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1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
In 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary,
the castle of Visegrd, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of
Poland, Bohemia and Hungary.[26] They agreed to cooperate closely in the eld of politics and commerce, inspiring their late successors to launch a successful Central
European initiative.[26]
In the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted
Magdeburg rights.
1
1.1
Historical perspective
Middle Ages
A view of Central Europe dating from the time before the First
World War (1902):[27]
Central European countries and regions: Germany and AustriaHungary (without Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia)
Regions located at the transition between Central Europe and
Southern Europe: Romania
1.4
Mitteleuropa
1.3
Interwar period
3
mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to dene Central
Europe.[36]
The interwar period (19181939) brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and
the concept of Central Europe took a dierent character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part
the countries that have (re)appeared on the map of Europe: Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland. Central Europe ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead
or dominate and became a territory of various integration movements aiming at resolving political, economic
and national problems of new states, being a way to
face German and Soviet pressures. However, the conict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente
nor Intermarium (Midzymorze) ideas succeeded.
The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced
mainly German states (Germany, Austria), non-German
territories being an area of intended German penetration
and domination German leadership position was to be
the natural result of economic dominance.[29] After the
war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the
centre of the concept. At that time the scientists took interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in
Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and
Interwar Central Europe according to Emmanuel de the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.[37]
Martonne (1927)
Hungarian scholar Magda Adam wrote in her study Versailles System and Central Europe (2006): Today we
know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little
Entente, military alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania
and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europes cooperation nor to ght German expansion, but in a wrong perceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must
be kept down.[37]
The avant-garde movements of Central Europe were
an essential part of modernisms evolution, reaching its
Little Entente, Central European defense union of peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The
Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia[34]
Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles
County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of
the avant-gardes in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany,
Hungary, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia from 1910
to 1930.[35] The manifestos and magazines of Western
European radical art circles are well known to Western
scholars and are being taught at primary universities of
their kind in the western world.
CE countries, Sourcebook of Central European Avant1.4
Gardes 19101930 (L.A. County Museum of Art)[35]
According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included: Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Switzerland. Italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located
Mitteleuropa
1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
destroyed this kind of culture instead.[38][42][43] However,
the term Mitteleuropa is now widely used again in German education and media without negative meaning, especially since the end of communism. In fact, many people from the New states of Germany do not identify themselves as being part of Western Europe and therefore prefer the term Mitteleuropa.
Northern Europe
Sweden
B.-H.
K.
L.
M.
Mac.
S.
S.M.
Russia
Norway
Estonia
France
Slo
ia
vak
Moldova
Hungary Romania
L.
Switzerland
Andorra
Ukraine
Central Europe
Czech Republic
Western
Europe
Black Sea
S.
Monaco
Poland
Netherlands
Germany
Belgium
al
Lithuania
Belarus
United
Kingdom
ug
Baltic Sea
North Sea
Ireland
Por
t
Eastern Europe
Latvia
Denmark
Spain
Finland
S.M.
Croatia
B.-H. Serbia
M.
Italy
Albania
Southern Europe
Bulgaria
Southeastern
K.
Europe
Mac.
Turkey
Greece
Mediterranean Sea
Cyprus
Map based on documents of the institute
Stndigen Ausschuss fr geographische Namen (StAGN)
Malta
The Mitteleuropa: AT, CRO, CZ, GER, HUN, POL, SVK, SLO,
EST/LAT/LTV, large parts of ROM, minor parts of FRA, ITA,
RUS, SRB, UA
ing AustriaHungary and Germany in their pre-war formations but usually excluding the Baltic countries north
of East Prussia). According to Fritz Fischer Mitteleuropa was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 18711918
by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to
build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East
and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus.[39] Later on, professor Fritz Epstein Politically independent CE states during Cold war: Finland,
argued the threat of a Slavic Drang nach Westen (West- Austria, Yugoslavia[44]
ern expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence
of a Mitteleuropa ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever
came into being.[40]
Following World War II, large parts of Europe that were
In Germany the connotation was also sometimes linked culturally and historically Western became part of the
to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse Eastern bloc. Czech author Milan Kundera (emigrant to
of Cenline which were lost as the result of World War II, an- France) thus wrote in 1984 about the Tragedy[45]
tral
Europe
in
the
New
York
Review
of
Books.
Connexed by Peoples Republic of Poland and the Soviet
sequently,
the
English
term
Central
Europe
was
increasUnion, and ethnically cleansed of Germans by communist authorities and forces (see expulsion of Germans after ingly applied only to the westernmost former Warsaw
World War II) due to Yalta Conference and Potsdam Con- Pact countries (East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia,
states that were
ference decisions. In this view Bohemia and Moravia, Hungary) to specify them as communist
[46]
This
usage continculturally
tied
to
Western
Europe.
with its dual Western Slavic and Germanic heritage, comued
after
the
end
of
the
Warsaw
Pact
when
these counbined with the historic element of the "Sudetenland", is a
tries
started
to
undergo
transition.
core region illustrating the problems and features of the
entire Central European region.
The term Mitteleuropa conjures up negative historical associations among some elder people, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in
the region.[41] Most Central European Jews embraced
the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th
century.[42] German-speaking Jews from turn of the 20th
century Vienna, Budapest and Prague became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi version of Mitteleuropa
The post-World War II period brought blocking of the research on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries,
as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine.
On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western
Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe.[47]
At the end of the communism, publicists and historians
in Central Europe, especially anti-communist opposition,
came back to their research.[48]
1.6
Current views
According to Karl A. Sinnhuber (Central Europe: Mitteleuropa: Europe Centrale: An Analysis of a Geographical Term)[44] most Central European states were unable to
preserve their political independence and became Soviet
Satellite Europe. Besides Austria, only marginal Central
European states of Finland and Yugoslavia did preserve
their political sovereignty to a certain degree, being left
out from any military alliances in Europe.
According to Meyers Enzyklopdisches Lexikon,[49] Central Europe is a part of Europe composed by the surface of the Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Germany,
Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania Habsburg-ruled lands
and Switzerland, and northern marginal regions of Italy
and Yugoslavia (northern states - Croatia and Slovenia),
A concept underlining the links connecting Belarus
as well as northeastern France.
and Ukraine with Russia and treating the Russian
Empire together with the whole Slavic Orthodox
population as one entity this position is taken by
1.6 Current views
the Russian historiography.
Rather than a physical entity, Central Europe is a concept of shared history which contrasts with that of the
surrounding regions. The issue of how to name and dene the Central European region is subject to debates.
Very often, the denition depends on the nationality and
historical perspective of its author.
Main propositions, gathered by Jerzy Koczowski,
include:[50]
West-Central and East-Central Europe this conception, presented in 1950,[51] distinguishes two
regions in Central Europe: German West-Centre,
with imperial tradition of the Reich, and the
East-Centre covered by variety of nations from
Finland to Greece, placed between great empires of
Scandinavia, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union.
Central Europe as the area of cultural heritage of
the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth Ukrainian,
Belarusian and Lithuanian historians, in cooperation
(since 1990) with Polish historians, insist on the importance of the concept.
2 STATES
Multinational empires were a characteristic of Central Europe.[57] Hungary and Poland, small and
medium-size states today, were empires during their
early histories.[57] The historical Kingdom of Hungary was until 1918 three times larger than Hungary
is today,[57] while Poland was the largest state in Europe in the 16th century.[57] Both these kingdoms
housed a wide variety of dierent peoples.[57]
He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamical historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example,
Lithuania, a fair share of Belarus and western Ukraine
are in Eastern Europe today, but 250 years ago they were
in PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.[57]
Johnsons study on Central Europe received acclaim and
positive reviews[58][59] in the scientic community. However, according to Romanian researcher Maria Bucur this
very ambitious project suers from the weaknesses im- Carpathian countries (north-west to south-east): CZ,
posed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).[60]
AT, PL, SK, HU, UA, RO, SRB
The Columbia Encyclopedia denes Central Europe
as: Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria,
Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary.[61]
The World Factbook[19] Encyclopdia Britannica and 2 States
Brockhaus Enzyklopdie use the same denition adding
Slovenia too. Encarta Encyclopedia does not clearly de- The comprehension of the concept of Central Europe is
ne the region, but places the same countries into Cen- an ongoing source of controversy,[63] though the Visegrd
tral Europe in its individual articles on countries, adding Group constituents are almost always included as de facto
Slovenia in south central Europe.[62]
C.E. countries.[64] Although views on which countries beThe German Encyclopaedia Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (English: Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia), 1999,
denes Central Europe as the central part of Europe
with no precise borders to the East and West. The
term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the Schelde to Vistula and from the Danube to the
Moravian Gate. Usually the countries considered to be
Central European are Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Switzerland; in the broader sense Romania too, occasionally also Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
Austria
Czech Republic
Germany
Hungary
Poland
Slovakia
2.1
Romania
Bukovina )
(Transylvania[80]
and
[81] [82][83][84]
The Baltic states, geographically located in Northern Europe, have been considered part of Central Europe in
the German tradition of the term, Mittleuropa. Benelux
countries are generally considered a part of Western Europe, rather than Central Europe. Nevertheless, they are
occasionally mentioned in the Central European context
due to cultural, historical and linguistic ties.
The Central European ora region stretches from Central France (the Massif Central) to Central Romania
(Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia.[90]
Italy (South Tyrol, Trentino, Trieste and usually also Austria and Germany, but never Russia and
other countries of the former Soviet Union towards the
Gorizia, Friuli, occasionally all of Northern Italy)
Ural mountains.[91]
Liechtenstein
Switzerland
Ukraine (Transcarpathia,[85] Galicia and
Northern Bukovina[81] )
Geography
4 Statistics
4.1 Data
Area: 1.036.370 km2 (2012)
Population: (calculated data) 163.518.571 (July
2012)
Population density: (calculated data) 157.78/km2
(2012)
GDP (PPP) per capita: USD $34.444 (2012)
Life expectancy:
(2012)
5 ECONOMY
010
1025
2550
5075
75100
100150
150300
3001000
1000+
Globalisation
Score
>88.00
Economy
80.00-87.99
72.00-79.99
64.00-71.99
56.00-63.99
48.00-55.99
40.00-47.99
32.00-39.99
24.00-31.99
<24.00
no information
5.1
Currencies
5.2
5.6
Infrastructure
5.4
Prosperity Index
Switzerland (ranked 2)
5.6 Infrastructure
5.5
5.6.1 Rail
Corruption
Rail network density.
Central Europe contains the continents earliest railway systems, whose greatest expansion was recorded in
Austro-Hungarian and German territories between 18601870s.[106] By the mid-19th century Berlin, Vienna, and
Buda/Pest were focal points for network lines connecting
industrial areas of Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and
Lower Austria with the Baltic (Kiel, Szczecin) and Adriatic (Rijeka, Trieste).[106] Rail infrastructure in Central
Europe remains the densest in the world. Railway density, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000
Overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2013.
km2, is the highest in the Czech Republic (198.6), Poland
Most countries in Central Europe score tend to score (121.0), Slovenia (108.0), Germany (105.5), Hungary
above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index (98.7), Romania (85.9), Slovakia (73.9) and Croatia
(72.5).[107][108] when compared with most of Europe and
(2014 data):[104]
the rest of the world.[109][110]
Colour
Corruption
Perceptions Index
9 - 10
8 - 8.9
7 - 7.9
6 - 6.9
5 - 5.9
4 - 4.9
3 - 3.9
2 - 2.9
1 - 1.9
0 - 0.9
no information
10
6 EDUCATION
5.7.1
Agriculture
Central European countries are some of the most signicant food producers in the world. Germany is the worlds
largest hops producer with 34.27% share in 2010,[112]
third producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, sixth largest milk producer, and fth largest potato Map of the results of the 2014 EF English Prociency Index
producer. Poland is the worlds largest triticale producer, second largest producer of raspberry, currant,
third largest of rye, the fth apple and buckwheat producer, and seventh largest producer of potatoes. The
Czech Republic is worlds fourth largest hops producer
and 8th producer of triticale. Hungary is worlds fth
hops and seventh largest triticale producer. Slovenia is
worlds sixth hops producer.
0-49%
50-69%
70-79%
80-89%
90-94%
95-100%
5.7.2
Tourism
Central European countries, especially Austria, Croatia, Prociency in English is ranked as high or moderate, acGermany and Switzerland are some of the most competi- cording to the EF English Prociency Index:[117]
tive tourism destinations.[113] Poland is presently a major
destination for outsourcing.[114]
Poland (position 6)
5.7.3
Outsourcing destination
Education
Austria (position 7)
6.2
Scholastic performance
11
German in Slovenia (42%), Croatia (34%), Slovakia (22%), Poland (20%), Hungary (18%), the
Czech Republic (15%), Germany (10%) and Romania (5%)
Hungarian in
(12%)[119]
[118]
Romania
(9%)
and
Slovakia
In the sciences:
6.2
Scholastic performance
Colour
Score
600+
575-599
550-574
500-524
475-499
450-474
425-449
400-424
0-399
no information
In maths:
Colour
Score
600+
575-599
550-574
525-549
500-524
475-499
450-474
425-449
400-424
0-399
no information
age
12
6 EDUCATION
In reading:
Colour
Score
600+
575-599
550-574
525-549
500-524
475-499
450-474
425-449
400-424
0-399
no information
The list of Central Europes oldest universities in continuous operation, established by 1500, include (by their
dates of foundation):
age
6.3
6.3.1
Higher education
Universities
13
6.3.2
7.1 Architecture
The Central European University (CEU) is a graduatelevel, English-language university promoting a distinctively Central European perspective. It was established in
1991 by the Hungarian philanthropist George Soros, who
has provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe.[135] In
the academic year 2013/2014, the CEU had 1,381 students from 93 countries and 388 faculty members from
58 countries.[136]
6.3.3
Central European architecture has been shaped by major European styles including but not limited to: Brick
Gothic, Rococo, Secession (art) and Modern architecture. Four Central European countries are amongst countries with highers number of World Heritage Sites:
7.2 Beliefs
Albania (2006)
Austria (2005)
Bulgaria (2005)
Croatia (2005)
Hungary (2005)
Kosovo (2008)
Macedonia (2006)
Moldova (2011)
Montenegro (2006)
Poland (2005)
Romania (2005)
Serbia (2005)
Slovakia (2005)
Slovenia (2005)
14
7.5 Literature
Cathedral of Hajddorog (Eastern Catholic), Regional writing tradition revolves around the turHungary
bulent history of the region, as well as its cultural diversity,[146][147] and its existence is sometimes
Vaduz Cathedral (Catholic), Liechtenstein
challenged.[148]
St. Elisabeth Cathedral in Koice (Catholic), Specic courses on Central European literature are taught
Slovakia
at Stanford University,[149] Harvard University[150] and
Jagiellonian University[151] The as well as cultural mag Evangelical church in Partiznska upa azines dedicated to regional literature.[152]
(Lutheran), Slovakia
Angelus Central European Literature Award is an award
worth 150,000.00 PLN (about $50,000 or 30,000) for
writers originating from the region.[153]
7.3 Cuisine
Central European cuisine has evolved through centuries
due to social and political change. Most countries share
many dishes. The most popular dishes typical to Central
Europe are sausages and cheeses, where the earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates
back to 5,500 BCE (Kujawy, Poland).[143] Other foods
widely associated with Central Europe are goulash and
beer. List of countries by beer consumption per capita
is led by the Czech Republic, followed by Germany and
Austria. Poland comes 5th, Croatia 7th and Slovenia
13th.
7.6 Media
There is a whole spectrum of media active in the region:
newspapers, television and internet channels, radio channels, internet websites etc. Central European media are
regarded as free, according to the Press Freedom Index.
Some of the top scoring countries are in Central Europe
include:[154]
Austria (position 7)
15
Germany) hosted UEFA Euro 1988. Recently, 2008 and
2012 UEFA European Championships were held in Austria & Switzerland and Poland & Ukraine respectively.
Germany hosted 2 FIFA World Cups (1974 and 2006)
and are the current champions (as of 2018).[156][157][158]
8 Politics
Press Freedom Index results.
7.7
Sport
8.1 Organisations
Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organisations:
Visegrad group
Centrope
Central European Initiative
Central European Free Trade Agreement
Middleeuropean Initiative
Central European Initiative
Visegrd Group
CEFTA founding states
CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EU
Current CEFTA members
Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein
(1997)
The Visegrd Group countries are referred to as
Central Europe in the book[1]
countries for which theres no precise, uncontestable
way to decide whether they are parts of Central
Europe or not[2]
According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky
a strict denition of Central Europe means the
Visegrd Group[3][4]
Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R.
Johnson (2011)[5]
Countries usually considered Central European
(citing the World Bank and the OECD)
Countries considered to be Central European only
in the broader sense of the term.
Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009)[6]
Central European countries
Slovenia in south central Europe
16
8 POLITICS
Switzerland (position 6)
4. ^ Cite error:
The named reference
From_Visegrad_to_Mitteleuropa was invoked
but never dened (see the help page).
5. ^ Johnson, pp. 16
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Encarta was invoked but never dened (see the help page).
8.2
Democracy Index
Austria (position 3)
Switzerland (position 5)
17
Colour
Hungary (1890)
Slovakia (1890)
Germany (1893)
Austria (1893)
Poland (1893[161] )
Slovenia (1893)
Switzerland (1894)
Percentage
Top 20%
Top 40%
Middle 20%
Bottom 40%
Bottom 20%
no information
Liechtenstein (1894)
10 In popular culture
Central Europe is mentioned in 35th episode of Lovejoy,
entitled The Prague Sun, lmed in 1992. While walking over the famous Charles Bridge, the main character,
Lovejoy says: " I've never been to Prague before. Well,
it is one of the great unspoiled cities in Central Europe.
Notice: I said: Central, not Eastern"! The Czechs are
a bit funny about that, they think of Eastern Europeans as
turnip heads.[162]
Wes Anderson's Oscar-winning lm The Grand Budapest Hotel is regarded as a ctionalised celebration of
the 1930s in Central Europe[163] and regions musical
tastes[164]
11 See also
Central and Eastern Europe
Central European Initiative
Central European Time (CET)
Central European Time Zone (dark red)
18
12
12
References
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Histo-
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Edward Elgar Publishing Limited
20
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21
[150] http://slavic.fas.harvard.edu/pages/secondary-fields
[151] https://www.usosweb.uj.edu.pl/kontroler.php?_action=
actionx:katalog2/przedmioty/pokazPrzedmiot(kod:
WSM.IE-S33D)
[152] http://literalab.com/
[153] http://angelus.com.pl/english/regulations/
[155] http://centraleuropethrowdown.com/#?aboutUs
[157] http://sports.ndtv.com/fifa-world-cup-2014/photos/
germany-are-fifa-world-cup-champions-18100
[158] http://www.theguardian.com/
football/blog/audio/2014/jul/14/
world-cup-football-daily-podcast-germany-argentina-final
[135] Aisha Labi (2 May 2010). For President of Central Euro- [159] https://portoncv.gov.cv/dhub/porton.por_global.open_
file?p_doc_id=1034
pean University, All Roads Led to Budapest. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
[160] Vision of Humanity.
[136] CEU Facts and Figures. Central European University.
[161] Since Poland was partitioned since 1922 (ocial adopRetrieved 15 January 2015.
tion), the dates of introduction in Germany (1893) and
Austria (1893) should be understood as de facto adoption
[137] Central European Exchange Program for University
Studies. ceepus.info. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
[162] Lovejoy - Season 3, Episode 13: The Prague Sun TV.com. TV.com. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
[138] http://static.fas.harvard.edu/registrar/ugrad_handbook/
current/chapter4/slavces.html
[163] http://www.newyorker.com/culture/richard-brody/
the-grand-budapest-hotel-wes-andersons-artistic-manifesto
[139] http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9781612490175
[140] GO.HRW.COM.
[141] http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/262/
268312/art/figures/KISH_13_309.gif
[142] http://www.emersonkent.com/map_archive/europe_
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[143] Art of cheese-making is 7,500 years old. Nature News
& Comment.
[144] http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/projects/
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[164] http://www.latimes.com/
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13 Bibliography
dm, Magda (2003). The Versailles System and
Central Europe Variorum Collected Studies. ASHGATE. ISBN 0-86078-905-5.
dm, Magda (1993).
22
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14
Further reading
15
External links
EXTERNAL LINKS
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16.1
16.2
Images
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16.2
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Content license