the vehicle electronics
system to collect and analyze data already available to the
on-board computer, and monitoring the entire emission control
system.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
The U.S. Federal Government has published test procedures that include
several steps such as Dynamometer test, Hydro Carbons Analyzer, and other
Analyzers. The vehicle is operated according to a prescribed schedule of speed and load
to simulate highway driving as well city driving. The emissions are then measured using
the above instruments. Standards have been set for the vehicle half-life (5 years or 50000
miles which ever comes first) and full cycle (10 years or 100000 miles). The following
standards are enforced 100% after 1996:
HC 0.31 gms /mile
CO 4.20 gms/mile
NOx 0.60 gms/mile (non-diesel)

1.25 gms/mile (diesel)

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
These FTP regulations are enforced by EPA for all Light and
Medium Duty vehicles made in U.S.A. The standards for
European and Asian made vehicles have different standards
which are more relaxed.
The European and Asean standards are not yet completely
finalized by their countries.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
OBD II requires the manufacturers to implement new comprehensive
on-board diagnostic systems beginning in the 1994 model year,
to replace OBD I
The EPA in 1978 issued its first policy for Inspection and
Maintenance (I/M) of vehicles that emitted Hydro Carbons into
the atmosphere.
As emissions increased, the EPA regulations grew stricter, resulting
in the introduction of the 3-way catalytic converter, on-board computers
and oxygen sensors in 1981.

OBD II monitors more components and systems

than OBDOBD-I, including:
Catalytic converters
Evaporative control System
Emissions control system
Emissions related powertrain performance - Oxygen sensor
Emissions related sensors and actuatorsactuators- EGR monitoring
Detection of engine misfire
PCV (Positive Crankcase Ventilation) (implementation: 2002 - 2004)
Fuel system - closed loop fueling performance
Thermostats (implementation: 2000 - 2002)
Components are monitored for :
uCircuit continuity and out of range values of sensors, actuators,
actuators, switches, and wires
uFunctional checks for output components listed above
uReasonable value checks during vehicle operation such as rationality,
rationality, sanity, or logic checks for
input components, and output components where applicable.
Thermostat monitoring is the new addition to the existing OBD II requirements. This is
required due to:
uThermostat degradation can extend the time of openopen-loop operation at startstart-up
uProlonged openopen-loop operation will increase emissions
uwarmedwarmed-up coolant temperature is a must for all OBD II monitoring operations.
operations.
New requirements for thermostats for 20002000-2002 implementation include the following:
uDetection of malfunctions that will affect the coolant temperature
temperature and disable OBD II monitoring functions due to lower than
normal temperature operation of the vehicle
uDetection of malfunctions that will prevent vehicle from reaching
reaching normal operating temperature.
PCV (Positive Crankcase Ventilation) failure will increase the emissions
emissions by 1.2 g/mi for Hydro Carbons per vehicle
PCV must be monitored for this reason and its requirements are:
Detect PCV hose disconnections that can cause increased emissions
emissions
Meet all design guidelines concerning hoses and valve connections
connections and materials to ensure
positive crankcase ventilation.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
The intent of OBD II systems is to detect most vehicle
malfunctions when performance of a powertrain component or
system deteriorates to the point that
the vehicles HC emissions exceed the threshold
value tied to the applicable EPA emission standard.
The vehicle operator is notified at the time when the vehicle
begins to marginally exceed emission standards, by
illuminating the Malfunction Indicator Light (MIL)

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
Both CARB and EPA regulations require monitoring of systems, and illuminating
MIL and storage of a Diagnostic Trouble Code (DTC) if a fault is detected.
Once per trip evaluation:
uCatalyst efficiency (conversion efficiency)
uHeated catalyst (time to attain rated temperature)
uEvaporative system (air flow /vapor leak detection)
uSecondary Air system (proper air amount during idle)
uOxygen sensor (output voltage and response frequency)
uOxygen sensor heater (proper current and voltage drop)
uEGR system (proper exhaust gas flow rate into intake manifold)

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
Continuous evaluation:
uMisfire detection (percent misfire and specific cylinder
number)
uFuel system performance (proper fuel delivery and nozzle
flow)
uComprehensive component monitoring - Input sensor and
output actuator that can affect emissions.
uincrease in emissions greater than 50 % of standard is
considered objectionable.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
OBD II is an onboard diagnostics and service methodology.
OBD II mandates a standard scan tool (SAE J 1978) with a single standard
plug for all vehicles manufactured in U.S.A.
Diagnostic test modes (SAE J 1979) include:
uFault code handling
uReadiness codes
uReal time vehicle information
uFreeze Frame information.
Standard nomenclature for all OBD II codes (SAE J 1930) is mandated.
OBD II standardizes on most Trouble Codes (TC) for vehicle
malfunctions identified by regions, such as powertrain, body, etc.
OBD II standardizes on number of sensor readings, message
formats, message priorities, etc. for all vehicles.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
OBD II standardizes on the amount of memory (Freeze
Frame) it uses to store the readings of the vehicle sensors when
it logs an emission related intermittent (history) Trouble
Code(TC).
OBD II standardizes on diagnostic method of storing trouble
codes and displaying Malfunction Indicator Light (MIL) which
cannot be removed until the malfunction is repaired.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
OBD II provides additional information to technician for diagnosis
diagnosis and repair
of emission related problems.
Item
Legal Requirement
Diagnostic technique
technique
______________________________________________________
Catalytic Converter
monitoring

Illuminate MIL
Dual sensors placed
when HC conversion efficiency at the front and rear end of the
falls to 60%
converter
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Misfire monitoring
Illuminate MIL on detecting
Measure change in
misfires in predefined
crankshaft speed
predefined % of
misfires in any cylinder(s)
and estimate indicated
cylinder(s)
within 200 or 1000 revolutions
torque developed by
revolutions
depending on cold start
each cylinder after
(opencombustion.
(open-loop) or
closedclosed-loop operation.
Complicated computations
are carried out. Also identify
identify
the specific cylinder experiencing
experiencing
misfire.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

Fuel System
Illuminate MIL when deviations, of
Measure
deviations of fuel demand
monitoring
stoichiometric ratio which last for a
from
stoichiometric ratio over
longer time stored within adaptive
prolonged
amount of time. Compare
mixture controller, exceed defined
value of Lambda
sensor with O2 sensor
limits due to fuel system
components not complying
with specification.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

Oxygen sensor
monitoring

Illuminate MIL when the switching

frequency of the controlcontrol-loop exceeds
predefined limit. Check input
input circuit
voltage for detecting short circuit
or open circuit. Bias is 0.450
0.450 volts.

Monitor response time of two lambda

sensors in front and rear of the
catalytic converter. Lambda sensor
reacts slower on variations of the A/F
mixture, thus increasing the period of
the lambda sensor regulation
regulation which
is the inverse of the closedclosed-loop
frequency.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
EGR monitoring
Illuminate MIL when EGR operation
Monitor manifold temperature change,
fails to indicate increase
manifold pressure change, on EGR flow
flow and
in Manifold pressure or
engine RPM change as well. Use sensors
fails to indicate increase in
to detect these changes.
manifold intake temperature or .
decrease of about 50 engine RPM.
EGR can be intrusively induced
induced during
normal operation, or interrupted
interrupted
when EGR operation is occurring
occurring and
monitor these changes.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Secondary Air
Illuminate MIL when lambda sensor
Monitor lambda sensor reading when
system monitoring
deviation does not correlate with
secondary air is introduced into the
secondary air flow changes.
.
exhaust
manifold or catalytic
changes
In openconverters second chamber.
open-loop operation, the air flow
should be into exhaust manifold
manifold
provided manifold temperature
temperature is
below threshold and engine load is
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________
________________________________________________________________
below threshold. In closed
closed-loop
operation the air flow should
should be
into catalytic converters
converters second
chamber in threethree-way catalytic converter.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
Most components are monitored, including the catalyst and
evaporative system, such that a malfunction is signaled as the
emissions exceed 1.5 time the applicable standards.
OBD II requires the detection of relatively low rates of engine
misfire, to prevent serious damage to the catalytic converter .

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
Further, OBD II also includes Freeze Frame, which allows the
computer to store in memory the exact operating conditions
when a fault occurred, so intermittent faults can be investigated
by revisiting the same conditions when the problem occurred.
A standard access electrical connector which is identical for all
vehicles is required, which means that a single inexpensive
generic tool can be used to read out fault codes.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
Although OBD II requirements reflect state-of-the-art diagnostic
system capability, there are limitations which apply to the
current techniques for detecting malfunctioning components.
These limitations do not allow OBD II systems to take the place
of the FTP test for measuring vehicle emissions.
The reason is that monitoring systems can detect when
components are functioning within their operating range, but
are limited with the ability to determine whether they are
functioning accurately within the range.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
OBD II is associated with IM240, the enhanced inspection/maintenance
program for states with air quality program like California.
IM240 also gets into the area of the new ASE (Automotive
Service Engineering) tests for the super mechanics.
OBD II rules are copied from the CARB rules until 1997.
OBD II rules for 1998 will be taken from EPAs standards which include
among other things, an onboard computer to predict when a vehicle
will fail an emission test.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
OBD II standardizes that many trouble codes which are set when
a malfunction is detected in the emission related component of the
vehicle will be stored in computer memory without a prospect
for erasure prior to repair.
OBD II mandates that all trouble codes are logged when they
are set and are retrieved by the scan tool when commanded.
OBD II however turns on the Malfunction Indictor Light (MIL)
selectively in malfunction situations that require immediate
attention of the driver for safety reasons.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
Specific Freeze Frame diagnostic data must be stored when
the first malfunction is detected. If a second malfunction in the
fuel system or misfire function occurs, then the first data must
be replaced with the subsequent malfunction data. Diagnostic
data must be made available when requested by the Scan tool.
Results of the most recent tests and limits to which those results
are compared with, must be made available for all emission
control systems, for which OBD II diagnostics are conducted.
The message content and down loading protocol is defined for
all fault codes, specific data values, and Freeze Frame data.

Introduction to On Board
Diagnostics (II)
Malfunction must be detected before emissions exceed a specified threshold
(generally 1.5 times the standards). In most cases, malfunctions must be
detected and logged within two (2) driving Cycles (California Cycles) or
trips.
R & D(research and development) activity in monitoring malfunctions of
vehicle components such as catalytic converters continues at a very rapid
pace.
There is plenty of room for the application of advanced control and signal
processing techniques to control vehicle exhaust emissions using OBD II.

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles

An Overview:
On-line diagnosis of internal combustion engines in passenger vehicles
is mandated due to the strict environmental regulations in the U.S.A
and in some European countries (e.g.., the EFTA (European Free Trade
Agency) partners) to control Hydro carbon emissions from the exhaust.

Powertrain subsystem consists of the engine and transmission including the

exhaust emission control apparatus which needs to be continuously
monitored by the engine controller (computer) for potential defects
leading to decreased effectiveness in emission control system (e.g., three-way
catalyst) resulting in increased emission of hydrocarbons which are regulated
by the EPA.

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles (contd)
The powertrain components relevant to emissions are:

Throttle & Manifold

Exhaust & Fuel system
Combustion & Rotational dynamics
Automatic Transmission

Each of the above components is further divided into the following subcomponents:
Throttle & manifold:

Throttle Body assembly

Idle Air Control Valve (IACV)
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
Intake Manifold

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles (contd)
Exhaust & Fuel system consists of the following components:
Exhaust & Fuel system:
Exhaust valves
Exhaust Gas line
Fuel Pump
Fuel Level Sensor
Vacuum Sensor
Canister Vent
Fuel Feed and Metering
Fuel Injection nozzles
Oxygen sensor
Catalytic Converter

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles (contd)
Combustion and Rotational dynamics consist of the following components:
Combustion and Rotational dynamics:
Engine
Crankshaft assembly and flywheel
Crank angle sensor
Mass Air Flow (MAF) sensor
Coolant Temperature sensor
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) sensor
Engine Speed sensor
Knock sensor
purge solenoid

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles (contd)
Automatic transmission consists of the following components:
Automatic Transmission:
Torque Converter
Automatic transmission input shaft
Transmission lockup clutch
Hydraulic pump and hydraulic circuit
Solenoid valves
Throttle Position sensor
Vehicle Speed sensor
Transmission input shaft speed sensor

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles (contd)

The goal of the On-Board Diagnostics is to alert the driver to the presence of
a malfunction of the emission control system , and to identify the location of
the problem in order to assist mechanics in properly performing repairs. In
addition, the OBD II system should illuminate the Malfunction Indicator
Light (MIL) and store the Trouble Code in the computer memory for all
malfunctions that will contribute to increased HC emissions.
The Powertrain is controlled by the Powertrain control module (PCM)
computer to deliver the required torque to the vehicle requested by the
driver and to limit the vehicle emissions to the required minimum to meet
EPA regulations.

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles (contd)

The powertrain functions are described to show how the PCM controls the emissions while delivering the
torque to the vehicle requested by the driver.
Throttle & Intake Manifold: The Throttle Body assembly is an air valve. It regulates the air flow into the
engine and thereby contributes to the control of engine speed and power. IACV
(idle air control valve )provides additional air flow during starting of the engine and during idle.
IACV bypasses the throttle to provide additional air to compensate for the loads during closed
throttle. EGR (exhaust gas recirculation)provides exhaust gases to the intake manifold. This has the effect of
reducing oxygen content in the engine
cylinder. This in turn reduces the combustion temperature of the cylinder flame. This has the
important effect of reducing the NOx (Oxides of nitrogen) emissions which is regulated by the EPA.
Intake manifold is the main air passage from the throttle valve to the engine cylinders. The amount
of air through the intake manifold to the cylinder is the same for each cylinder on each intake stroke.
Then each cylinder requires an amount of fuel determined by the density of the air in the cylinder.
MAP sensor is used to compute the density of the air in the intake manifold. Barometric absolute
pressure is used to compute the EGR flow. The Manifold vacuum is the difference between these
two pressures which is measured. The required fuel is in direct proportion to this air mass which
is controlled by the PCM to maintain the exact stoichiometric ratio (14.7) of air/fuel that gives the
minimum HC emissions and meet EPA regulations.

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles (contd)
Exhaust & Fuel system:
Exhaust valves of the engine cylinders purge the exhaust through the Exhaust Gas line
which then passes through the catalytic converters in which most of the HC and CO (carbon
monoxide) are oxidized to CO2 (Carbon dioxide) and water. The extra oxygen required for this
oxidation is supplied by adding air to the exhaust stream from an engine driven air pump. This air
called secondary air, is normally introduced into the exhaust manifold. This has a considerable
effect in reducing emissions and meet EPA regulations.
The Fuel Pump supplies metered fuel which is electronically injected through nozzles operated
by solenoids under control of the PCM. The fuel in the fuel tank is filtered.
The Fuel Level Sensor measures the amount of fuel in the tank.
The vacuum sensor measures the inlet vacuum which is a measure of fuel pump suction which
affects pump priming. The inlet vacuum is monitored to ensure that inlet flow of the fuel to the
cylinders is not restricted.

Powertrain and Emission

Control in Passenger Vehicles
(contd)
Canister vent & Fuel system
The Canister Vent is used to direct fuel vapors out to a canister where the vapors are
absorbed by active char coal in the canister. The purge of the fuel vapors is done
via purge valve periodically.
The Fuel Feed and Metering is performed, by the PCM, to match the mass air flow
which minimizes HC emissions. The air flow is controlled by the throttle valve
which is operated by the drivers pedal.
The Fuel Injection nozzles inject the fuel as a spray that spreads the fuel into the
cylinder in an atomized manner to mix with the air for complete combustion.

Oxygen sensor:

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles (contd)

The Oxygen sensor is used to monitor the residual oxygen (after catalysis in the
converter) in the exhaust gases. The oxygen sensor output is calibrated to
measure the air/fuel ratio (which is proportional to oxygen in the exhaust gases)
in the engine cylinders. This ratio, called Lambda, is one (1) for stoichiometric
(14.7) air/fuel ratio. This is the target for realizing minimum emissions.
The oxygen sensor is used as stoichiometry detector and is connected in a closed
loop in a Limit Cycle control. The oxygen sensor output is a switch signal
(ON/OFF) that brings back the A/F ratio to 1 when it varies between 0.93 to 1.07.

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles (contd)

Oxygen sensor
The reason that oxygen sensor behaves in this manner is that
the catalytic converter is most efficient in eliminating all
pollutants by oxidizing HC to CO2 and reducing NOx to N2
when the exhaust gases indicate a stoichiometric (14.7) air/fuel
ratio, indicated by the Exhaust Gas Oxygen (EGO) Sensor..
Catalytic Converter is a three way catalyst which will oxidize
the Hydro carbons including CO to CO2 and reduce the NOx to
N2 in the exhaust gases simultaneously thus removing
pollutants.

Combustion and Rotational dynamics: (Figures 1 to 3)

The Engine provides the mechanical power to the vehicle. The engine
engine cylinders perform the combustion of air/fuel
mixture at stoichiometric ratio (14.7). The Crankshaft assembly and flywheel house the Crank
Crank angle sensor which senses
the position of the Top Dead center (TDC) of the cylinder and provides
provides the necessary ignition spark at the correct crank
angle between the reference point on the flywheel and the horizontal
horizontal centerline of crank shaft. The amount of fuel needed
for the combustion in the engine cylinder is a direct function of
of the throttle position and the mass of air through the intake
manifold which is controlled by the drivers accelerator pedal. This mass of air is measured with the Mass Air Flow
(MAF) sensor. The correct air mass is computed by compensating for
for the intake air temperature which is measured by the
intake air temperature sensor. The Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP)
(MAP) sensor measures the intake manifold pressure
which is also used to measure the amount of air going into the cylinder as a second method to determine the amount of
fuel that should be sent to the fuel injection nozzles for spraying
spraying into the cylinder. This is to ensure that accurate amount
of fuel is used in the cylinder to achieve fuel economy as well as to reduce emissions by efficient combustion. An Engine
Speed sensor is needed to provide an input to PCM to compute ignition
ignition timing. Engine speed is measured by engine
speed sensor similar to crankshaft position sensor. Another variable
variable which must be measured for engine control is the
throttle angle or the throttle valve position which is measured by the Throttle Angle Sensor.
The throttle plate is mechanically linked to the accelerator pedal
pedal which is operated by the driver. When the pedal is
pressed the throttle plate rotates and allows more air to pass through
through the intake manifold. The angle of rotation of throttle
plate is measured by the throttle angle sensor. This can be used to measure the mass of air going into the cylinder.
Knock is caused by a rapid rise in cylinder pressure during combustion
combustion caused by high manifold pressure (MAP) and
excessive spark advance. It is important to detect knock and avoid
avoid excessive knock to avoid damage to the engine. Knock
is detected by the Knock sensor.
During engine off condition, the fuel stored in the fuel system tends to evaporate into
the atmosphere. To reduce these HC emissions, they are collected by a charcoal filter in a canister.
The collected fuel is released into the fuel intake through a purge
purge solenoid valve controlled by the
PCM periodically.

Powertrain and Emission

Controls in Passenger
Vehicles (contd)
Automatic Transmission:

The Automatic transmission uses a hydraulic or fluid coupling to transmit engine power to the wheels.
Efficient transmission of engine output to the automatic transmission input shaft is performed through
a transmission lockup clutch similar to a standard pressure-plate clutch placed inside the torque
converter (the fluid coupling used as a torque amplifier). In order to smoothly engage the lockup clutch
the hydraulic fluid pressure is adjusted by controlling the output current applied to the lockup solenoid
valves.
Automatic transmission is controlled by inputs from the vehicle speed sensor and throttle position sensor
which senses the vehicle load. The automatic gear shift points, the point at which the lockup
clutch is activated, and the clutchs hydraulic pressure level are controlled by the PCM. The optimal
shifts and lockup operations are carried out using a solenoid valve to open and close the hydraulic
circuit, primed by the hydraulic pump.
The transmissions input- shaft speed is monitored during shifting by the speed sensor after the ON/OFF
signal is output from the shift solenoid valves. The shifting process is adjusted by the hydraulic pressure
of the clutch so that the clutch is smoothly engaged. The engine torque is controlled in synchronism with
the shift to reduce impact due to shift. During cruise, the lockup clutch is engaged and is disengaged
during shifts, which improves fuel economy and emissions.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
OBD II Standards Manual:
HSHS-3000 manual contains two sets of documents.
Diagnostics Committee documents
Multiplex Committee documents.
The following standards are in the Diagnostics Committee documents:
documents:
SAE J 1930 Diagnostic Terms, Definitions, Abbreviations, and Acronyms
Acronyms
SAE J 1962 OBD II Diagnostic Connector
SAE J 1978 OBD II Scan Tool
SAE J 1979 Diagnostics Test Modes
SAE J 2012 Trouble Code Definitions
SAE J 2186 Data Link Security
SAE J 2190 Enhanced E/E Diagnostics Test Modes
SAE J 2201 Universal Interface for OBD II Scan
SAE J 2205 Expanded Diagnostic Protocol For OBD II Scan Tools
The following standards are in the Multiplex Committee documents:
documents:
SAE J 1850 Class B DATA Communications Network Interface
SAE J 2178/1 Class B DATA Communications Network Messages:
Detailed Header Formats & Physical Address Assignments
SAE J 2178/2 Class B DATA Communications Network Messages :
Data Parameter Definitions
SAE J 2178/3 Class B DATA Communications Network Messages :
Frame IDs For Single Byte Forms OF Headers
SAE J 2178/4 Class B DATA Communications Network Messages :
Message Definitions For Three Byte Headers

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
OBD II has ten (10) major monitoring requirements: nine specific monitors and one catch all. The
nine monitors are: 1. Catalyst 2. Heated Catalyst 3. Misfire 4. Evaporative system
5. Secondary Air System 6. Air Conditioning System Refrigerant (for CFC only) 7. Fuel system
8. Oxygen Sensor 9. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) system. 10. Comprehensive components
(sensors- inputs & actuators-outputs)
The comprehensive components are mostly inputs and outputs to the powertrain which are sensors, and
actuators. These have to be tested for circuit continuity, stuck at 1 and stuck at 0 (ground) faults,
and for range/performance problems, and internittent faults..
OBD II has to communicate the diagnostic information to the vehicle mechanic via a communication
network using diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs).
A special Connector , SAE J 1962, is used to facilitate the interface for communication.
The mechanic uses Scan Tool, SAE J 1978, to collect diagnostic messages from the vehicle.
The HS-3000 Manual specifies SAE standards for the above OBD II tools. Each SAE standard
specifies one particular component for compliance. The requirements for each SAE standard are
described below:

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
OBD II diagnostics are required to comply with SAE standards listed
listed in the HsHs-3000
manual. They relate to the following areas:
SAE J 1930 defines the diagnostic terms applicable to electrical/electronic
electrical/electronic systems, including
mechanical terms, definitions, abbreviations, and acronyms. These
These terms only should be used by OBD II.
The standard will be continuously updated by SAE for compliance by OBD II in future.
All documents related to emissionemission-related vehicle and engine service procedures shall conform to the emission related
nomenclature and abbreviations provided in SAE J 1930. This also applies to all new documents printed or updated by a
manufacturer starting 1993 model year.
Common names for components and systems are recognized as beneficial
beneficial for technicians working on multiple models of
vehicles. Powertrain terms are approved in 1993. The standard is updated periodically
periodically by the task force.
SAE J 1962 defines minimum set of diagnostic connector requirements
requirements that all diagnostic tools
must satisfy to perform OBD II monitoring and diagnostic functions
functions on board the vehicle.
SAE J 1962 is a 16 pin connector located under the instrument panel
panel on the driver side of the vehicle.
The pin assignments are specified in the standard for SAE J 1850 serial data link (2 pins), Battery power (pin 16), Battery ground,
ground,
Signal Ground (pin 5), and ISO 9141 serial data link (2 pins). Connector
onnector
terminals
2,7,10,
and
15
must
be
compatible
with
the
C
assignment and use of their mating terminal in the vehicle connector.
connector. Chassis ground is pin 4 and is defined in SAE J 2201.
Battery ground must be noise free and a clean signal ground. These
These are intended for compliance through out the motor vehicle
industry. The SAE standards are under the control and maintenance
maintenance of the Vehicle E/E System Diagnostics Committee.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
The salient features of the SAE J 1962 standard that specifies the
OBD IIs diagnostic connector are:
Consistent location in the vehicles instrument Panel (IP), Ease
of access to technician, Ease of Visibility to the technician, and
Ease of attachment of equipment without affecting normal
vehicle operation.
The Connector design must be compatible with previous
vehicle configurations, must meet the electrical (10 A DC), and
mechanical specification of material, shape, mating
requirements, and terminal assignments.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
OBD II Scan Tool ( SAE J 1978 0):
SAE J 1978 standard defines the requirements of the OBD II Scan Tool.
This is an important function of OBD II. The Scan Tool must support the following OBD II functions:
1.Automatic hands-off determination of the communication interface used.
2. Obtaining and displaying the status and results of vehicles on-board diagnostic evaluations.
3. Obtaining and displaying OBD II emissions related diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs).
4. Obtaining and displaying OBD II emissions related current data.
5. Obtaining and displaying OBD II emissions related freeze frame data.
6. Clearing the storage of OBD II emissions related diagnostic trouble codes, OBD II emissions
related freeze frame data storage and OBD II emissions related diagnostic test status.
7. Ability to perform Expanded Diagnostic protocol functions as described in SAE J 2205.
8. Obtaining and displaying OBD II emissions related test parameters and results as described in SAE J 1979.
9. Provide a user manual and/or help facility.
The Universal interface (SAE J 2201) requirements for Scan Tool (SAE J 1978) , Data Communication
Network Interface (SAE J 1850) , (SAE J 1850) , Interface connector (SAE J 1962) requirements , Test Modes
(SAE J 1979) , and Diagnostic Trouble codes (SAE J 2012), and Enhanced test modes (SAE J 2190), are
described in detail in the standard. General characteristics, electrical and mechanical characteristics are also
described in the HS-3000 standard. EPA regulation is that SAE J 1978 must have the capability to perform bidirectional diagnostic control. Vehicle manufacturers will use manufacturer specific messages to perform
these functions, and later use SAE J 2205, (Expanded Scan Tool protocol)
to enable these functions with SAE J 1978 Scan tool.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual

Diagnostic Test Modes (SAE J 11979):

SAE 1979 defines the diagnostic test modes, and request and response
response messages necessary
to be supported by the vehicle manufacturers and test tools to meet EPA related OBD II requirements.
These messages are for use by the service tool capable of performing
performing OBD II diagnostics.
Diagnostic test modes from mode $01 to Mode $08 are described in
in the standard. All test Modes
except mode $ 08 are related to Request for Powertrains emission related diagnostic data or test results
or Diagnostic trouble Codes. Test Mode $ 08 is Request for Control
Control of On Board system instead of the
data. All these requests are made by the Scan Tool SAE J 1978.
Mode $01 is request current powertrain diagnostic data which are:
uAnalog inputs and outputs
uDigital inputs and outputs
uSystem status information
ucalculated values
Mode $ 02 is request powertrain Freeze Frame data for the same items listed above
Mode $03 is request emission).
emission-related Powertrain Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs
(DTCs).
Mode $04 is Clear/Reset emission related diagnostic information.
Mode $05 is request Oxygen sensor monitoring test results.
Mode $06 is request onon-board monitoring test results for nonnon-continuously monitored systems.
Mode $07 is request onon-board monitoring test results for continuously monitored systems.
systems.
Mode $08 is request control of onon-board system test, or component.
For each test mode this standard specifies:
uFunctional description of test mode.
uRequest and response message formats.
Examples of messages are included in the standard for explaining some complex test modes .
The diagnostic message format, response time (100 ms) and various
various related data items are described in
detail in the standard. PID $1D in table for Mode $01 is added as
as alternate locations for Oxygen Sensor.
PID $1E in table for Mode $01 is added for Auxiliary input status.
status. There are 14 figures showing 14 tables describing
PIDs,
PIDs, and messages for different Modes with their explanation including
including the method to determine if the data is valid.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual

Diagnostic Trouble Codes (SAE J 2012):

SAE J 2012 defines the Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs

(DTCs)) for OBD II. This standard focuses on
diagnostic code format and code messages for automotive electronic
electronic control systems of all light and
medium duty vehicles. The DTCs are defined by four basic categories. General Circuit Malfunction,
Malfunction,
Range/Performance Problem, Low and High Circuit input. The DTC consists of an alphaalpha-numeric
designator, B0B0-B3 for Body, C0C0-C3 for Chassis, P0P0-P3 for Powertrain,
Powertrain, and U0U0-U3 for Network
Communication, followed by three digits. P0P0-P3 for Powertrain is OBD IIs main concern.
Diagnostic Trouble Codes are defined to indicate a suspected trouble
trouble or problem area as a directive to the proper service
procedure. The DTC is intended to indicate only a malfunction needing
needing service and not when vehicle functions are normal.
The decision to illuminate the MIL (Malfunction Indicator Light) for any DTC is based on how the system malfunction
affects emissions.
The standard has DTC code groupings designated as SAE Controlled,
Controlled, Manufacturer Controlled, and
reserved for future use. This prevents any manufacturer to change
change any SAE Controlled DTCs and SAE to
change Manufacturers DTCs.
DTCs.
Each defined fault code is assigned a message to indicate the circuit,
circuit, component, or system area that was
diagnosed as faulty. The messages are organized such that different
different messages related to a particular
sensor or system are grouped together. Each group has a generic code as the first Code/Message that
indicates the generic nature of the fault. The manufacturer has a choice to define more specific DTC for
each lower level fault in that group. However only one Code must be stored in OBD II for each fault
detected. The manual gives examples of how to devise Codes to comply
comply with the standard.
Appendix C of the manual gives the Powertrain diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs
(DTCs)) as P codes.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual

Diagnostic Trouble Codes (SAE J 2012):

Data Link Security (SAE J 2186):

SAE J 2186 defines the security practices that must be implemented in accessing Diagnostic
information only by authorized persons. The standard defines several levels of accessibility, like
secured functions, unsecured functions, and read only data. The emission related data is
accessible only to authorized personnel from EPA, responsible to ensure that the standard is
complied with.
Computer-coded engine operating parameters shall not be changeable without the use of
specialized tools and procedures accessible to only authorized persons.
Any reprogrammable computer code shall employ proven methods to deter unauthorized
reprogramming.
CARB and EPA require that enhanced tampering protection for the 1999 model year that shall
include data encryption and electronic access to manufacturer computer for security access.
Procedure is defined to provide legislated tamper protection, while meeting manufacturer
desired security concerns for tamper resistance and allowing legitimate service.
One such technique enables certain operations such as Block download only if security access is
successful. Normal communications are not affected.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
Enhanced Test Modes (SAE J 2190):

SAE J 2190 extends the diagnostic test modes defined in SAE J 1979
1979 to include access to emission
related data not included in SAE J 1979 and access to nonnon-emission relate data as a supplement to
SAE J 1979. This standard describes the data byte values for diagnostic
diagnostic messages transmitted between
diagnostic test equipment, either onon-vehicle or offoff-vehicle, and vehicle electronic modules. No distinction is made between emission and nonnon-emission
related diagnostics. These messages can be used with J 1850 data
data link as described in SAE J 1850 standard.
SAE J 2190 includes test modes identified for diagnostics beyond minimum regulated requirements, that include nonnon-emission systems. Test modes
include capabilities such as:

Request diagnostic session

Request diagnostic Freeze Frame data
Request Diagnostic Trouble Codes/status
Clear diagnostic information
Request diagnostic data
Security access
Disable /enable normal message transmission
Request / define diagnostic data packets
Enter /exit diagnostic routine
Request diagnostic routine results
Input /output control
Read /write block of memory
Messages must be used with SAE J 1978 Scan Tool only using EDP protocol,
protocol, and with enhanced
diagnostics tools.
This activity is also coordinating with ISO diagnostic services task force to promote common
diagnostic capabilities throughout auto industry.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
Enhanced E/E Diagnostic Test Modes:
The following extended diagnostic Test modes are in force:
uMode 10- Initiate diagnostic operation (limited)
uMode 11- Request module reset
uMode 12- Request diagnostic Freeze Frame data
uMode 13- Request DTC information
uMode 14 - Clear diagnostic information
uMode 17- Request status of DTCs
uMode 18- Request DTCs by Status
uMode 20 - Return to Normal Operation
uMode 21-23 - Request Diagnostic Data by PID(s)
uMode 2A - Request Diagnostic Data Packet(s)
uMode 2C - Dynamically Define Diagnostic Data Packet
uMode 3F - Test Device Present
uMode 7F - General response Message
uMode AE - Request device Control

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
Enhanced E/E Diagnostic Test Modes:

For each test mode this standard gives a functional description

of the test, request message data byte content and report
message data byte content , and an example for clarification
where necessary.
Physical addressing is used for all diagnostic messages in this
standard. Each device must be assigned a unique address in this
scheme which is the method J 1850 uses to communicate with
devices.
Messages 0 to FH and 40H to 4FH are reserved for SAE J 1979.
Messages for J 2190 start at 10H and end
at FFH. The standard defines the message length, message
response requirement, and their formats.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
Universal Interface for OBD II SCan Tool:

SAE J 2201 defines the vehicle communication interface for OBD II Scan Tool
described in SAE 1978. This interface connects the SAE J 1962 test connector to the
hardware/software of the SAE 1978 OBD II Scan Tool which will use this interface to
communicate with vehicles for accessing required OBD II functions. The interface
defines several standard terms and interface functionality. The standard describes in
detail the software requirements of the program in the PCM that facilitates
communication between the Scan Tool (external) and the internal OBD II
components in the vehicle. The medium of communication is the serial data link
described in SAE J 1850.
The standard defines the required message structure support, signal ground, chassis
ground, cable length of the Connector to Scan Tool, and other requirements used by
SAE J 1978 Scan tool.
Appendix A of the standard gives examples of interface implementation that have
met the requirements of this standard.

Expanded Diagnostic Protocol for OBD II Scan Tools:

SAE J 2205 defines the expanded diagnostic protocol (EDP) for OBD
OBD II Scan Tool (SAE J 1978). The purpose of the expanded diagnostic
diagnostic protocol is to
define the encoding technique to be used:

To describe to the OBD II Scan Tool the messages to be transmitted

transmitted to a vehicle and how they are to be transmitted.

To describe to the OBD II Scan Tool the messages to be received and processed by the Scan Tool.

To describe to the OBD II Scan Tool how to process the data in the received message.
This standard defines the requirements for diagnosis and service information to be provided by motor vehicle manufacturers. Appendix
Appendix A includes
examples of the use of the EDP protocol that the Scan Tool must support. This includes at a minimum, supporting diagnosing and servicing emissionemissionrelated
components and systems. EDP is a means for allowing vehicle manufacturers
manufacturers to communicate, through the OBD IIs communication interface, with
vehicle modules using vehicle specific messages.
The protocol will enable the service technician to input messages
messages not required to meet specific OBD II requirements but which are
are necessary to repair
vehicles. These additional messages will be specified in service information provided to the service technician by the manufacturer.
manufacturer. This is due to the
requirement that vehicles must be able to be repaired using only a SAE J 1978 Scan Tool and other nonnon-microprocessor based tools.
The standard defines the functionality that will support the use of the Scan Tool.
This standard provides the following EDP definitions:

Control type

Transmit type

Receive only type

Miscellaneous type
These message formats are defined in the standard. The codes for EDP definition fields of the format are defined. Extensive message
message format information
is included which needs to be supported by the Scan Tool. This standard
standard requires that SAE J 1978 OBD II Scan Tool must support the
the EDP messages
which may be unique to a given vehicle manufacturer, model year,
year, etc. These messages may have different message headers, and different
different data fields
compared to the SAE J 1979 message formats. The EDP must support ISO 91419141-2 interface as well. The extended protocol regarding message formats,
formats,
validation of data , data security, and other details are explained
explained in the standard.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
CLASS B Data Communications Network Interface - SAE J 1850:
CLASS B Data Communication Network Interface - SAE J 1850 standard defines the communication requirements of the
the
network that satisfies the needs of the vehicle manufacturers to perform OBD II functions in a cost effective manner.
This standard describes two specific implementations of the network
network based on 10.4 Kbp/
Kbp/ Variable Pulse Width Type (VPW),
and another at 41.6 Kbp/s
Kbp/s Pulse Width Modification (PWM). The 10.4 Kbp/s
Kbp/s version uses single wire and the 41.6 Kbp/s
Kbp/s uses
2-wire differential bus as the media/physical layer for message standard
tandard
defines
the
physical
layer
and
the
data
link
layer of
s
the ISO (International standards Organization) open system Interconnect
Interconnect (OSI) model. As a consequence this standard follows
the ISO conventions but uses different descriptive styles to define
define the message formats. The vehicle application for this class B
network is defined in SAE J 1213 to allow sharing of the vehicle parametric information. Also the class B network must be
capable of performing Class A network functions which operate at less than 10 Kbp/s.
Kbp/s.
J1850 data communication network interconnects different electronic
electronic modules on the vehicle using an Open architecture
approach. Open architecture approach allows addition or removal of any number of modules in the network without
adverse effect on the network performance. J 1850 uses CSMA (carrier
(carrier sense multiple access) protocol to implement Open
architecture. Additionally the network supports the
prioritization of message frames such that in case of contention,
contention, the higher priority frames win the arbitration and complete
their transaction. The standard defines a singlesingle-bus topology where all the devices on the network transmit and receive
receive on a
single path at the same time with identical communication data. The network uses a Masterless bus control and priority
arbitration. The consequence of this protocol is indeterminate latency
latency and peak bus utilization profile, except the highest
priority message is guaranteed minimum latency at the expense of other messages.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
CLASS B Data Communications Network Interface - SAE J 1850:

Although this standard focuses on the physical, and data link layers in the OSI model, the
application layer is also described since this needs to be included for emission-related,
diagnostic communication legislation requirements. The class B network maps into the OSI
model as illustrated in Figure 1 of the standard. The standard describes in detail the data link
layers diagnostic messages, their formats, physical addressing of the devices, bus protocol
commands, error detection and correction schemes. The physical dimensions of the network
and its electrical characteristics are described in detail.
Appendix A lists the application-specific features. Appendix B defines the I/O EMC test plan
for the electro magnetic compatibility test to regulate electrical noise of the data signals.
Appendix C gives the VPW wave form analysis that specifies the data signal wave form
characteristics for the 10.4 Kbp/s version. Appendix D gives the PWM wave form analysis that
specifies the data signal wave form characteristics for the 41.6 Kbp/s version.
SAE J 1850 is the most important standard in the Data Communication phase of the OBD II.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
Class B Data Communication Network Messages- Detailed Header Formats and Physical
Address Segments: (SAE J 2178/1):
SAE J 2178/1, is the Class B Data Communication Network Messages Detailed Header formats
and Physical Address Assignments specification. The standard defines the information
contained in the header and data fields of non-diagnostic messages. The standard also specifies
field sizes, scaling, representations, and data positions used within messages. The general
structure of the message frame is described with inframe response included in Figure 1 and
without the response in Figure 2 of the standard. SAE J 1979 standard defines the information
contained in the header and data fields of emission related diagnostic messages. SAE J 2190
standard defines the information contained in the header and data fields of other diagnostic
messages not related to emissions. SAE J 1850 standard defines the class B network interface
hardware, basic protocol definition, the electrical specifications, and the error detectioncorrection scheme using CRC (cyclic redundancy check) Byte. SAE J 1850 defines only two
message formats. They are the single Byte format and the consolidated header format. The
consolidated header format has two forms: a single Byte form, and a three byte form. This
standard covers all these formats and forms to identify the contents of messages which can be
sent on the SAE J 1850 network.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
Class B Data Communication Network Messages- Detailed Header Formats and Physical
Address Segments: (SAE J 2178/1) (contd):
SAE J 2178 consists of four parts. SAE J 2178/1, the first part (this standard) describes the two allowed forms
of message header formats, Single Byte, and Consolidated header formats. This also contains the physical
node address range assignments for the typical subsystems of the automobile.
The standard defines the terms and definitions of the data formats. The overview of the standard is given in
Figure 3 of the standard. The system architecture for the different possible headers used in class B are
described in sections 5 and 6. Section 7 defines the data fields used by the different header
formats. section 8 defines the physical address assignments. Messages defined by this standard are classified
into two categories: Requests (commands: load or modify) or queries for data, and Responses, like reports or
acknowledgments. The overall structure of messages is described as follows:

Fully define SAE standard messages

Reserve messages for future SAE standardization
Reserve messages for Manufacturers for their Unique messages

The message formats in this standard are mandatory for using J 1850 network except the many message
codes reserved for manufacturers which are allocated can be used.
Appendix A describes two allowed network architectures, namely single network, and multiple network
architectures.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
Class B Data Communication Network Messages- Data Parameter Defintions: (SAE J
2178/2):
SAE J 2178/2 Data Parameter Definitions standard defines the parameters used to
describe the data variables used in normal vehicle operation as well as diagnostic
operation. Parameters are assigned Parameter Reference Numbers (PRNs) which are
described in the standard. PRN structure is shown in Figure 3 in the standard. The
second part of the parameter definition is the SLOT. PRN identifies a specific
parameter by name, unit measure , and its associated SLOT. The SLOT defines the
mathematical characteristic of parameters in terms of its numeric presentation, its
scaling, its limits, Offsets, and its transfer function.
Appendix A and B provide cross references to find the PRN by the number or by
name. PRN structure is given in Figure 3. SAE J 1979 refers to PID numbers which
are single byte reference number. The first 256 PRNs defined in this standard are
identical to the SAE J 1979 PID definitions. The standard contains detailed lists of
PRN assignments which are used for reference.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
Class B Data Communication Network Messages- Frame IDs For Single Byte Forms
of Headers (SAE J 2178/3):
SAE J 2178/3 Frame IDs for Single Byte Forms of Headers standard, defines the messages specified for
networks using one byte header or the single byte form of the consolidated header as specified in SAE J 1850.
This standard focuses on the Frame ID which is the first byte of the message. The first byte of the one byte
header is defined as an 8 bit hexadecimal number, and the first byte of the single byte form of the
consolidated header is defined under 7 bits as hexadecimal number. The information in the header field
implicitly defines the target, source, priority, and message type information, while the data field contains
additional addressing and parametric information. The header defines the Message identifier or Frame ID
and becomes the name that is broadcast normally periodically to all the nodes on the network.
This standard describes the overall structure of messages and has wide application in OBD II since these have
to be used on J 1850 exactly as they are specified here, except those that are allocated to vehicle manufacturers
for non-emission related messages.
With single byte form of header, the Frame ID corresponds to the PRN number or a grouping of PRNs. The
characteristics defined by the header are described in the standard. Figure 3 of the standard defines the
Frame ID for one byte headers and the first byte of the single byte form of the consolidated header.

OBD II for L & MD Vehicles

STD Manual
Class B Data Communication Network Messages- Message Definition for Three Byte
Headers (SAE J 2178/4):
SAE J 2178/4 Message Definition for Three Byte Headers, standard defines the information
contained in the header and the data fields of non-diagnostic messages for SAE J 1850 data
communication class B networks. This standard describes and specifies the header fields, data
fields, field sizes, scaling, representations, and data positions used within messages. SAE J 1979
standard defines the specifications of emission-related diagnostic message header and data
fields which OBD II is mainly concurred with. SAE J 2190 defines other diagnostic data fields.
This standard focuses on the message definition for the three byte form of the consulted header
format. Section 5 of this standard provides the list of functional target addresses or Primary IDs
for all of the functionally addressed messages on J 1850 except type #3, which is Function Read.
SAE J 1850 type # 3 messages have a separate address assignment due to absence of secondary
addressing. Section 6 of the standard shows the valid extended address assignments from the
message definition tables. Section 7 lists the secondary message definitions. The information in
this standard follows the same format as the Frame IDs for Single Byte Forms of Headers
in SAE J 2178/3 standard described above.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Since OBD II became effective in 1994 ( adopted from CARB regulations),
powertrain control strategies are focused on monitoring powertrain
components for failures with criteria tied to emission levels in addition to
basic functionality. All the powertrain components described in previous
section on Powertrain and Emission Controls in Passenger vehicles
including sensors, actuators, and switches are checked for correct operation.
In addition the performance of emission control apparatus are continuously
monitored using OBD II Diagnostics criteria. The following is a list of the
major CARB related OBD I I diagnostic requirements for all vehicle
manufacturers:

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics

OBD I I Diagnostic Requirements

uEngine Misfire Detection
uCatalyst Efficiency Monitor
uOxygen Sensor & Heater Monitoring
uFuel System Monitoring
uEvaporative System Monitoring
uEGR System Monitoring
uSecondary Air System Monitoring
uComprehensive Components Monitoring (all sensors,
actuators, and switches)

Engine Misfire Detection: Misfiring is the lack of combustion in the cylinder. Misfiring can be caused by worn ignition
components, poor fuel metering, or faulty electrical system. Excessive
Excessive exhaust emissions will be the result even with few
misfires. Increased misfire rates can damage the catalytic converter.
converter. Engine misfire is detected by monitoring crankshaft speed
fluctuations. Engine misfire will
contribute to a deceleration of the crankshafts rotational speed
speed due to the momentary absence of engine torque during the
powerstroke of the cylinder that is misfiring. Using the crankshaft sensor input, the
instantaneous crankshaft speed is calculated, and the speed signal
signal is analyzed to detect the misfire. To eliminate other causes of
torque reduction due to rough roads and other driving events, the
the speed reduction is monitored using Exponentially weighted
moving average (EWMA) technique to identify the misfiring cylinder.
cylinder. Other techniques used to identify torque reduction due to
misfire, include signal processing using several algorithms. One signal processing method analyzes the amplitude and phase of
each of the first twelve frequency components of the crankshaft angular velocity signal taken continuously during the torque
reduction time. If a certain percent of misfires within 200 or 1000
1000 revolutions is detected , a fault code (DTC) is set. Misfire is
detected if the offending cylinder can be identified. Other advanced
advanced signal processing algorithms can be used such as Principal
Component Analysis and Clustering to compress the data and isolate
isolate the misfiring cylinder.
If a misfire is detected, all the main engine operating parameters
parameters such as engine speed , engine load or MAP (Manifold absolute
Pressure), engine coolant temperature, throttle position, oxygen
oxygen sensor, values are stored away in memory. This is called
Freeze Frame, which is an OBD II requirement. Freeze Frame is used to identify a consecutive misfire in the next driving cycle
defined by the EPA as the next driving Trip after ignition OFF.
OFF. If a second misfire is detected the engine controller will turn
turn
on the MIL (Malfunction Indicator Light) to alert the driver. The
The specific cylinder experiencing misfire must be identified. If
more than one cylinder is misfiring a separate DTI (diagnostic trouble
trouble code) is required.
If misfire is not detected during the next three subsequent consecutive
consecutive driving Trips when similar conditions occur then the
original fault will be erased and the MIL will be turned off by the engine controller. In another circumstance , if similar
conditions are not encountered during next eighty subsequent trips
trips the original fault will be turned off by the engine
controller.

The Freeze Frame can also be used for OffOff-Board diagnostics and trouble shooting by service technicians.
Misfires can damage the catalyst converters by raising the catalyst
catalyst temperature beyond safe values.
Type A misfire is defined below:
For type A misfire, up to three 200 revolutions are evaluated on first driving cycle for misfire detection
before illuminating MIL.
MIL must be illuminated on misfire detection during first 200 revolutions
revolutions evaluation during the second driving cycle.
However MIL need not be steadily illuminated when misfire ceases,
ceases, until second driving cycle.
Type B misfire (during starting of engine):
This misfire is evaluated in first 1000 revolutions after engine is started. Misfire detection will set coolant temperature
fault code since that is the likely cause of misfire detection at
at this time.
MIL and hard fault code is set permanently on second driving cycle.
cycle.
Up to four 1000 revolutions are evaluated for misfire detection excluding the first 1000 revolutions
before illuminating temperature fault code.
MIL and hard code are set on second driving cycle.
Thermostat (coolant temperature) monitoring and misfire detection
detection monitoring are extremely important due to
increasingly tighter controls mandated on emissions.
Misfire detection is described in more detail in a later section.
section.

Catalyst Efficiency Monitor: There are three types of catalysts: pellet (bead), ceramic monolith, and metal monolith. They differ
differ
in the method by which they support the noble metals which convert
convert exhaust gases to HC and NOx free gases. ThreeThree-way
catalytic converters typically contain platinum, and/or palladium,
palladium, along with rhodium as catalytic materials. The term threethreeway refers to the ability of the converter to simultaneously oxidize
oxidize HC and CO and reduce NOx.
NOx. Catalyst converters operate
efficiently within a prescribed temperature range when placed at proper location in the exhaust gases path. Operation at
temperatures which exceed the recommended maximums may cause irreversible
irreversible damage to the catalyst, and components of the
converter. Since unburned fuel into the converter can cause catastrophic
catastrophic failure, misfire detection is a must for safe converter
converter
operation. Misfire detection is described previously. Converter also must have an over temperature detection algorithm to
detect excessive temperature in the converter. This is done by decreasing
decreasing the A/F ratios lambda value to less than 1. This
algorithm cannot work for coastdown conditions or overrun conditions. Therefore Deceleration fuel cutoff
cutoff (DFCO) is sued to
control catalyst temperature during vehicle coastdown,
,
when
the
engine
intake
manifold
pressure
is
drive too low to allow
coastdown
allow
complete combustion. To prevent unburned fuel from entering the converter, the fuel injectors are shut off by the engine
controller. Spark advance is filtered and thresholds are set to control torque reversal bump while still protecting the converter.
converter.
The catalyst monitor evaluates the converter efficiency as mandated
mandated by the OBD II to ensure that the catalyst is cleaning up the
exhaust gases and reducing emissions from the exhaust gases. The diagnostic evaluates the oxygen storage capacity of the
converter by comparing the signal output of the postpost-converter oxygen sensor with the prepre-converter oxygen sensor. According
to EPA regulations, a catalyst is regarded as malfunctioning when
when the average hydrocarbon conversion efficiency falls between
50 and 60%. The diagnostic system is required to detect when the hydrocarbon emission (HC) concentration of the catalyst
(closest to the engine ) is more than 40 to 50% of the engineengine-out emission concentration. The check is performed with the vehicle
vehicle
operating at between 20 and 50 miles/hr with the speed held at a reasonably steady state condition. The output signal wave
form of the oxygen sensor (lambda sensor) ,at the front end of the
the converter close to the engine, oscillates between lean and rich
value of 100 millivolts and 900 millivolts due to closedclosed-loop control strategy that keeps the Air/Fuel ratio at stoichiometry
(lambda value equal to 1). For a converter whose oxygen storage
storage capacity is good, the output of the oxygen signal at the far end
end
of the converter should be flat, without any oscillation. This is
is due to the converters ability to store oxygen when the gas is lean
(and rich in oxygen) and give up oxygen when the gas is rich (and
(and short of oxygen). This characteristic enables the oxidation of
hydrocarbons and the reduction of NOx in the exhaust gas simultaneously. The diagnostic consists of measuring
measuring the average
ripple in the output signal wave form of the oxygen sensor at the
the far end of the converter and comparing the ripple with a
similar oscillation at the input signal wave form of the oxygen sensor at the near end (closest to the engine) of the converter. If
the difference is above a value that corresponds to more than 60%
60% converter efficiency then the converter efficiency is
considered good. As a second check the catalyst temperature at the
the outlet is monitored and compared to the catalyst
temperature at the input to the converter. If the catalyst is functioning
functioning properly, it creates an exothermic reaction resulting in a
higher outlet catalyst temperature. But this is not always reliable.
reliable. The sensitivity of the outlet gas temperature to catalyst
efficiency may be too low to reliably detect the difference at the
the 60% HC conversion efficiency level.
Signal characteristics from the oxygen sensors for fresh, degraded,
degraded, and failed catalysts are explained in detail in a later section.
section.
The misfire detection diagnostic which is previously described is
s
an
important
preventive
measure
that
protects
the
converter
i
from extreme temperature spike that can severely reduce converter
converter efficiency or even cause catalyst destruction altogether.
Catalyst converter diagnostics are described in more detail in a later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Oxygen Sensor & Heater Monitoring: An oxygen sensor performs best
best when its operating temperature is maintained within a specific range above 260O C. For this reason a
heater is used to keep the oxygen sensor temperature at the desired
desired value.
The OBD II diagnostic requires that the heater of the oxygen sensor
sensor must be monitored periodically for its normal operation. The circuit continuity is checked, the voltage
across the heater is checked, the current carried by the heater element is checked ( Max. 20 A), as well as the temperature of the
the oxygen sensor. For added reliability, the
heater is directly controlled by the the controller without any relay. If the heater is found defective on any of these accounts,
accounts, the PCM sets a fault code.
The PCM has a special input circuit for detecting short circuit or open circuit (break) of the sensor wiring and monitors the switching
switching frequency (closed(closed-loop) of the control
loop.
Oxygen sensor diagnostic requires the following checks: Circuit continuity ,and the bias voltage of 450 millivolts in the sensor circuit are verified. The voltage across the
sensor should read 450 millivolts with the ignition key On and engine not started. If the voltage is not present a fault code (DTC) is
set. During the closed loop operation of the vehicle, after the sensor attains the operating temperature (above 300O C ), the sensor voltage should oscillate between about
100 to 250 mv at the low end and 700 to 900 mv at the high end. The frequency of oscillation of this sensor voltage
voltage is between 1.25 Hz to 2.5 Hz, depending upon the fuel
controller, fuel injection system, and vehicle operation. If the oscillation is slower than normal meaning that the oxygen sensor
sensor is responding slowly to the A/F ratio input,
then it is due to the sensor being exposed to high heat for a long
long period of time. This can cause a deviation in the A/F ratio from
from the optimum stoichiometry value,
resulting in increased emissions. The deviation can be detected by monitoring the signal output oscillation of upstream oxygen (lambda) sensor and comparing it with the
system operation frequency (1.25 Hz to 2.5 Hz) obtained from the
the controller. A fault code is stored if the oxygen sensor at the upstream of the converter is oscillating
slower than the system frequency. A MIL is also illuminated. Additionally
Additionally the controller compares the output signal (voltage) of the additional lambda sensor downstream
of the converter with the oxygen (lambda) sensor signal upstream.
upstream. Using this information the controller can detect deviations of the average value in the A/F ratio that
determines the system frequency. If system is operating rich and the lambda sensor indicates lean, then it is misfire problem. If
If system is operating lean, and the lambda
sensor voltage stays near bias (450 mv)
mv) and engine does not go into closed loop, the sensor is having an open circuit and is defective. Slow transient response in A/F shift
can also be caused by fuel control problem or carbon deposits or due to mild driving mode. Fuel system must be checked before deciding
deciding that oxygen sensor is faulty. If the
A/F ratio is fluctuating due to excessive correction, to the pre set data map of optimum fuel required for each load and engine RPM, provided by the oxygen sensor, it is an
indication of a faulty fuel system. The OBD II legal requirements
requirements are: The diagnostic system shall monitor the output voltage, the
the response rate, and any other parameter
that can affect emissions, and all fuel control oxygen sensors for
for malfunction.
all fuel control oxygen sensors for malfunction. In case of a faulty
faulty sensor the MIL shall be illuminated and the DTC shall be stored
stored in the computer.
Oxygen sensor diagnostics are described in more detail in a later
later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Fuel System Monitoring:
Monitoring: For fuel control strategies multipoint pulsed fuel injection system
system is assumed. The powertrain control strategy is to provide the
correct Air/Fuel ratio under all operating conditions, except during
during coldcold-start. The systems involved in this control are fuel metering, fuel
fuel pump, ignition
timing, fuel injectors, injector pulse width, and lambda control.
control. The PCM determines the required injector pulse width to maintain
maintain Air/Fuel ratio within
the lambda control window (0.93 to 1.07). The PCM adds correction
correction factors to injectior pulse width to increase fuel injection during cold start, and wide
wide
open throttle, in closedclosed-loop operation. During deceleration, PCM closes fuel injection. Ignition timing affects emissions. Excessive spark advance will
cause engine knock. consequently fuel system monitoring is done by using predetermined data map with optimal fuel required for each load (MAP
value) and engine RPM point. The amount of fuel is determined by the duty cycle of the injector pulse width.
The lambda closedclosed-loop control system provides feedback to the PCM on the necessary
necessary correction to the preset data points. The corrected information
information
is stored in the PCMs memory so that the next time that operation point is reached, less
less correction of the Air/Fuel ratio will be required. If the PCM
PCM
correction passes a predetermined threshold, it indicates a faulty
faulty fuel system, that some component in the fuel supply system is outside of its operating
range. Some possibilities are defective fuel pressure regulator, contaminated fuel injectors, defective manifold absolute pressure
pressure (MAP) sensor, intake air
system leakage, or exhaust system leakage. All electronic components
components are checked for circuit continuity, rated current, rated voltage,
voltage, and rational
parameter values within limits of operation. These include fuel pump, ignition circuit, injection solenoids, engine RPM sensor, and MAP sensor. If the
fuel correction exceeds the limit, either in absolute value or in
in update rate, the fuel system is deemed faulty and a fault code is stored and MIL is
illuminated. Since fuel system has a major impact on emissions, its diagnostics are crucial to control emissions and consequently
consequently to OBD II.
The legal OBD II requirements are: The diagnostic system shall monitor
monitor the fuel delivery system for its ability to provide compliance
compliance with emission
standards.
Diagnostic technique: Deviations of the stoichiometric ratio which last for a longer time are stored within the adaptive
adaptive mixture controller. If these
values exceed defined limits, components of the fuel system are deemed faulty. MIL is illuminated at that time. Fuel system diagnostics
diagnostics are described in
more detail in a later section.

Evaporative System Monitoring: Hydro Carbons (HC) in the form of fuel vapors escaping from the
the vehicle, primarily from the
fuel tank are required to be monitored to reduce emissions as legislated
legislated by EPA and required by OBD II. There are two principal
causes of fuel vapor in the fuel tank: increasing ambient temperature
temperature and return of unused hot fuel from the engine. The
evaporative control system consists of a vapor ventilation line that exits the fuel tank and enters fuel vapor canister. The canister
canister
consists of an active charcoal element which absorbs the vapor and
nd
allows
only
air
to
escape
to
the
atmosphere.
Only
a
certain
a
volume of fuel vapor can be contained by the canister. The vapors
vapors in the canister must therefore be purged into the engine and
burned by the engine so that the canister can continue to store vapors when they are generated.
To accomplish this another purge line leads from the char coal canister
canister to the intake manifold. Included in this line is the
canister purge solenoid valve. The layout of a typical evaporative
evaporative emission control system is described in a later section.
During engine operation vacuum in the intake manifold causes flow
flow through the charcoal canister because the canister vent
opening at the charcoal filter end is at atmospheric pressure. The
The canister purge valve meters the amount of flow from the
canister. The amount of fuel vapor in the canister and therefore,
therefore, contained in the flow stream, is not known. Therefore it is
critical that the lambda control system is operating and adjusting
adjusting the fuel requirement as the vapors are being purged. Purge
vapors could otherwise result in upto 30% increase in Air/Fuel mixture richness in the engine. Purge control valve is situated in
the pipe line that connects the intake manifold of the engine to the charcoal canister.
Control of the purge valve must allow for two criteria:
There must be enough vapor flow so that charcoal canister does not
not become saturated and leak fuel vapors into the
atmosphere.
Purge flow must generally occur under lambda closedclosed-loop control so that the effect of the purge vapors on A/F ratio can
be detected and the fuel metering corrected.
When the PCM commands the purge valve to meter vapor from the canister, it requests a duty cycle (ratio of ON time to OFF
time). This allows the amount of vapor flow to be regulated depending
depending on the engine operating conditions. When lambda
control is not operating, during coldcold-start, only low dutyduty-cycles and therefore, small amount of purge vapors, are allowed into
the intake manifold. Under deceleration fuel cut off, the purge valve is closed entirely to minimize the possibility of unburned
HCs in the exhaust.
The OBD II diagnostic system shall control the air flow of the complete
complete evaporative system. In addition , the diagnostic system
shall also monitor the complete evaporative system for the emission
emission of HC vapor into the atmosphere by performing a pressure
or vacuum check of the complete evaporative system. From time to time, manufacturers may occasionally turn off the
evaporative purge system in order to carry out a check.
The following is the procedure: At idle position, the canister purge
purge valve is activated, and the lambda controller is monitored for
its reaction.
A pressure sensor in the fuel tank would provide a pressure profile
profile which will determine if a leak existed in the system.
For leak detection of the evaporative system, a valve installed
installed at the atmospheric side of the canister which is the output to the
active carbon filter is shut off and the canister pressure is decreased
decreased to about -1.5 KPa.
KPa. The complete system is turned off and the
pressure within the canister is monitored for variation with time.
time. The pressure gradient, together with other parameters like the
the
amount of fuel, will indicate possible leaks. If a leak is detected
detected the MIL is illuminated. The complete test suite is more
elaborate and is described in detail in a later section.

EGR System Monitoring: During overrun and heavy load of the vehicle the peak combustion temperature of
o
the cylinders of the engine will increase to more than 3000 F. A measured quantity of exhaust gas is
introduced into intake manifold via a pintle valve connecting the exhaust gas to the intake manifold. By
mixing a portion of the exhaust gas with fresh intake air/fuel mixture the oxygen content is reduced without
reducing the mass of gas processed by the cylinder. The engine acts partially like an external combustion
engine in that the combustion process must impart energy to the inert exhaust gas as well as to the air charge.
The net effect is to reduce the flame temperature at part load while retaining the power of the engine. The
reduction of temperature reduces NOx emission produced by the engine.
The OBD II diagnostic has to monitor the pintle valve, and the amount of exhaust gas delivered by the pintle
valve. The correct amount of exhaust gas is obtained from predefined engine RPM/load (MAP) table showing
optimum EGR valve openings & gas amount, engine coolant temperature, manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
pressure, and engine RPM. During EGR operation, the fuel is cut off. The OBD II diagnostic consists of several
algorithms to monitor all the functions listed above. EGR pintle valve position is monitored by the PCM for
proper opening. The amount of exhaust gas ingested is monitored from the EGR pintle valve flow rate, and
the time of the valve opening. This amount is compared with the required amount obtained from the table
with predefined values. If there is a significant difference between the actual and the needed values, the EGR
malfunction is detected. Engine coolant temperature is monitored for an increase in value during EGR
operation. MAP pressure is monitored for increase in pressure during EGR operation. Finally the Engine
RPM (900 - 1100) is monitored for a decrease of about 50 RPM during EGR (DTC for fault is P0401 for no
decrease in RPM when vehicle speed is 25 MPH with brakes applied) operation.

OBD(II)
In addition the electrical characteristics of the pintle valve are checked, including the voltage, the current drawn by

the moving pintle,

pintle, and the circuit continuity including open circuit as well as short
short circuit in the wiring. There are
two methods used in verifying that EGR is functioning properly meaning
meaning no sticking valve or clogged EGR passage.
The first method is to intentionally open the EGR valve through a measured value during normal operation when
there is no need for EGR and measure the response of critical system
system parameters due to this perturbation namely,
Engine RPM, coolant temperature, MAP pressure, pintle valve position, and closedclosed-loop fuel system correction. If
the critical parameters do not conform to the desired values EGR malfunction is indicated. The second method is to
wait for the condition of the vehicle when the EGR is operated by the PCM as a consequence of engine overrun or
high load. Then intentionally disable EGR operation for a small predefined amount of time and measure the critical
parameters. If the difference in critical parameter values do not
not conform to the expected values then EGR
malfunction is indicated.
A much simpler algorithm measures the increase in coolant temperature
temperature during EGR and if the increase in not
within desired range EGR malfunction is indicated. In addition increase
increase in manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
during EGR and if the increase is not within desired range EGR malfunction
malfunction is indicated.
Due to uncertainties encountered in EGR monitoring, more than one
one diagnostic is necessary before a fault code is
stored and the MIL is illuminated. One method is to requires three
three successive tests, each revealing an EGR fault,
before a fault code is stored. If a test reveals no fault , the next test is performed eleven minutes later. The predefined
operating condition is deceleration which means that the test is performed during deceleration of the vehicle.
Different frequencies of testing are also used in the diagnostic.
diagnostic. Another method requires eight tests to be performed
within a two minute period before a fault code is stored when two
two failures occur within that period. Currently about
fifty percent of the manufacturers monitor the EGR passage temperature,
temperature, twentytwenty-five percent monitor the EGR valve
signal (position), and twentytwenty-five percent use the intrusive perturbation method to detect EGR malfunction.
The legal OBD II requirement is: The diagnostic system shall monitor
monitor the EGR system on vehicle for low and high
flow rate malfunction.
The hardware failure code of P1406 is set for out of range voltage
voltage signal from the pintle valve position sensor of
more than 10% from commanded value.
Another manufacturer monitors the exhaust gas pressures on both sides of an orifice in the passage to the EGR
valve. The pressure drop across the orifice is measured as the exhaust
exhaust gas flows through the orifice. If the pressure
differential is not within permissible limits, EGR fault code is set.
Different DTCs are set for tests performed with similar EGR diagnostic objectives
objectives due to differences in test time, and
critical parameter values.
EGR diagnostics diagnostics are described in more detail in a later
later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Secondary Air System Monitoring: Secondary air system is used to improve the performance of the catalytic converter (Three way) by providing extra
oxygen rich air to either the converter itself or to the exhaust manifold. The catalyst temperature must be above about 200o C to efficiently oxidize HC and
reduce NOx.
NOx. During engine warmwarm-up when the catalytic converter is cold, HC and CO are oxidized in the exhaust manifold by routing secondary air to
the exhaust manifold in controlled quantify by the PCM. This creates
creates extra heat to speed warmwarm-up of the converter and EGO sensor, enabling the PCM to
go into closedclosed-loop mode more quickly.
During openopen-loop control (cold converter) the converter is liable to be damaged
damaged if excessive heat is applied to it, to warm it up. This can happen if
excessive amounts of HC and CO are oxidized in the exhaust manifold
manifold during periods of heavy loads which call for fuel enrichment,
enrichment, or during severe
deceleration. During startstart-up and such heavy loads, the secondary air is not let into exhaust
exhaust manifold but directed into the air cleaner where it has no
effect on exhaust temperatures.
After warmwarm-up, during closedclosed-loop operation, the secondary air is used to supply oxygen to the
the second chamber of the threethree-way catalyst, in dualdualchamber converter system. In a dualdual-chamber converter, the first chamber contains rhodium, palladium,
palladium, and platinum to reduce NOx and to oxidize HC
and CO. The second chamber contains only platinum and palladium. The extra oxygen from the secondary air improves the converters
converters ability to oxidize
HC and CO in the second converter chamber. The control of the secondary
secondary air is done by using two solenoid valves similar to the EGR pintle valve. One
valve switches air flow to the exhaust manifold or to the air cleaner
cleaner (atmosphere). The other valve switches air flow to the exhaust
exhaust manifold or to the
catalytic converter. The air routing is controlled based on engine
engine coolant temperature and Air/Fuel ratio, indicated by the lambda
lambda sensor. If the control is
openopen-loop and if the coolant temperature is below threshold and Air/Fuel
Air/Fuel ratio is not too rich, then the air flow is directed to the exhaust manifold. If
coolant temperature is higher than threshold and the Air/Fuel ratio
ratio is rich (lambda < 1) then the secondary air is directed to the air cleaner which exits
to the atmosphere. If the control is closedclosed-loop, then the lambda sensor is monitored for correlated deviations
deviations when the secondary air flow is changed
from exhaust manifold, or catalytic converter, or air cleaner, depending
depending on coolant temperature, and lambda value. The OBD II requirement
requirement is that the
secondary air system shall have the diagnostic system monitor the
the proper functioning of the secondary air delivery, and any air switching valve
(solenoid).
The critical parameters of the secondary air system are monitored
monitored and if found to be out of permissible range of values, the fault
fault code is set. The MIL is
illuminated.
Secondary air diagnostics are described in more detail in a later
later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Comprehensive Components Monitoring includes all the sensors, solenoids,
solenoids, fuel injectors, fuel pump, ignition coil, actuators
(valves), and the associated wiring, ground, and power supply. The
The following components with their DTCs are described
below:
uManifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor DTCs 105 - 109
u Intake air temperature sensor DTCs 110110-114
uOxygen sensor sensor DTCs 130 -167
uMass air flow (MAF) sensor DTCs 100100-104
uThrottle position sensor DTCs 120120-124, 220220-229
uCrankshaft angle sensor DTCs 335335-344, 385385-389
u Engine coolant temperature sensor DTCs 115115-119, 125125-126
uKnock sensor DTCs 325325-334
uEngine speed sensor DTCs 320320-323
uVehicle speed sensor DTCs 500500-503
uMisfire (sensor) detector DTCs 300300-312
uCanister vent valve DTCs 440440-455
u Purge valve DTCs 465465-469
uIgnition coil (ignition control) DTCs 350350-379
uFuel system (fuel metering) DTCs 170170-195, 230230-233
uIndividual fuel injectors DTCs 251251-296
uEGR sensor/ valve DTCs 400400-408
uIdle air control (IAC) valve DTCs 505505-507
uSecondary air valve DTCs 410410-419
uFuel level sensor DTCs 460460-464
uCatalytic converter DTCs 420420-434

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
The OBD II diagnostics consist of conducting
tests on all the sensors and actuators listed
above. The nature of these tests is
described below. If any fault is detected in
any of the tests of these devices including ,
sensor or actuator component, electrical
circuit, wiring, and power source, the
corresponding diagnostic trouble code
(DTC) assigned in SAE J 2120 to that fault,
is displayed and the malfunction
indication light (MIL)is illuminated.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
SAE J 2012 standard defines the recommended practice for diagnostic trouble codes (DTC) of
all comprehensive components listed above. The DTC consists of an alpha-numeric
designator p0 - p3 for powertrain, where p0 codes belong to SAE controlled codes, P1 belong to
manufacturer, and the rest are reserved for future use. The P0 codes are followed by three digit
codes assigned to individual faults. The assignment of the proper designator should be
determined by the PCM. In case of ambiguity, the upper most nibble of the two -byte code
message as defined in SAE J 1979 will define the source system as follows: P0 - 0000, and P1 0001. This standard defines diagnostic trouble codes for all the circuits, components, and
systems which are controlled by SAE, namely P0 codes. The P0 codes are defined by four
different categories: General Circuit Malfunction, Range/Performance Problem, Low Circuit
Input, and High Circuit Input. Manufacturers can define specific DTCs to meet their controller
algorithms, but all DTC words must meet the terms definitions specified in SAE J 1930
standard for Diagnostic terms, definitions, abbreviations, and acronyms. The definition of these
four categories of faults will be described first. Then the DTCs for different faults for each
sensor and actuator listed above will be described. SAE J 2012 provides guidance (definitions)
for message formats, Parameter Identification numbers (PIDs) and their definitions with actual
examples for compliance. The main aspects of these definitions are covered below. For more
detailed knowledge of the DTCs and their messages, please refer to SAE J 2012, SAE J 1979, and
SAE J 1930.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
General Circuit Malfunction: This is a general purpose failure resulting in the component
not responding with expected value or any value. This could be due to short circuit in the
circuit wiring, or an open circuit, or a complete break down of the function resulting in
a wrong response including no response.
Range/Performance: This is the case when the component is functional in general terms
except that the response value is not within the normal operating range. This can be due to
stuck at 0 or stuck at 1 fault, or erratic, intermittent, or skewed values indicating poor
performance of the circuit, component, or system.
Low Circuit Input: The circuit voltage, frequency or other signal measured at the control
module input terminal or Pin is at or near zero. This is measured with the external circuit,
component, or system connected. The signal type (voltage, frequency) shall be included in
the message in place of the word input.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
High Circuit Input: The circuit voltage, frequency or other signal measured at the control
module input terminal or Pin is at or near full scale. This is measured with the external circuit,
component, or system connected. The signal type (voltage, frequency) shall be included in
the message in place of the wordinput.
DTC codes are grouped in different categories. Each category has 100 codes assigned to it
as follows: P01 - Fuel and Air metering 100-199, P02 - Fuel and Air metering,
P03 - Ignition system or Misfire 300-389, P04 - auxiliary emission controls 400 - 485,
and P05 - vehicle speed, idle control, and auxiliary inputs 500 - 574, P06 - Computer and
auxiliary outputs 600- 605, and P07 Transmission 700 - 790.
Since OBD II focuses on emissions control only DTCs upto P04 followed by three digit
fault code are covered here.
DTCs are defined to indicate a suspected trouble or problem area and are intended
as a directive to the proper service procedure. DTC s should not be used to indicate the
absence of problems but only to indicate specific fault. The decision to illuminate MIL for
any DTC is manufacture specific based on their testing of how each system malfunction
affects emissions.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Core DTCS: Core DTCs are those codes which have achieved compliance uniformly
throughout the industry. For these, a common DTC number, and fault message is assigned.
Undefined DTCs are reserved for future use. Even though the service procedures for
rectifying each of these DTCs may vary among manufacturers, the fault indicated by
the DTC is common enough to be assigned a particular fault code.
Non-Uniform DTC: These are fault codes that have very little commonality among
manufacturers due to system differences, implementation differences, or diagnostic
strategy differences. Manufacturers who define their own DTCs in this area are
urged to remain consistent across their product line when assigning codes in manufacturer
controlled area. Same groupings should be used as in SAE controlled area, i.e.., 100s and 200s
for fuel and air metering, 300 for ignition system or misfire, etc.
Each defined DTC is assigned a message to indicate the circuit, component, or system area
that is faulty. The messages are organized such that different messages related to a
particular sensor or system are grouped together. In cases where there are various fault
messages for different types of faults, the group also has a Generic message as the fault
Code/Message of the group. Manufacturer has a choice to use the specific or generic fault
code, provided only one code is used consistently to describe that fault.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
In a case where messages are broken down into more specific fault descriptions for a
circuit, component, or system, as is done in complex cases, the manufacturer should
choose the fault code most applicable to their diagnosable fault. The messages are
intended to allow the manufacturers to use them as often as possible yet still not
conflict with their specific repair procedures. Each code should lead to a specific
repair procedure(s).
Examples: As a guide to clarify the above points a few examples are given.
For manufacturers choosing to implement basic diagnostics that provide general
fault information but depend on service procedures and Off-board diagnostics to
isolate the problem, general circuit, component, and system codes will be used.
For example, if a fault is detected in in the throttle position sensor circuit, instead
of burdening the OBD II with determining the specific type of fault, a Code P0120
would be stored indicating some type of problem with that circuit. The service
procedure would then allow the service technician to determine the type of fault
and the specific location of the fault. On these types of systems, such as sensors,
actuators, coils, and switches, a shorted sensor input, an open sensor input, and even
out of range sensor output would all set the same fault code.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
However, manufacturers choosing to allow the OBD II to better isolate the fault to specific
cause would not use the general fault code/message, but would use the more specific
code/message associated with the particular circuit, component, or system.
For example, in diagnosing a 5 volt reference throttle position sensor, if the input signal at
the PCM is stuck at near 0 volt, the manufacturer has the choice to select either of two codes:
P0120 (general malfunction), or P0122 (specific low circuit input ), depending on the
manufacturers diagnostic procedures. The root cause of this fault can be any one of electrical
or mechanical problems. Identification of the root cause is done using the diagnostic
procedures and is not implied by the DTC message, thus allowing the manufacturer the
flexibility in assigning DTCs.
The powertrain control strategies in performing OBD II diagnostics depend on each
manufacturer who has considerable flexibility as to how the diagnostics are implemented
provided the above guidelines of SAE J 2012, SAE 1979, and SAE J 1930 are complied with.
A typical use of OBD II procedure is given below as a generic example:
The diagnostic mode is entered by switching on the ignition and then simultaneously
depressing the OFF and Warmer buttons on the climate control system (cadillac).

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
The fault codes are displayed by flashing the Check Engine light and entering the
display mode. Each fault code is displayed in sequence starting with the code that
checks that all display segments are working correctly.
After verifying that all display segments are working, the fault codes for all component
failures are displayed in sequence, beginning with the lowest and proceeding to the
highest code. The mechanic notes the fault codes that are displayed , and using a
reference manual, identifies the failed components. The fault codes must comply with
the SAE J 2012 standard. After all fault codes are displayed, special code appears
on the display indicating the end of display, and the engine control system awaits
further action by the mechanic.
Typically the check engine light on the instrument panel is illuminated whenever any
fault occurs. For emissions related faults the MIL light will not go out until cleared from
memory by the mechanic. For non-emissions related faults the MIL light goes out
automatically if the malfunction clears. However the PCM stores the DTC associated
with the detected failure until the diagnostic system is manually cleared or
until a specified number of engine cycles (twenty) occur with no malfunction. For
some DTCs (of lesser consequence) there is no activation of the check engine MIL light.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
whenever a defect occurs the mechanic must follow a specific procedure to isolate the
particular problem. These procedures are outlined in the shop manuals.
An example procedure will be illustrated for an Oxygen sensor fault, P0130 which
indicates the sensor circuit malfunction. If you recall from the Oxygen sensor behavior
described earlier, the O2 sensor switches between 0 (100 mv) and 1 volt (900 mv) as
the A/F mixture switches between the extreme conditions of lean and rich . Recall also
that this voltage swing requires that the O2 must be at a temperature above 2000 C.
The voltage of cold O2 sensor is about 0.5 volt with a bias of 0.45 Volt and the
electronic control system will not go into closed-loop operation when O2 is cold.
Possible causes of fault code P0130 include:
O2 sensor is not functioning correctly
Circuit wiring is defective ( stuck at some value)
The control (circuit) unit processing O2 sensor signal is not functioning properly
Further investigation is required to attempt to isolate the specific problem.
To check the operation of the O2 sensor , the average value of its output voltage is measured
using the OBD II procedure which will be explained presently.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
The desired voltage is displayed on the Instrument panel (IP) in multiples of 1/100 volt.
Thus to say , 00 corresponds to 0 volts and 99 corresponds to 0.99 volt, etc.
Using this voltage, the mechanic follows the following procedure: If the O2 sensor voltage
is less than 0.37volt and more than 0.57 volt, the mechanic is directed by the procedure
to investigate the circuit wiring of the O2 sensor for defects.
If the O2 sensor voltage is between 0.37 volt and 0.57 volt tests are performed
to determine whether O2 sensor or the control (circuit) unit processing the O2 sensor signal
is faulty.
The mechanic can then jumper the input leads together at the input to the control unit,
simulating a O2 sensor short circuit, and must read the sensor voltage value using the
OBD II display procedure. If this voltage is less than 0.05 volt, the control unit is
functioning correctly and the O2 sensor must be investigated for defects. If the indicated
sensor voltage is greater than 0.05 volt, the control unit is faulty and should be replaced.
when diagnosing a problem, the mechanic might wish to clear a fault code from the PCM
memory. A good reason to do this can be to test whether the failure is hard or
intermittent. To clear DTC the mechanic pushes OFF and HI buttons on IP
simultaneously until 00 is displayed on IP.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
After all fault codes are cleared, the mechanic has several choices of test modes including:
Request current powertrain diagnostic data (mode $01)
Request current powertrain Freeze Frame data (mode $02)
Request Emission related DTCs
Request OBD II test results of continuously
monitored / non-continuously monitored systems
Request control of OBD II system.
Mode $01: The purpose of this mode is to allow access to current emission related data values. The request for
information includes a Parameter Identification(PID) value that indicates to OBD II the specific information requested.
PID definition, scaling information, and display formats are included in SAE J 1979. for compliance.
The OBD II module will respond to this message by transmitting the requested data value last determined by the PCM.
All data values returned for sensor readings will be actual readings, not default or substitute values used by the PCM
because of a fault with that sensor..
Not all PIDs are applicable or supported by all systems. PID $00 is a bit encoded PID that indicates, for each module,
which PIDs that module supports. PID $00 must be supported by all modules that respond to a Mode $01 request as
defined in the standard SAE J 1979, because tools that conform to SAE J 1978 use this request to determine the protocol
information supported for OBD II communications.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
For more detailed information on all the request modes that you can use to perform
OBD II diagnostics using OBD II communications, and Scan Tool (SAE J 1978) , refer to
the HS -3000 SAE standards manual.
The powertrain control strategies to perform OBD II diagnostics in general are described so far.
Now the specific diagnostics performed for DTCs of the sensors, actuators, and systems
indicated below will be briefly described.
Manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor (DTCs
(DTCs 105 - 109): MAP sensor diagnostics are
performed for deterioration of piezoresister or capacitor characteristics. In case of electrical
circuit malfunction fault code 105 is assigned. If the sensor is indicating out of range reading fault
code 106 is assigned. If the sensor is indicating very low reading
reading fault code 107 is assigned. If the
sensor is indicating very high reading fault code 108 is assigned.
assigned. The expected value is estimated
using mass air flow sensor reading and engine parameters. If the
the sensor is indicating
intermittent faulty reading, fault code 109 is assigned.
Intake air temperature (IAT) sensor (DTCs
(DTCs 110110-114): IAT sensor diagnostics are performed for
deterioration of thermister characteristics. In case of thermister circuit malfunction fault code 110
is assigned. If the sensor is indicating out of range reading fault code 111 is assigned. The
expected value is estimated using coolant temperature sensor reading
reading and engine parameters. If
the sensor is indicating very low reading fault code 112 is assigned.
assigned. If the sensor is indicating
very high reading fault code 113 is assigned. If the sensor is indicating intermittent faulty
reading fault code 114 is assigned.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Oxygen Sensor (O2 ) Sensor ( DTCs 130-167): O2 sensor diagnostics are
performed to check deterioration of electrochemical pumping action that
generates voltage sensitivity to the oxygen density in the exhaust
manifold. In case of Zirconia electrode circuit malfunction fault code 130
is assigned. If the O2 sensor is indicating slow response fault code 133 is
assigned. The expected value is estimated using closed-loop frequency
and engine parameters. If the O2 sensor is indicating very low voltage
fault code 131 is assigned. If the O2 sensor is indicating very high
voltage fault code 132 is assigned. If the O2 sensor is indicating no
activity, fault code 134 is assigned. In case of O2 sensor heater circuit
malfunction fault code 135 is assigned. The other codes from 135 to 167
are assigned to similar faults for other O2 sensors and heaters in other
catalytic converters in the system. Oxygen sensor diagnostics are
described in detail in alter section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Mass air flow (MAF) sensor (DTC 100-104):
MAF sensor diagnostics are performed for deterioration of electrical
and resister characteristics. In case of electrical circuit malfunction
fault code 100 is assigned.
If the sensor is indicating out of range 1reading fault code 101 is
assigned. If the sensor is indicating very low reading fault code 102 is
assigned. If the sensor is indicating very high reading fault code 103 is
assigned. The expected value is estimated using MAP sensor reading
and engine parameters. If the sensor is indicating intermittent faulty
reading fault code 104 is assigned.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Throttle position Sensor (TPS) ( DTCs 120-124, 220-229):
TP sensor diagnostics are performed for deterioration of potentiometer operated
switch A circuit characteristics. In case of switch A circuit malfunction
fault code 120 is assigned. If the switch A circuit is indicating out of range
reading fault code 121 is assigned. If the switch A circuit is indicating very low
reading fault code 122 is assigned. If the switch A circuit is indicating very high
reading fault code 123 is assigned. The expected value is estimated using air flow
sensor reading and engine parameters. If the switch A circuit is indicating
intermittent faulty reading fault code 124 is assigned. For switch B circuit , fault
codes 220-224 are set for identical faults listed above. For switch C circuit , fault
codes 225-229 are set for identical faults listed above.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics

Crankshaft Angular Position Sensor ( DTCs 335-344, 385- 389):

Crankshaft angular position sensor diagnostics are performed
for deterioration of magnetic reluctance of sensor A circuit
characteristics. In case of sensor A circuit malfunction fault
code 335 is assigned. If the sensor A circuit is indicating out
of range reading fault code 336 is assigned. If the sensor A
circuit is indicating very low reading fault code 337 is assigned.
If the sensor A circuit is indicating very high reading
fault code 338 is assigned. The expected value is estimated
using engine speed another engine parameters.
If the sensor A circuit is indicating intermittent faulty reading fault
code 339 is assigned. For sensor C circuit , fault
codes 34 0-344 are set for identical faults listed above.
For sensor B circuit , fault codes 385-389 are set for
identical faults listed above.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor ( DTCs 115-119, 125-126):
Engine Coolant Temperature sensor diagnostics are
performed for deterioration of thermister characteristics. In case of thermister
and electrical circuit malfunction fault code 115 is assigned.
If the sensor circuit is indicating out of range reading fault code 116 is assigned.
If the sensor circuit is indicating very low reading fault code 117 is assigned. If
the sensor circuit is indicating very high reading fault code 118 is assigned.
The expected value is estimated using engine parameters. If the sensor circuit
is indicating intermittent faulty reading fault code 119 is assigned. For
insufficient coolant temperature for closed loop fuel control fault code 125 is
assigned. For insufficient coolant temperature for stable operation fault code
126 is assigned.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Knock Sensor ( DTCs 325-334): Knock sensor diagnostics are
performed for deterioration of piezoelectric or magneto restrictive
characteristics. In case of electrical circuit malfunction fault code 325 is
assigned. If the sensor 1 circuit is indicating out of range reading
fault code 326 is assigned. If the sensor 1 circuit is indicating very low
reading fault code 327 is assigned. If the sensor 1 circuit is indicating
very high reading fault code 328 is assigned. Knocking is detected by
the oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric device or the voltage
developed by the magnetorestrictive device when knocking occurs. If
the sensor 1 circuit is indicating intermittent faulty reading fault code
329 is assigned.
If the sensor 2 circuit is indicating same faults as listed above, fault codes
330-3334 are assigned to the respective faults. Knock sensor diagnostics
are described in detail in a later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics

Engine Speed Sensor ( DTCs 320-323):

Engine speed sensor diagnostics are performed for eterioration of
magnetic reluctance characteristics.
In case of electrical circuit malfunction fault code 320 is assigned.
If the sensor circuit is indicating out of range reading fault code 321 is
assigned. If the sensor circuit is indicating no signal , fault code 322 is
assigned. The expected value is estimated using engine parameters.
If the sensor is indicating intermittent faulty reading, fault code 323 is
assigned.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Vehicle Speed Sensor ( DTCs 500-503):
Vehicle speed sensor diagnostics are
performed for deterioration of magnetic reluctance and
electrical characteristics. In case of electrical
circuit malfunction fault code 500 is assigned.
If the sensor circuit is indicating out of range reading
fault code 501 is assigned. If the sensor circuit is
indicating very low reading fault code 502 is
assigned. If the sensor is indicating very high/erratic/
intermittent reading fault code 503 is assigned.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Misfire Detector( DTCs 300-312):
Misfire sensor diagnostics are
performed for reduction of cylinder torque due to lack of
combustion. In case of detecting misfire in cylinder 1
fault code 300 is assigned. The fault codes for misfires in
cylinder 2 to 12 are similarly assigned to 301 - 312
respectively. Misfire is described in detail in a later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Evaporative Emission control system (Purge flow) ( DTCs 465-469):
Purge flow sensor circuit diagnostics are performed for deterioration
of Purge flow sensor circuit . In case of Purge flow sensor circuit
malfunction fault code 465 is assigned. If the Purge flow sensor
circuit is having range/performance problem purge flow fault code
466 is assigned. If the Purge flow sensor circuit has detected a low
value, fault code 467 is assigned. If the Purge flow sensor circuit
has detected a high value, fault code 468 is assigned. If the Purge
flow sensor circuit has intermittent fault, fault code 469 is assigned..

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Evaporative Emission control system (Purge valve) ( DTCs 440-445):
Purge valve diagnostics are performed for deterioration of evaporative emission
control system. In case of evaporative emission control system malfunction fault
code 440 is assigned. If the evaporative emission control system is having
incorrect purge flow due to faulty purge valve, fault code 441 is assigned. If the
evaporative emission control system has detected small leak, fault code 442 is
assigned. If the evaporative emission control system has purge control valve
circuit malfunction fault code 443 is assigned. If the evaporative emission control
system has purge control valve circuit open, fault code 444 is assigned. If the
evaporative emission control system has purge control valve circuit shorted fault
code 445 is assigned. Evaporative system diagnostics are covered in detail in a
later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Evaporative Emission control system (Vent valve)
( DTCs 446-449):
If the evaporative emission control system vent control circuit
malfunction fault code 446 is assigned.
If the evaporative emission control system vent control circuit
open, fault code 447 is assigned.
If the evaporative emission control system vent control circuit
shorted, fault code 448 is assigned.
If the evaporative emission control system vent valve/solenoid circuit
malfunction, fault code 449 is assigned. Evaporative emission control
system diagnostics are described in detail in later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Evaporative Emission control system (Pressure sensor)
( DTCs 450-455):
If the evaporative emission control system pressure sensor
is experiencing malfunction, fault code 450 is assigned.
If the evaporative emission control system pressure sensor
has range/performance problem, fault code 451 is assigned.
If the evaporative emission control system pressure sensor
has low input, fault code 452 is assigned.
If the evaporative emission control system pressure sensor
has high input, fault code 453 is assigned.
If the evaporative emission control system pressure sensor
is experiencing intermittent fault, fault code 454 is assigned.
If the evaporative emission control system pressure sensor
is detected having leak, which is gross, fault code 455 is assigned.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Ignition Coil ( DTCs 350-379):
Ignition coil diagnostics are performed for deterioration of ignition coil
primary/secondary characteristics. In case of ignition coil primary/secondary electrical
circuit malfunction, fault code 350 is assigned.
In case of ignition coil A primary/secondary electrical circuit malfunction, fault code 351
is assigned. Similarly for the case of ignition coil B to L primary/secondary electrical
circuit s' malfunction, fault codes 352-362 are assigned. If timing reference high
resolution signal A has malfunction fault code 370 is assigned. If timing reference high
resolution signal A has too many pulses fault code 371 is assigned.
If timing reference high resolution signal A has too few pulses fault code 372 is assigned.
If timing reference high resolution signal A has intermittent fault, fault code 373 is
assigned.
If timing reference high resolution signal A has no pulses, fault code 374 is assigned.
If timing reference high resolution signal B has similar faults, fault codes 375-379
respectively are assigned.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Fuel Trim Fuel system (fuel metering) ( DTCs 170-195, 230-233 ):
Fuel trim diagnostics are performed for deterioration of fuel trim values.
In case of fuel trim malfunction (Bank 1)fault code 170 is assigned. If the
fuel trim is indicating too lean system, fault code 171 is assigned. If the
fuel trim is indicating too rich system fault code 172 is assigned.
In case of fuel trim malfunction (Bank 2)fault code 173 is assigned. If the
fuel trim is indicating too lean system, fault code 174 is assigned. If the
fuel trim is indicating too rich system fault code 175 is assigned. Fuel
trim diagnostics are described in detail in later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Individual Fuel Injectors ( DTCs 251-296):
Injection pump fuel metering control circuit diagnostics are
performed for deterioration of fuel injection characteristics. In case of Injection pump fuel
metering control A (Cam/rotor/injector) malfunction, fault code 251 is assigned. In case of
Injection pump fuel metering control A (Cam/rotor/injector) range/performance problem,
fault code 252 is assigned. In case of Injection pump fuel metering control A
(Cam/rotor/injector) Low value, fault code 253 is assigned. In case of Injection pump fuel
metering control A (Cam/rotor/injector) high value, fault code 254 is assigned. In case of
Injection pump fuel metering control A (Cam/rotor/injector) intermittent fault, fault code
255 is assigned. For control B
faults similar to A, fault codes 256 to 260 are respectively assigned.
fault codes 261-296 are assigned to injector coil circuits of cylinders 1 to 12 for low value, high
value, and contribution/balance fault respectively.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
EGR Sensor /Valve ( DTCs 400-408):
EGR sensor/ valve diagnostics are
performed for deterioration of exhaust gas flow characteristics. In case
of EGR flow malfunction fault code 400 is assigned. If the EGR flow is
indicating insufficient flow, fault code 401 is assigned. If the EGR flow
is indicating excessive flow, fault code 402 is assigned. If the EGR
circuit malfunction, fault code 403 is assigned. If the EGR circuit is
indicating range/performance problem , fault code 404 is assigned.
If the EGR sensor A circuit is indicating low value, fault code 405 is
assigned. If the EGR sensor A circuit is indicating high value, fault code
406 is assigned. Similar faults on sensor B circuit are assigned fault
codes 407, 408 respectively. EGR sensor/valve diagnostics are
described in detail in later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Idle air control (IAC) valve 505-507
Idle control system diagnostics are
performed for deterioration of idle air flow characteristics. In case of idle air
control system malfunction fault code 505 is assigned. If the idle air control
system is indicating lower than expected flow, fault code 506 is assigned. If
the idle air control system is indicating higher than expected flow ,fault code
507 is assigned.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Secondary air injection system ( DTCs 410-419):
Secondary air injection system diagnostics are
performed for deterioration of Secondary air injection system flow characteristics. In case of
Secondary air injection system malfunction, fault code 410 is assigned. In case of Secondary air
injection system incorrect flow, fault code 411 is assigned. In case of Secondary air injection
system switching valve A circuit open , fault code 413 is assigned.
In case of Secondary air injection system switching valve A circuit shorted , fault code 414 is
assigned. In case of Secondary air injection system switching valve B circuit malfunction, open ,
or shorted, fault codes 415-417 are assigned respectively. In case of Secondary air injection
system Relay A circuit malfunction , fault code 418 is assigned. In case of Secondary air
injection system Relay B circuit malfunction , fault code 419 is assigned.
Secondary air injection system diagnostics are described in detail in later section.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Fuel level Sensor ( DTCs 460-464):
Fuel level sensor circuit diagnostics are performed for deterioration of fuel level
sensor characteristics. In case of fuel level sensor
circuit malfunction fault code 460 is assigned. If the
fuel level sensor circuit is indicating out of range/performance problem, fault
code 461 is assigned. If the fuel level sensor circuit
is indicating very low reading, fault code 462 is assigned. If the
fuel level sensor circuit is indicating very high reading fault code 463 is assigned.
The expected value is estimated using flow parameters. If the
fuel level sensor circuit is indicating intermittent faulty reading, fault code 464 is
assigned.

Fundamentals of Powertrain
Control strategies & OBD II
Diagnostics
Catalytic converter ( DTCs 420-434):
Catalyst system efficiency diagnostics are performed for
deterioration of characteristics, for Bank 1. In case of Catalyst
system efficiency below threshold, fault code 420 is assigned. In
case of Warm Up Catalyst efficiency below threshold, fault code
421 is assigned. In case of Main Catalyst efficiency below
threshold, fault code 422 is assigned. In case of Heated Catalyst
efficiency below threshold, fault code 423 is assigned. In case of
Heated catalyst temperature, below threshold, fault code 424 is
assigned. For identical faults for Bank2 , fault codes 430 to 434
are respectively assigned. Catalytic converter diagnostics are
described in detail in later section.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics

OBD II tests all sensors, actuators (valves) , switches, and wiring for proper connectivity,
and checks the inputs and outputs of each device are within allowed range of values. The
following sensors and actuators are tested and monitored by the OBD II diagnostics:
Coolant temperature sensor
Intake air temperature sensor
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) sensor
Engine Speed (Angular speed) sensor
Exhaust Gas Oxygen (EGO) sensor
Throttle Position (Angle) (TPS) sensor
Crankshaft (angular) Position sensor
Mass Air Flow (MAF) sensor
Knock sensor
Ignition timing sensor
Ignition actuator
Idle air control (IAC) valve
Secondary air valve
EGR actuator (pintle valve)
Fuel metering actuator
Fuel injector

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Each sensor circuit listed below consists of mainly three parts:
Sensor, A signal processor, and a display device.
A Sensor converts the physical quantity such as temperature,
pressure, vacuum, RPM,
air flow, velocity, or acceleration into an electrical signal so that
it may be
operated by the signal processor

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
A signal processor performs some operation on the
intermediate signal, to increase power level, reliability, and
accuracy. The signal is then manipulated into a form so that
when displayed, it can be understood by the viewer.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
The display device converts the signal from signal processor
into a readable quantity.
The sensor converts energy from the form
of the measurement variable to an electrical signal. An ideal
analog sensor generates an output voltage which is
proportional to the quantity being measured:
v0 = Kq0, where K is the sensor calibration constant, v0 is
voltage, and q0 is the measured physical quantity, such as
temperature, etc.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
K is the sensor Calibration constant whose units are volts per
physical quantity measured. An ideal sensor has a linear
transfer characteristic. Real sensor
has noisy transfer characteristic. As a consequence the sensor
output needs signal processing which compensates for the noise
and transforms it, suitable for display.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Coolant temperature sensor: Principle of operation: The sensor consists of a
thermister mounted in a housing which is designed to be inserted in the coolant
stream. This housing is threaded with pipe threads which seal the assembly against
coolant leakage. A thermister is made of a semiconductor with a negative
temperature coefficient. The sensor is connected in an electrical circuit. see Figure
in handout. The sensor output varies inversely with temperature.
Diagnostics: The electrical characteristics of the thermister may deteriorate with
time. The reference voltage, and the series resister in the circuit are critical sources
of variation from correct temperature. The relation between resistance and
temperature is not linear in thermister. Silicon temperature sensors provide a
more linear output signal and are expected to replace thermister.
OBD II DTCs : There are two failure modes. One is engine coolant temperature
not correct, and other is insufficient temperature for closed-loop operation or
unstable operation.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics

Intake air temperature sensor

Principle of operation:

The sensor is similar in construction to the coolant temperature sensor. It is installed

in the air intake manifold upstream of the air flow meter. The temperature vs
voltage across the thermister is not completely linear.
Diagnostics: The electrical characteristics of the thermister may deteriorate with
time. The reference voltage, and the series resister in the circuit are critical sources
of variation from correct temperature. The relation between resistance and
temperature is not linear in thermister. Silicon temperature sensors provide a
more linear output signal and are expected to replace thermister.
OBD II DTCs : There is one failure mode. It is intake air temperature
not correct. OBD II DTC s are 110-114.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
:
Diagnostics
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) sensor: Principle of operation: The sensor measures the the
displacement of a diaphragm which is deflected by the manifold absolute pressure. There are two versions. In
strain gauge MAP sensor, the silicon diaphragm is sealed to a pyrex plate under vacuum. A set of sensing
resistors is formed around the edge of this vacuum. The resistors are formed by diffusing a doping
impurity into the silicon. Manifold pressure applied to the diaphragm cause it to deflect which changes the
resistance due to piezoresistivity
proportional to the pressure. An electrical signal voltage, proportional to the manifold pressure is obtained by
connecting the resistors in a Wheatstone bridge. In the second version of MAP sensor, a film electrode
is deposited on the inside face of two alumina plates forming a capacitor. The capacitor capsule is placed in a
sealed housing which is connected to manifold pressure by a small diameter tube. The deflection of these
plates when pressure is applied to them , causes their capacitance to change proportional to the applied
pressure. The capacitor is placed in an oscillator circuit. the frequency of oscillation is proportional to intake
temperature.
Diagnostics The electrical characteristics of the strain gauge MAP sensor may deteriorate, resulting in
incorrect output, stuck at low signal, stuck at high signal,, and intermittent failure.

OBD II DTCs

The failure modes of MAP sensor are diagnosed by OBD II.

DTCs for these faults are 105-109.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Engine Speed (Angular speed) sensor

Principle of operation

The sensor consists of a permanent magnet with a coil of wire wound around it.
A steel disk with protruding tabs pass between the pole pieces of this magnet.
The disk is mounted on the crankshaft. The number of tabs is half the number of
cylinders of the engine. The sensor is of magnetic reluctance type so that a
voltage is generated with the frequency which is a multiple of revolutions
per minute (RPM) of the crankshaft. By measuring the frequency of this
signal voltage the engine RPM is calculated.
Diagnostics The electrical

characteristics of the magnetic reluctance sensor may deteriorate,

resulting in incorrect output, stuck at low signal, stuck at high signal,,
and intermittent failure..

OBD II DTCs

The failure modes of Engine speed sensor are diagnosed by OBD II.
DTCs for these faults are 320-323..

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Exhaust Gas Oxygen (EGO) sensor
There are two types of EGO sensors, both based on the use of oxides of materials.
One uses Zirconia (ZrO2), and the other uses titanium oxide (TiO2 ). But ZrO2
is most popular and is described here. The sensor consists of ZrO2 sandwiched
between two platinum electrodes. One electrode is exposed to exhaust gas
in the exhaust manifold, and the other electrode is exposed to normal air for
reference. The electrode that is exposed to exhaust gas is coated with porous protective
overcoat.
The ZrO2 attracts oxygen ions and they accumulate on the
ZrO2 surface just inside platinum electrode. AS oxygen ions are negatively
charged, there will be a potential across the two electrodes if the oxygen ions
on exhaust gas side are less than the oxygen ions on the normal air side. The
polarity of this voltage is positive on the exhaust gas side and negative on air side.
The voltage depends on the concentration of the oxygen in the exhaust gas and the
EGO sensor temperature.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
EGO Oxygen sensor:

Diagnostics: Check for abrupt change in voltage at stoichiometry. Must have

rapid changes of output voltage in response to exhaust gas oxygen changes.
Must have large difference in sensor output voltage between rich and lean
A/F ratio conditions. Must have stable voltage with respect to exhaust
temperature.
OBD II DTCs
The failure modes of EGO sensor are diagnosed by OBD II.
DTCs for these faults are 400-408..

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
6141Diagnostics

Throttle Position (Angle) (TPS) sensor Principle of operation

The sensor is a rotary potentiometer driven by the shaft of the butterfly valve
in the throttle , and a linear potentiometer driven by the connecting rod
between the accelerator pedal and the throttle. The sensor uses a continuous
resistive film manufactured with thick film technique. The material is a
ceremet or resistive plastic compound. As the throttle butterfly valve rotates
the potentiometer voltage varies in proportion to the angle of rotation of
throttle.
Diagnostics

The electrical characteristics of the Throttle position sensor may deteriorate,

resulting in incorrect output, out of range/performance values, stuck at
low signal, stuck at high signal,, and intermittent failure..

OBD II DTCs The failure modes of throttle sensor are diagnosed by OBD II.
DTCs for these faults are 120-124.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Crankshaft (angular) Position sensor Principle of operation
The crankshaft position sensor is similar in operation to engine speed
sensor.

The electrical characteristics of the Crankshaft position sensor may deteriorate,

Diagnostics:
resulting in incorrect output, out of range/performance values, stuck at
low signal, stuck at high signal,, and intermittent failure..

OBD II DTCs The failure modes of crankshaft position sensor

are diagnosed by OBD II.
DTCs for these faults are 335-344.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Mass Air Flow (MAF) sensor

Principle of operation:

The sensor consists of a hot film element (resistor) which is electrically heated to a constant temperature,
that is measured by a temperature sensor. This element is incorporated in a whetstone bridge with
power supply from the output of an amplifier whose input is the differential voltage, of the bridge
resistors, which is balanced when there is no air flow over the hot film at constant temperature.
When air flows over the film, the film cools and the resistance of the film element drops, causing bridge
unbalance thereby producing an input voltage to the amplifier. The output of the amplifier is connected
to the bridge circuit and provides power for the circuit. The amplifier voltage changes the resistance in
such a way as to maintain a fixed hot film temperature relative to the inlet temperature.
The output voltage of the amplifier is a measure of the additional current required to heat the wire back
to its original temperature. The additional current required is a measure of the heat transfer and
therefore of air mass flow rate. The second arm of the bridge is a similar self-heated wire, placed in still
air which provides compensation for changes in air temperature. and amplifier output voltage. This
voltage is converted to frequency which is measured by PCM using a counter. The counter value is
proportional to the air flow rate (volume) from which the mass is computed by multiplying the volume
by the air density at that temperature.

Diagnostics:

The electrical characteristics of the Mass Air Flow sensor may deteriorate, resulting in incorrect output, out
of range/performance values, stuck at low signal, stuck at high signal,, and intermittent failure..

OBD II DTCs : The failure modes of crankshaft position sensor are diagnosed by OBD II.

DTCs for these faults are 100-104.

Knock sensor

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics

Principle of operation The sensor measures the sudden rise

in cylinder pressure during combustion which commonly occurs with high
manifold pressure and excessive spark advance. The sensor consists of
magnetorestrictive rods placed in a magnetic field of a coil. When excessive cylinder
pressure is sensed the rods change the flux field in the coil which produces a voltage
change in the coil. The engine cylinder is mechanically resonant to the knock
frequency band, and the output signal is responsive to the first time derivative of
acceleration, also called jerk. The output signal of the sensor forms a closed loop
system that retards the ignition to reduce the knock detected at the cylinders. The
problem of detecting knock is complicated by the presence of
other vibrations and noise in the engine.
Another version of knock sensor uses piezoelectric crystals, or the piezoresistance of
a doped silicon semiconductor.
Diagnostics The electrical characteristics of the Knock sensor may deteriorate,
resulting in incorrect output, out of range/performance values,
stuck at low signal, stuck at high signal,, and intermittent failure.
OBD II DTCs The failure modes of knock sensor are diagnosed by OBD II. DTCs for these
faults are 325-329.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Ignition timing sensor

Principle of operation Wiegand-effect sensor or

magnetic reluctance sensor can be used to set ignition timing. In the latter type,
a variable reluctance sensor is mounted on the engine block near a harmonic damper.
A harmonic damper is a steel disk-shaped device connected to the crankshaft
at the end opposite the flywheel. The damper has a notch cut in its outer surface. As a
notch in the rotating damper passes by a variable reluctance sensor, the decrease in
magnetic flux generates a voltage pulse in the sensor circuit. This voltage pulse is
used to set ignition timing
Diagnostics

The electrical characteristics of the Ignition timing sensor may

deteriorate, resulting in incorrect output, out of range/performance
values, stuck at low signal, stuck at high signal,, and intermittent
failure.

OBD II DTCs The failure modes of ignition timing sensor are diagnosed by OBD II. DTCs for
these faults are 350-379.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics

Principle of operation
Ignition actuator
The ignition actuator receives its control pulse from an ignition timing sensor.
An ignition timing sensor measures the engine angular position to calculate the
position at which the spark should occur. The ignition timing sensor generates a
pulse that triggers an electronic circuit that in turn drives the coil primary. This
circuit, when so triggered, switches off the current in the coil primary, thereby
initiating the spark. The concept of an engine position sensor used as an ignition
timing sensor is described previously.
In another scheme, a permanent magnet
couples to a ferromagnetic element which mounted on the distributor shaft and
rotates with it. As this element rotates , the time varying magnetic field induces
a voltage in the coil that is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic field.
Each time one of the cogs on the ferromagnetic wheel passes under the coil axis,
one of the sawtooth-shaped pulses is generated. This wheel has one cog for
each cylinder , and the voltage pulses provide a timing pulse for calculating the
spark time for the corresponding cylinder.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Diagnostics

OBD II DTCs

The electrical characteristics of the Ignition actuator may

deteriorate, resulting in incorrect output, out of range/performance
values, stuck at low signal, stuck at high signal,, and intermittent
failure.

The failure modes of ignition actuator

are diagnosed by OBD II. DTCs for these faults are 350-379.

EGR actuator

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics

Principle of operation

The EGR actuator is a vacuum operated

diaphragm valve, with a spring that holds the valve closed if no vacuum is applied.
The vacuum that operates the diaphragm is supplied by the intake manifold and is
controlled by a solenoid operated valve under control of the PCM. When the
solenoid is energized by the PCM the EGR valve is opened by the applied vacuum.
When the solenoid is deenergized the the vacuum is cut off from the EGR valve and
the spring holds the EGR valve closed. The amount of EGR is controlled by the
duty cycle of the pulsed control current that is proportional to the average time of
energized solenoid. The duty cycle, and the valve opening are properly controlled
to ensure exact amount of EGR is provided without adversely affecting emissions.
The duty cycle of the current pulse that energizes the solenoid ,
Diagnostics
and the EGR amount are correlated periodically by OBD II
diagnostics.
OBD II DTCs The failure modes of EGR flow are diagnosed by OBD II. DTCs for these faults
are 400-408.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Idle air control (IAC) valve Principle of operation The valve is an electronically
controlled throttle bypass valve which allows air to flow around the throttle plate
(which is closed due to low engine RPM and vehicle being stationary) and produces the
same effect as if the throttle is slightly opened. A stepper motor opens the pintle (valve)
allowing a limited amount of air to bypass the closed throttle plate. The stepper
motor controls the pintle movement accurately thus controlling the amount of
bypass opening into the intake manifold. The duty cycle of the stepper motor
is controlled by the PCM which monitors the pintle position and commands the
stepper motor to move back the pintle to open the bypass by the calculated
amount and move the pintle forward to close the bypass at the end of the duty cycle.
Diagnostics The duty cycle of the stepper motor , and the amount of bypass by the
pintle valve are correlated periodically by OBD II
diagnostics. The initial position and the final position of the pintle
valve are continuously checked.
OBD II DTCs

The failure modes of idle air flow are diagnosed by OBD II. DTCs for these
faults are 505-507.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics

Secondary air valves Principle of operation: The secondary air is controlled by two

solenoid valves similar to the EGR valve. One valve switches airflow to the exhaust
system or to outside air cleaner. The other valve switches air flow to the
exhaust manifold or to the second chamber of the three-way catalytic converter.
The air routing is done by the PCM based on engine coolant temperature, and
A/F ratio. During cold start the secondary air goes to exhaust manifold, and during
closed loop operation, secondary air goes into catalytic converter. During heavy
loads and during severe deceleration, secondary air is directed to air cleaner where
it has no effect on exhaust temperature.
Diagnostics The duty cycle of the current pulse that energizes the solenoid ,
and the secondary air flow are correlated periodically by OBD II
diagnostics.
OBD II DTCs

The failure modes of secondary air flow are diagnosed by OBD II.
DTCs for these faults are 410-419.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics

Fuel metering actuator

Principle of operation The actuator used for electronic
control of fuel metering is the throttle body fuel injector. The TBFI consists of one
or two solenoid-operated fuel injectors that are mounted in a housing on the intake
manifold. The fuel is injected into and atomized by the moving air stream that flows
into the intake manifold. PCM controls the amount of fuel. Fuel metering actuator
delivers fuel in precise amounts under PCM control. The amount of fuel injected into
the cylinder is determined by the length of time that the injectors are energized which is
their duty cycle. The injection time is synchronous with engine speed and is given by:
intake air amount/engine speed x compensation coefficient (correction factor) +
voltage-compensated injection time. Fuel trim is used to find the correction factor.
Compensation coefficients are dependent on driving conditions such as heavy load,
idle, or braking. Asynchronous injection is performed during start-up and
acceleration. Fuel injectors are based on multipoint injection in which each each
injector is mounted on the intake manifold of its cylinder.

Diagnostics PCM monitors the rate of updating fuel trim and the correction factor
to determine if the fuel metering actuator (and injectors ) is functioning
properly
OBD II DTCs The failure modes of fuel system are diagnosed by OBD II. DTCs for these
faults are 170-175.

Fuel injector

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Principle of operation

Individual fuel injectors located

in the intake manifold near the intake valve is the current practice. Each fuel injector
is a solenoid activated plunger which is normally closed inhibiting fuel delivery.
When
activated, the valve opens and a predetermined quantity of fuel is sprayed into the
air flowing into the cylinder and mixed with this air. This valve opening is timed
relative to the intake stroke by the PCM controller.
The fuel injector consists of a spray nozzle and a solenoid operated plunger. Whenever
the plunger is lifted from the nozzle, fuel flows at a fixed rate through the nozzle into
the air stream going to the intake manifold. The plunger acts as a fuel injection on-off
valve. The plunger position is controlled by a solenoid and a spring. When no current
is applied to the solenoid, the plunger is tightly held against the nozzle by a spring.
The plunger is pulled away from the nozzle when the solenoid is activated, causing
fuel to flow which is under pressure. The solenoid, plunger, and nozzle act as an
electrically switched valve, which is closed or open, depending on whether the
the control current is off or on respectively. The fuel flow rate is regulated by fuel
pressure and nozzle geometry. The amount of fuel is proportional to the time the valve
is open. The control current that operates the fuel injector is pulsed on and off, and the
Air/Fuel ratio is proportional to the duty cycle of the pulse train from the PCM
controller.

Sensors and Actuators

Employed in OBD II
Diagnostics
Diagnostics

The duty cycle of the current pulse that energizes the solenoid ,
and the fuel amount are correlated periodically by OBD II
diagnostics.

OBD II DTCs
The failure modes of fuel injector are diagnosed by OBD II. DTCs for these faults
are 251-296.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II Diagnostics
Powertrain Control Module (PCM) performs the following functions in relation to
OBD II Diagnostics:
Perform microprocessor-based self diagnostics to ensure
correct operation of the PCM and safe storage of
OBD II diagnostic data in memory.
Perform On-Board diagnostics in real time and alert the
driver by illuminating MIL in case of a fault
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations during open-loop
operation at start-up time.
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations in closed-loop control
during normal operation.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II
Perform microprocessor-based self diagnostics to ensure correct operation
of the PCM and safe storage of OBD II diagnostic data in memory.
The PCM performs the following self diagnostics:
Verify the checksum of the program memory in ROM with its function and
correct version.
Perform read and write test of RAM cells for fault free memory
Perform processor functions in CPU, peripheral devices including A/D
converters, watchdog timers, and registers to verify that the processor is
functioning properly.
Perform checks on stored vehicle data and verify that the
data is not corrupted and is within reasonable limits of vehicle operation.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II

Perform On-Board diagnostics in real time and alert the driver by illuminating
MIL in case of a fault . The PCM performs on-board diagnostics in real time
by interspersing diagnostics with vehicle control functions. The diagnostics
are classified into priority levels from 1 to 8 or 9. The highest priority level tests are
done every 1 millisecond, followed by next priority level tests every 5 milliseconds,
10 milliseconds, 20 milliseconds, 50 milliseconds, 100 milliseconds, 200 milliseconds,
500 milliseconds, and 1 second. The highest priority level tests are those that
effect safety and emissions to a high degree according to OBD II regulations.
These include Oxygen sensor (lambda sensor) , and fuel trim checks during
closed loop operation of the vehicle. The next priority checks are the interrupt
timers, and watchdog timers. The next priority tests are sensors, including EGO
sensor, Throttle position sensor, Misfire detection, MAP sensor, Engine RPM sensor,
MAF sensor, Crankshaft position sensor, and Engine coolant sensor.
The next priority tests are EGR intrusive tests, Catalytic converter's secondary air,
and canister purge, fuel level sensor, pedal actuator, and ignition timer.
The next priority checks are periodic self tests.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II

The PCM is interrupted by the real time scheduler during the performance of
its normal vehicle control functions when the on-board tests are due. At this time the
PCM saves its current state of the vehicle and performs the diagnostics. This
takes about 100 microseconds. Then the PCM returns to its normal vehicle
control functions. This repeats for each priority level diagnostics. In this
manner the PCM spends about 15- 40% of its time to diagnostics and the rest to
perform its normal vehicle control functions. The method of testing each component
depends on the electrical characteristics and vehicle functions performed by the
device. The PCM maintains the low and high limits for each test parameter, and
normal range of values and performance requirements for each component that it
tests. The PCM also has adequate hardware test capability to find a short circuit,
or open circuit, or the noise level of a signal, including battery, power supply, wiring
harness, each sensor, actuator and control unit related to emissions control.
The PCM tests each sensor by measuring each test parameter, such as input, or output
and comparing it with the expected value stored in the technical data for the sensor.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II

The PCM also compares the signals of the components under test with a
combination of information provided by other sensors, to verify the
reasonableness of values provided by the components. The noise level and the
performance of each signal of the component is checked as well. Actuators are
tested similarly to the way the sensors are tested for short circuit, open circuit, and
range and performance levels. The test method also includes computing a test
output of a sensor using different engine parameters and comparing them for
compliance. This is called analytical redundancy. The actuator under certain
conditions is intrusively activated and its output is measured to verify against the
expected value for proper operation. If discrepancies to the nominal values are
diagnosed in any component under test , the information is stored in memory
with all the relevant supporting data, such as engine speed, MAP sensor, coolant
temperature, and others. This is called Freeze Frame since it gives the vehicles
state at the instant of failure of that component.. Thus defects that appearance or
under certain conditions can be diagnosed. If the fault occurs only once during
several cycles, it is deleted.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II

If the fault persists for two cycles consecutively, it is not erased until the defect
is repaired by the technician. In case of an out of range output of a sensor , the
PCM substitutes a corresponding reasonable value for that vehicle condition
of operation. The PCM also provides clear information to the driver by
illuminating the MIL (Malfunction Indicator Light) in case of a defect without
causing alarm for minor problems. All relevant data for off-board diagnostics,
and repair are stored by the PCM in its memory for later use. In the case of a
defect that completely impairs the vehicle performance the PCM has the full
capability to switch the vehicle state to a safe state of lesser capability called
Limp Home state, in which the vehicle is brought to a safe degraded operating
condition, that includes a halt of the vehicle. The PCM communicates with the
OBD II scan tool and provides diagnostic data, and OBD II DTCs of all faults
experienced by the vehicle so far to the external tester to facilitate off-board
diagnostics, and vehicle repair. In this respect OBD II provides SAE J 1850 data
link for communication of diagnostic data, SAE J 2012 provides the DTC message
formats, and SAE J 1979 provides the test modes, requesting PCM for emissions
related powertrain diagnostics data.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II
OBD II Functions: These include catalyst monitoring, misfire monitoring,

evaporative system monitoring, secondary air system monitoring, fuel system

monitoring, oxygen sensor, monitoring, EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) system
monitoring, and comprehensive component monitoring.
Catalyst: PCM shall individually monitor the front catalyst or catalysts which
receive untreated engine out exhaust gas for malfunction. This is done by
monitoring the oxygen sensor in front of the catalyst. In addition the PCM
shall monitor the oxygen sensor situated down stream of the catalyst, and compare
the signals of the two sensors to verify that the catalysts are functioning properly.
A properly functioning catalyst shows a storage effect such that the oscillations
of the lambda oxygen sensor at the down stream of the catalyst are minimal or
zero, while the upstream oxygen sensor is oscillating with amplitude and frequency
of the limit cycle of the rich/lean, air /fuel mixture.
Misfire Detection: The PCM shall monitor engine misfire and identify cylinder
experiencing misfire. If a certain percentage of misfires within 200 or 1000 revolutions
is detected, a fault code is stored by the PCM and the MIL is illuminated by the PCM.
Misfire detection is critical to emissions and is described in detail in a later section.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II
Oxygen sensor: The PCM shall monitor the output voltage, the response rate, and
other parameters that can affect emissions, and all fuel control oxygen sensors for
malfunction. The algorithm involves monitoring for short circuit, or breaks, and
monitoring the switching frequency of the closed-loop control. If this is too slow
or too fast relative to the limit cycle frequency of the air/fuel mixture, then the
oxygen sensor is deemed defective. The PCM illuminates the MIL in the event of a
fault and stores the DTC and diagnostic data in memory. Heated sensors are
monitored using heater current, voltage, and sensor temperature .
Evaporative system: The PCM shall control the air flow of the complete evaporative
system. The PCM shall also monitor the emission of HC vapors into the atmosphere
by performing a pressure check and a vacuum check of the purge valve,
and the canister valve, using intrusive purge operations. The algorithm is two fold.
At idle position, the purge valve is activated and the lambda sensor is monitored
for its reaction which should indicate a rich reading (high voltage of 900 mv). For leak
detection of the evaporative system, the canister valve is closed, and the canister pressure is
decreased to about about -1.5 KPa. Then the complete system is turned off and the pressure
within the canister is monitored for variation with time. The pressure gradient, together with
other parameters like the amount of fuel, may indicate a leak. If the leak persists for two
consecutive cycles, the MIL is illuminated.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II
Secondary Air system: The PCM shall monitor the secondary air delivery system
and proper functioning of the air switching valves. The algorithm consists in
monitoring the lambda sensor for correlated deviations when the secondary air
flow is changed from exhaust manifold or to catalyst chamber or to outside air
cleaner.
Fuel system: The PCM shall monitor the fuel delivery system. The algorithm is to
monitor the deviations of the stoichiometric ratio which last for a longer time and
store them within the adaptive mixture controller consisting of short term fuel trim,
and long term block learn. If these values exceed defined limits, components of the
fuel system are deemed defective. This will result in illuminating the MIL and
storing the DTC in memory.
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) system: The PCM shall monitor the EGR system
for low and high flow rate malfunctions. The algorithm is two fold: At overrun, the
fuel is cut off and the EGR valve is completely opened. The flow of exhaust gas to
the intake manifold raises the manifold pressure, which is recorded. Secondly
monitor the increase of he manifold intake temperature when the EGR valve is
opened.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations during open-loop operation at start-up time.
The primary function of the PCM is to control the powertrain operation during
the start up and during the warm up conditions. In both the conditions, the
primary function of the PCM is to maintain the Air/Fuel ratio at or near
stoichiometry. The modes in which this control is accomplished are :
open-loop control and closed-loop control corresponding to start up and
warm up condition respectively. In this section,
we consider the open-loop control and in the next section we will describe the
closed-loop control by the PCM.
The open-loop control by the PCM is in effect during the start up of the vehicle
when the electronic fuel control system is not controlled by the lambda
oxygen sensor due to its low temperature (below 300 C). During this mode the
PCM controls the fuel system to remain in stoichiometry by using MAP, Engine RPM,
EGR and Coolant temperature sensor in stead of the lambda oxygen sensor.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II
The PCM obtains the mass air flow from the MAF sensor and obtains the mass
fuel required to keep the air/fuel ratio equal to stoichiometry (14.7) from lookup
tables. The inputs to the lookup table is MAP, Engine RPM, Coolant temperature,
and EGR, all of which are readily available by computation, or lookup table.
The value of the speed density product Ra* da is given by:
Ra = (Engine RPM/60) * ( Engine displacement/2)* volumetric efficiency - EGR volume flow rate
da = Ma / Ra , where Ma is the mass of air, and Ra is the volume at in take air temperature T.
Tables of da, the density of air measured versus temperature are available in lookup tables.
Engine displacement and volumetric efficiency are engine design parameters, which are
constant. Lookup tables with inputs: Engine RPM, MAP, T, and EGR give directly the
mass flow rate of air, which is product Ra* da . This is used as input into another lookup
table that gives the duty cycle of the fuel injector, which gives the amount of fuel required to
keep the A/F mixture at stoichiometry. This lookup is performed by the PCM to comply
with OBD II regulation mandated by CARB and EPA for controlling emissions..

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations in closed-loop control
during normal operation.
Closed-loop mode of control is selected by PCM when the lambda sensor has
attained a temperature more than 3000 C. The intake Air/Fuel ratio is
controlled in a closed loop by measuring the EGO at the exhaust manifold
and altering the input fuel flow rate with fuel injector to correct for a rich or
lean mixture indication. The PCM continuously adjusts the output signal to
the fuel injector to maintain stoichiometry by varying the duty cycle. Variations
in engine transport delay with RPM are corrected by reducing the cycle
frequency and duty cycle ramp rate with decreasing RPM. The fuel flow is
corrected by using fuel trim correction using short term update and long
term update scheme, to compensate for the engine performance over time.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations in closed-loop control.
Acceleration Enrichment: When heavy load is demanded by the driver, the
PCM adjusts the fuel control to provide enriched air/fuel mixture to maximize
engine torque and neglect emission control. This is for short time and is
approved by EPA. The PCM performs this by detecting high throttling angle
sensor voltage or high MAP sensor value. In case WOT, the PCM increases the
duty cycle of the fuel injector to the maximum allowed value, which may result
in A/F ratio of as low as 12:1.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations.
Deceleration Enleanment and Idle Speed Control: When the driver
decelerates the vehicle very hard, the PCM reduces the engine torque by
cutting off fuel , with decel fuel cut off mode in which the fuel injector is
turned off or the duty cycle is drastically reduced. A typical algorithm for
fuel injection duration for the desired Air/Fuel ratio of stoichiometry is given by:
T = base pulse width from lookup table for mass air flow + closed loop
correction factor closed loop correction factor is the fuel trim block learn value
alluded earlier.
For open-loop control , closed-loop correction factor is zero.
For closed-loop operation, correction factor, C, is given by:
C = I*A + B*F, where A and B are constants, and I is the integral part, and F is
the fractional part of the correction factor..

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations.
I and F are determined from the fuel trim, and EGO sensor. When EGO indicates
rich mixture , Fuel trim value I is reduced by 1, and increased by 1 for lean mixture.
The base pulse width of fuel injector is proportional to mass air flow given by:
T = K* Ra , where factor K is determined by the PCM, depending on the Mode of
fuel control. For closed-loop normal operation, K corresponds to stoichiometric
Air/Fuel mixture. For cold start, K corresponds to A/F = 12:1. For deceleration, K=0.
The mass air flow is calculated by the PCM as described before.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II Diagnostics
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations.

Idle Speed Control: When the throttle angle reaches its closed position
and engine RPM falls below a preset value (about 600), the PCM switches
to idle speed control mode. The PCM controls the idle air control
pintle (valve) to let air to flow into intake manifold, bypassing the closed
throttle to prevent the engine from stalling due to lack of torque. The
pintle is operated by a stepper motor, which withdraws the pintle from its
closed position (seat) to open the bypass that lets a limited amount of
air flow into the intake manifold. Idle speed is detected by the RPM sensor
indicating a low value, the vehicle is stationary, and throttle is closed. The
PCM adjusts the pintle to keep the idle speed around 600 to 700 RPM. The
pintle valve is completely closed when engine is not idling.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II Diagnostics
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations in closed-loop control.

EGR Control: At high engine load (high throttle angle), and high Engine RPM,
and at high engine coolant temperature, the cylinder temperature at combustion
reaches temperature greater than 30000 F which causes NOx emissions to increase
beyond the OBD II limits. For this reason, the PCM recirculates a small portion of
the exhaust gases into the intake manifold. This has the effect of reducing oxygen
content without reducing the mass of gas processed. The combustion imparts
energy to the inert exhausts gas as well as to the air charge. The net effect is
to retain much of the engine power while reducing the flame temperature
at part load, thus decreasing production of NOx. The PCM controls the EGR
valve depending on the throttle angle, engine RPM, coolant temperature. EGR is
completely closed during cold start and during start up of the engine.
The duty cycle of the EGR valve is obtained from predefined table lookup.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II Diagnostics
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations in closed-loop control.
EGR Control (contd) : The EGR signal can either control a valve opening, which is
detected by a valve position sensor, or the PCM can meter the exhaust gas
in the same way as the PCM meters the fuel in the fuel injector. The PCM uses
the sensor similar to throttle position sensor to determine the amount of EGR
fed into the air intake during open loop control mode, to make air/fuel ratio
calculation, when it is not stoichiometric ratio. This sensor gives an electrical signal
which is proportional to the amount of opening of the EGR valve that can be
used to compute the amount of EGR from the knowledge of the valves duty cycle.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II Diagnostics
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations.
Secondary Air management: The PCM controls the powertrain operation in
engine warm-up mode by selecting a warm-up time from a table lookup
table based on the coolant temperature. During engine warm-up the Air/Fuel
ratio is still rich as in during engine crank, when the engine is still cold. The PCM
controls the powertrain functions in open-loop mode and uses secondary air
management to bring up the converter temperature as well as EGO sensor
temperature, to go into closed-loop mode as soon as possible when the emissions
are lowest and meet OBD II requirements. The PCM provides extra oxygen rich air
to either the converter itself, or to the exhaust manifold. The catalyst temperature
must be above 2000 C to efficiently oxidize HC and CO and reduce NOx to N2 .
During warm-up when the catalytic converter is cold, the HC , and CO are oxidized
in the exhaust manifold. This creates extra heat to speed warm-up of the converter,
and EGO sensor, enabling the PCM to go into closed-loop control.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II Diagnostics
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations.
Secondary Air management (contd): The converter can be damaged if too much
heat is applied to it. This can occur if large amounts of HC and CO are oxidized in
exhaust manifold during heavy loads which call for fuel enrichment or during
severe deceleration. In such cases, the PCM directs the secondary air to the air
cleaner where it has no effect on exhaust temperature.
After warm-up, the main use of secondary air is to provide an oxygen rich air to the
second chamber of the three-way catalyst, dual-chamber converter system. In the
dual chamber converter, the first chamber contains rhodium, and platinum to
reduce NOx and to oxidize HC and CO. The second chamber contains only platinum
and palladium.. The extra oxygen from the secondary air improves the ability of the
converter to oxidize the HC and CO in the second converter chamber. The PCM
controls the secondary air using two solenoid valves similar to EGR valve.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II Diagnostics
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations.
Secondary Air management (contd): The first solenoid valve switches air flow to the
air cleaner or to the exhaust system. The second solenoid valve switches air flow either
to the exhaust manifold or to the catalytic converter. The PCM controls the air flow
depending on the engine coolant temperature, and Air/Fuel ratio which is not
stoichiometric ratio in this mode, which is open-loop control.
Evaporative Emission Canister Purge: The PCM releases the collected fuel
fuel vapors in the canister into the intake manifold via a solenoid controlled purge
valve periodically, during closed loop operation. This will simplify fuel calculation
during open-loop control.

Functionality of Powertrain
Control Module (PCM) in
OBD II Diagnostics
Perform powertrain control functions to reduce emissions
and meet OBD II regulations.
Automatic system Adjustment:: The PCM during closed-loop mode of control
checks the open-loop calculated air/fuel ratios and compares them with
closed-loop average limit values which are the ideal values for minimum
emissions. If the difference is large, the PCM corrects the open-loop lookup
table values so that the open-loop values are in close agreement with the
closed-loop values. This updated open-loop lookup table is stored in
non-volatile RAM memory. When the engine is started next time the PCM
uses the new lookup values which are closer to the stoichiometric ratio.
This feature is important since it enables the PCM to adjust to long-term changes
in engine and fuel system conditions due to wear and usage. This is similar
to fuel trim algorithm for fuel injection control.
These are all the PCM control functions performed to reduce emissions
and comply with OBD II requirements.