Mongols

This article is about the ethnic group. For other uses, see Manchuria. The identity of the Xiongnu (Hnn) is still
Mongols (disambiguation).
debated today. Although some scholars maintain that
they were proto-Mongols, they were more likely a multi[16]
It has
The Mongols are an East-Central Asian ethnic group ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes.
been suggested that the language of the Huns was related
native to Mongolia and China's Inner Mongolia Au[17][18]
tonomous Region. They also live as minorities in other to the Hnn.
regions of China (e.g. Xinjiang), as well as in Russia.
Mongolian people belonging to the Buryat and Kalmyk
subgroups live predominantly in the Russian federal subjects of Buryatia and Kalmykia.

The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled

proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a
ancestry for some tribes (e.g.
The Mongols are bound together by a common heritage mixed Xiongnu-Donghu
[19]
the
Khitan).
and ethnic identity. Their indigenous dialects are collectively known as the Mongolian language. The ancestors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto2.1 In the Chinese classics
Mongols.
The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699632 BCE
1 Denition
along with the Shanrong. Mentions in the Yi Zhou Shu
(Lost Book of Zhou) and the Classic of Mountains and
Broadly dened, the term includes the Mongols proper Seas indicate the Donghu were also active during the
(also known as the Khalkha Mongols), Buryats, Oirats, Shang dynasty (16001046 BCE).
the Kalmyk people and the Southern Mongols. The lat- The Xianbei (Smbe) formed part of the Donghu conter comprises the Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohans, federation, but had earlier times of independence, as
Baarins, Gorlos Mongols, Jalaids, Jaruud, Khishigten, evidenced by a mention in the Guoyu ("
" section),
Khuuchid, Muumyangan and Onnigud.
which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou
The designation Mongol briey appeared in 8th cen- (reigned 10421021 BCE) they came to participate at
tury records of Tang China to describe a tribe of Shiwei. a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang ( ) (now
It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan- Qishan County) but were only allowed to perform the re
ruled Liao dynasty. After the fall of the Liao in ceremony under the supervision of Chu since they were
1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on not vassals by covenant ( ). The Smbe chieftain was
the Mongolian Plateau. However, their wars with the appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with
Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation Xiong Yi.
had weakened them.

These early Smbe came from the nearby Zhukaigou

In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an culture (22001500 BCE) in the Ordos Desert, where
umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur people and the Tungusic Evenks. The Zhukaigou Xianbei
tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.[15]
(part of the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and northern Shaanxi) had trade relations with the Shang. In the
late 2nd century, the Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian ( )
2 History
wrote in his commentary Jixie ( ) that "Shanrong and
Beidi are ancestors of the present-day Xianbei. Againm
Main article: History of Mongolia
in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture
In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated (1000600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was
with the Scythians, the Magog and the Tungusic peo- centered.
ples. Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu
the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, a Chanyu, the Smbe and Wuhuan survived as the main
nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and remnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the
1

2
Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the protoMongolic Kumo Xi.[20] The Wuhuan are of the direct
Donghu royal line and the New Book of Tang says that
in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however,
were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language
with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe
(Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing
2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor
Guangwu of Han. The Xianbei reached their peak under
Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156181) who expanded the
vast, but short lived, Xianbei state (93234).

2 HISTORY
Bayan I. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east,
founding the Tatar confederation, who became part of the
Shiwei. The Khitan, who were independent after their
separation from the Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388,
continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of
them, Ambagai (872926), established the Liao dynasty
(9071125) as Emperor Taizu of Liao.

2.2 Era of the Mongol Empire and Northern Yuan

Asia in 500, showing the Rouran Khaganate and its neighbors,

including the Northern Wei and the Tuyuhun Khanate, all of
them were established by Proto-Mongols
The Xianbei state under Tanshihuai (141181)

Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state as

recorded by the Chinese histories: the Nirun or Rouran
(claimed by some to be the Pannonian Avars), the Khitan
people and the Shiwei (a subtribe called the Shiwei
Menggu is held to be the origin of the Genghisid
Mongols).[21] Besides these three Xianbei groups, there
were others such as the Murong, Duan and Tuoba.
Their culture was nomadic, their religion shamanism
or Buddhism and their military strength formidable.
There is still no direct evidence that the Nirun spoke
Mongolic languages, although most scholars agree that
they were Proto-Mongolic.[22] The Khitan, however, had
two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are
found in their half-deciphered writings.
Geographically, the Tuoba Xianbei ruled the southern
part of southern Mongolia and northern China, the Nirun
(Yujiul Shelun was the rst to use the title khagan
in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the
northern part of southern Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of
southern Mongolia north of Korea and the Shiwei were
located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the Turkic
Khaganate in 555, the Uyghur Khaganate in 745 and the
Yenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Nirun ed west from
the Gktrks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as
some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan,

The destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz

resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirhgiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they
controlled local tribes through various manaps (tribal
leader). The Khitans occupied the areas vacated by the
Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The
Yenisei Kirghiz state was centered on Khakassia and they
were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924.
The Khitan ed west after their defeat by the Jurchens
(later known as Manchu) and founded the Kara-Khitan
Khanate (11251218) in eastern Kazakhstan. In 1218,
Genghis Khan destroyed the Kara-Khitan Khanate after
which the Khitan passed into obscurity. The modernday minority of Mongolic-speaking Daurs in China are
their direct descendants based on DNA evidence[23][24]
and other Khitans assimilated into the Mongols (Southern Mongols), Turkic peoples and Han Chinese.
The Shiwei included a tribe called the Shiwei Menggu
(Shivei Mongol).[25] Bodonchar Munkhag the founder of
the House of Borjigin and the ancestor of Genghis Khan
is held to be descended from the Shiwei Menggu. The
early Shiwei paid tribute to the Tuoba Wei (386534) and
submitted to the Khitans. After the Khitans left Mongolia
the Khamag Mongols rose to prominence, when from the
1130s there were reciprocally hostile relations between
the successive khans of the Khamag Mongol confederation (Khaidu, Khabul Khan and Ambaghai Khan) and the
emperors of the Jurchen's Jin dynasty. The Jin dynasty
fell after their defeat against the rising Mongol Empire,

2.3

Qing-era Mongols

a steppe confederation that had formerly been a Jurchen

vassal. Mongolic Khitans and Tuyuhuns or Monguor people (1227) came under rule of the Mongol Empire after
conquest of the Western Xia and Jin Empires.The KaraKhitans voluntarily submitted to Genghis Khan in 1218.

3
reunited the Mongols after killing Eastern Mongolian another king Adai (Khorchin). Togoon died in 1439 and his
son Esen Taish became prime minister.Esen carried out
successful policy for Mongolian unication and independence. The Ming Empire attempted to invade Mongolia
in the 1416th centuries, however, the Ming Empire was
defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongolian armies.Esens 30,000 cavalries
defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in 1449. Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in
1453, Esen himself took the title of Great Khan (1454
1455) of the Great Yuan.[27]

The Khalkha emerged during the reign of Dayan Khan

(14791543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern
Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant
Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper.[28][29] He reunited the
Mongols using Chinese gunpowder bombs during the Mongol In- Mongols again. The Mongols voluntarily reunied durvasions of Japan, 1281
ing Eastern Mongolian Tmen Zasagt Khan rule (1558
1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all
With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic Mongols before this).
peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on milEastern Mongolia was divided into three parts in the
itary campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Java
17th century: Outer Mongolia (Khalkha), Inner Mongoisland and from Japan to Palestine (Gaza). They simultalia (Southern Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern
neously became Padishahs of Persia, Emperors of China,
Siberia.
and Great Khans of Mongolia, and one became Sultan
of Egypt (Al-Adil Kitbugha). The Mongolic peoples of The last Mongol khagan was Ligdan in the early 17th centhe Golden Horde established themselves to govern Rus- tury. He got into conicts with the Manchus over the
sia by 1240.[26] By 1279, they conquered the Song dy- looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most
nasty and brought all of China under control of the Yuan Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the
Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from the
dynasty.[26]
Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silWith the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic
ver. By the 1620s, only the Chahars remained under his
peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures
rule.
surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts
of Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks, Karakalpaks, Tatars, Bashkirs,
Turkmens, Uyghurs, Nogays, Kyrgyzs, Kazakhs,
2.3 Qing-era Mongols
Caucasaus peoples, Iranian peoples and Moghuls;
linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be
The Chahars army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the
prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimi- Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdans faulty
lated into the Yakuts after their migration to Northern
tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner
Siberia and about 30% of Yakut words have Mongol Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligorigin. However, most of the Yuan Mongols returned
dan moved to battle against Tibetan Gelugpa sect (Yelto Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and low Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported the
culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in southern Yuan
Manchus, while Ligdan supported Kagyu sect (Red Hat
(China) and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel sect) of Tibetan Buddhism. Ligden died in 1634 on his
army. The survivors were trapped in southern china and way to Tibet. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had
eventually assimilated. The Dongxiangs, Bonans, Yugur submitted to the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus.
and Monguor people were invaded by Chinese Ming Inner Mongolian Tengis noyan revolted against the Qing
dynasty.
in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud.
After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols
continued to rule the Northern Yuan dynasty in Mongolia
homeland. However, the Oirads began to challenge the
Eastern Mongolic peoples under the Borjigin monarchs in
the late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into two
parts: Western Mongolia (Oirats) and Eastern Mongolia
(Khalkha, Southern Mongols, Barga, Buryats).

Western Mongolian Oirats and Eastern Mongolian

Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 15th
century and this conict weakened Mongolian strength.
In 1688, Western Mongolian Dzungar Khanate's king
Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his
younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main
or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War
In 1434, Eastern Mongolian Taisun Khagan's (1433 began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and
1452) prime minister Western Mongolian Togoon Taish Zanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of

2 HISTORY

Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia).

Many Khalkha nobles and folks ed to Inner Mongolia
because of the war. Few Khalkhas ed to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they
didn't submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan
Boshugtu.
The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691
by Zanabazar's decision, thus bringing all of todays Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha
de facto remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu
Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirats Code (a treaty
of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats
and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols
couldn't unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj
fought against Russian invasion of Outer Mongolia until
1688 and stopped Russian invasion of Khvsgl Province.
Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats and
Khalkhas before the war.
Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to liberate Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkhas army and called Inner
Mongolian nobles to ght for Mongolian independence.
Some Inner Mongolian nobles, Tibetans, Kumul Khanate
and some Moghulistan's nobles supported his war against
the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles didn't
battle against the Qing.
There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan
Shar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdans ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) didn't engage in this
conict. While Galdan was ghting in Eastern Mongolia,
his nephew Tseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian throne
in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to ght
against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires
supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtus army was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he
died in 1697. The Mongols who ed to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some
Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats.
The Buryats fought against Russian invasion since the
1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The
Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties
in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both the sides
of Lake Baikal were separated from Mongolia. In 1689
the Treaty of Nerchinsk established the northern border
of Manchuria north of the present line. The Russians
retained Trans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and the
Argun River north of Mongolia. The Treaty of Kyakhta
(1727), along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated
the relations between Imperial Russia and the Qing Empire until the mid-nineteenth century. It established the
northern border of Mongolia. Oka Buryats revolted in
1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region
in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires
carried out united policy against Central Asians.
The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the

The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1755 between the Qing and Oirat

armies. The fall of the Dzungar Khanate.

Oirats Khoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 people

were killed.[30] By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The Dzungar Khanate conquered
by the Qing dynasty in 17551758 because of their leaders and military commanders conicts. Some scholars
estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population were
destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755
1758.[31] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research
interests focus on genocide,[32] has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was arguably the eighteenth
century genocide par excellence.[33] The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755.
About 200,000250,000 Oirats migrated from Western
Mongolia to Volga River in 1607 and established the
Kalmyk Khanate.The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, H rlg. Russia was concerned about their attack but the Kalmyks became Russian ally and a treaty
to protect Southern Russian border was signed between
the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia.In 1724 the Kalmyks
came under control of Russia. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300350,000 Kalmyks
and 15,000,000 Russians.[34] The Tsardom of Russia
gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk
Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition, the Tsarist government imposed a
council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan
to provide cavalry units to ght on behalf of Russia.
The Russian Orthodox church, by contrast, pressured
Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy.In January 1771,
approximately 200,000 (170,000)[35] Kalmyks began the
migration from their pastures on the left bank of the
Volga River to Dzungaria (Western Mongolia), through
the territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The
last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore
Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000
cavalries to the Russo-Turkish War in 17681769 to gain
weapon before the migration.The Empress Catherine the
Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kaza-

2.4

Post-Qing era

khs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished the Kalmyk Khanate.[35][36][37] [38] [39] The Kyrgyzs
attacked them near Balkhash Lake. About 100,000
150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the
Volga River couldn't cross the river because the river
didn't freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the
Great executed inuential nobles of them. After seven
months of travel, only one-third (66,073)[35] of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western
border of the Qing Empire).[40] The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to ve dierent areas to prevent
their revolt and inuential leaders of the Kalmyks died
soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia
voluntarly merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian
oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian
rule in 1609 but only Georgia voluntarily accepted Russian rule.[41][42]

2.4 Post-Qing era

With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army liberated Eastern Mongolias Khalkha and
Khovd regions (modern day Uvs, Khovd, and Bayan-lgii
provinces), but Northern Xinjiang (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing Empire), Upper Mongolia, Barga and
Inner Mongolia came under control of the newly formed
Republic of China. On February 2, 1913 the Bogd
Khanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to liberate
Inner (Southern) Mongolia from China. Russia refused to
sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar,
Nicholas II, referred to it as Mongolian imperialism".
Additionally, the United Kingdom urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that if
Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will
revolt. 10,000 Mongolian and Southern Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Southern Mongols) defeated 70,000
Chinese soldiers and liberated almost all of Southern
Mongolia; however, the Mongolian army retreated due
to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and
3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas,
Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, Upper Mongols, Barga Mongols, almost all Southern Mongolian, and
some Tuvan leaders supported Mongolian reunication.
Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous
region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost Barga, Dzungaria,
Tuva, Upper Mongolia and Inner (Southern) Mongolia in
the 1915.

In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic
nobles. On 3 February 1921 the White Russian army
led by Baron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar cossacks
liberated the Mongolian capital. Baron Ungerns purpose
was to nd allies to defeat the Soviet Union. The Statement of Reunication of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionist leaders in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924
during secret meeting with the Republic of China. However, the Soviets ocially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall
in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other irredentist
Khorloogiin Choibalsan, leader of the Mongolian Peoples Republic (right), and Georgy Zhukov consult during the Battle of movements.
Khalkhin Gol against Japanese troops, 1939

The Mongols of China were suppressed and persecuted

as a result of the policy under Qing rule during the late
Qing period. Approximately 150,000 Inner Mongols
were massacred by the Han Chinese rebels during the
Jindandao Incident in 1891 before being suppressed by
government troops in late December.[43] After the Xinhai
Revolution, the Mongolian Revolution on 30 November
1911 ended the 220-year rule of the Qing dynasty.

On 10 April 1932 Mongolians revolted against the governments new policy and Soviets. The government and
Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October.
The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the
1900s due to Russian oppression. Joseph Stalin's regime
stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign
of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians.
During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia almost all
adult Buryat men and 2233,000 Mongols (35% of
the total population; common citizens, monks, PanMongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds military ocers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead

6
under Soviet orders.[44] [45] Some authors also oer much
higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims.[45] Around the
late 1930s the Mongolian Peoples Republic had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people.By
1939, Soviet said We repressed too many people, the
population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands. Proportion of victims in relation to the population of the
country is much higher than the corresponding gures of
the Great Purge in the Soviet Union.
The Manchus Manchukuo state (19321945) invaded
Barga and some part of Southern Mongolia with help of
the Empire of Japan (18681947).The Mongolian army
advanced to the Great Wall of China during the Soviet
Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name:Liberation War
of 1945). Japan forced Southern Mongolian and Barga
people to ght against Mongolians but they surrendered
to Mongolians and started to ght against their Japanese
and Manchu allies. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan
called Southern Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the Soviet Army
blocked Southern Mongolian migrants way. It was a
part of Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Southern
Mongols (Huuchids, Bargas, Tmeds, about 800 Uzemchins) arrived. Southern Mongolian leaders carried out
active policy to merge Southern Mongolia with Mongolia
since 1911. They founded the Inner Mongolian Army in
1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported PanMongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due
to Russian resistance. Southern Mongolian nominally independent Mengjiang state (19361945) was established
with support of Japan in 1936 also some Buryat and
Southern Mongol nobles founded Pan-Mongolist government with support of Japan in 1919.

World War II Zaisan Memorial, Ulaan Baatar, from the Peoples

Republic of Mongolia era.

The Southern Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945.
Another part of Choibalsans plan was to merge Southern and Western Mongolia with Mongolia. By 1945,
Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong requested Soviet
to stop Mongolian and Southern Mongolian reunication

2 HISTORY
because China lost its control over Southern Mongolia
and without Southern Mongolian support the Communists were unable to defeat Japan and Kuomintang (Taiwan). Mao promised to merge Southern Mongolia with
Mongolia after defeating Japan and Kuomintang but after ending Chinese Civil War Chinese Communist Party's
policy completely changed.
Mongolia and Soviet-supported Xinjiang Uyghurs and
Kazakhs' separatist movement in the 1930-1940s. By
1945, Soviet refused to support them after its alliance
with the Communist Party of China and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure
of Soviet. Xinjiang Oirats militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but the Oirats didn't have leading role due to their small population. Basmachis or Turkic and Tajik militants fought to liberate Central Asia
(Soviet Central Asia) until 1942.
On February 2, 1913 the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet
was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted
Soviet secret operations in Tibet to change its regime in
the 1920s.
On 27 October 1961 UN recognized Mongolian independence after ending Western boycotts.
The Tsardom of Russia, Russian Empire, Soviet
Union, capitalist and communist China performed many
genocide actions against the Mongols (assimilate, reduce
the population, extinguish the language, culture, tradition, history, religion and ethnic identity). Peter the
Great said: The headwaters of the Yenisei River must
be Russian land.[46] Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks
and Buryats to war to reduce the populations (World
War I and other wars).Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not the Mongols during the 20th century (demongolization policy).
35,000 Buryats were killed during the rebellion of 1927
and around one-third of Buryat population in Russia
died in the 1900s1950s.[47][48] 10,000 Buryats of the
Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
were massacred by Stalins order in the 1930s.[49] In 1919
the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state in
Kizhinginsky District of Russia and the Buryats state fell
in 1926. In 1958, the name Mongol was removed from
the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate
the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but Russia
refused.7172,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine.[50] The Kalmyks
revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 19421943.
In 1913, Nicholas II, king of Russia, said : We need
to prevent from Volga Tatars.But the Kalmyks are more
dangerous than them because they are the Mongols so
send them to war to reduce the population. [51] On
23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin, communist leader of Russia, said: We are carrying out wrong policy on the

7
Kalmyks who related to the Mongols.Our policy is too ples Organization[57] and Southern Mongolian leaders are
peaceful.[51] In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 attempting to establish sovereign state or merge Southern
Kalmyks to Siberia, tundra and Karelia.The Kalmyks Mongolia with Mongolia.
founded sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22
March 1930.[51] The Oirats state had a small army
and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers
in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirats state
destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykian
nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate
Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s.Mongolia suggested
to migrate the Soviet Unions Mongols to Mongolia in the
1920s but Russia refused the suggest.
Russia deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 and
around half of (9798,000) Kalmyk people deported
to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in
1957.[52] The government of the Soviet Union forbade A Mongolic Ger
teaching Kalmyk language during the deportation.The
Kalmyks main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia
and many Kalmyks joined the German Army.Marshal
Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the depor- 3 Language
tees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during
his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Fed- Main article: Mongolic languages
eration of April 26, 1991 On Rehabilitation of Exiled
Peoples repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples
Mongolian is the ocial national language of Mongolia,
were qualied as an act of genocide.
where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010
After the end of World War II, the Chinese Civil War re- estimate),[58] and the ocial provincial language of
sumed between the Chinese Nationalists (Kuomintang), Chinas Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, where
led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Chinese Communist there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols.[59] Across
Party, led by Mao Zedong. In December 1949, Chiang the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly
evacuated his government to Taiwan. Hundred thousands half of the countrys 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005
Southern Mongols were massacred during the Cultural estimate)[58] However, the exact number of Mongolian
Revolution in the 1960s and China forbade Mongol tra- speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available
ditions, celebrities and teaching Mongolic languages dur- on the language prociency of that countrys citizens. The
ing the revolution.In Inner Mongolia, some 790,000 peo- use of Mongolian in China, specically in Inner Mongople were persecuted. Approximately 1,000,000 Southern lia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the
Mongols were killed during the 20th century.[43] In 1960 last few hundred years. The language experienced a deChinese newspaper wrote that Han Chinese ethnic iden- cline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947
tity must be Chinese minorities ethnic identity.China and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a
carried out active propaganda war against Mongolia un- second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third detil the 1980s and the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army cline between 1995 and 2012.[60] However, in spite of
(PLA) carried out many raids into Mongolian border the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner
provinces during the 1960-1980s. China is carrying out Mongolias urban areas and educational spheres, the ethWar of Map against neighbouring countries since the nic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols
1950s.[53]
is most likely going to survive due to the presence of ur[61]
On 3 October 2002 the Ministry of Foreign Aairs an- ban ethnic communities. The multilingual situation in
nounced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an inde- Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct eorts by eth[62][63]
Although
pendent country,[54] although no legislative actions were nic Mongols to preserve their language.
taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the
to Mongolia.[55] Oces established to support Taipeis Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability
claims over Outer Mongolia, such as the Mongolian and to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethTibetan Aairs Commission,[56] lie dormant.
nic Mongols.[58][64] The children of inter-ethnic MongolAgin-Buryat Okrug and Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs merged
Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as
with Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 2008 despite
ethnic Mongols.[65]
Buryats resistance. The Southern Mongols revolted
against China in 2011. The Inner Mongolian Peoples The specic origin of the Mongolic languages and assoParty is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peo- ciated tribes is unclear. Linguists have traditionally proposed a link to the Tungusic and Turkic language fami-

4 RELIGION

lies, included alongside Mongolic in the broader group of

Altaic languages, though this remains controversial. Today the Mongolian peoples speak at least one of several
Mongolic languages including Mongolian, Buryat, Oirat,
Dongxiang, Tu, Bonan, Hazaragi, and Aimaq. Additionally, many Mongols speak either Russian or Mandarin
Chinese as languages of inter-ethnic communication.

un Bilig (Wisdom of Genghis) and Oyun Tulkhuur (Key

of Intelligence). These moral precepts were expressed
in poetic form and mainly involved truthfulness, delity,
help in hardship, unity, self-control, fortitude, veneration
of nature, veneration of the state and veneration of parents.

Religion

Main articles: Buddhism in Mongolia and Shamanism in

Mongolia
The original religion of the Mongolic peoples was
Shamanism.
The Xianbei came in contact with
Confucianism and Daoism but eventually adopted
Buddhism.However, the Xianbeis in Mongolia and
Rourans followed a Shamanism. In the 5th century
the Buddhist monk Dharmapriya was proclaimed State
Teacher of the Rouran Khaganate and given 3000 families and (some) Rouran nobles became Buddhists. In
511 the Rouran Douluofubadoufa Khan sent Hong Xuan
to the Tuoba court with a pearl-encrusted statue of the
Buddha as a gift. The Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans were
mostly Buddhists, although they still retained their original Shamanism. The Tuoba had a sacricial castle
to the west of their capital where ceremonies to spirits
took place. Wooden statues of the spirits were erected
on top of this sacricial castle. One ritual involved
seven princes with milk oerings who ascended the stairs
with 20 female shamans and oered prayers, sprinkling
the statues with the sacred milk. The Khitan had their
holiest shrine on Mount Muye where portraits of their
earliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, his wife Kedun and
eight sons were kept in two temples. Mongolic peoples were also exposed to Zoroastrianism, Manicheism,
Nestorianism, Orthodox Christianity and Islam from the
west. The Mongolic peoples, in particular the Borjigin, had their holiest shrine on Mount Burkhan Khaldun
where their ancestor Brte Chono(Blue Wolf) and Goo
Maral (Beautiful Doe) had given birth to them. Genghis
Khan usually fasted, prayed and meditated on this mountain before his campaigns. As a young man he had
thanked the mountain for saving his life and prayed at
the foot of the mountain sprinkling oerings and bowing nine times to the east with his belt around his neck
and his hat held at his chest. Genghis Khan kept a close
watch on the Mongolic supreme shaman Kokochu Teb
who sometimes conicted with his authority. Later the
imperial cult of Genghis Khan (centered on the eight
white gers and nine white banners in Ordos) grew into
a highly organized indigenous religion with scriptures in
the Mongolian script. Indigenous moral precepts of the
Mongolic peoples were enshrined in oral wisdom sayings (now collected in several volumes), the anda (bloodbrother) system and ancient texts such as the Chinggis-

Timur of Mongolic origin himself had converted almost all the

Borjigin leaders to Islam.

In 1254 Mngke Khan organized a formal religious debate (in which William of Rubruck took part) between
Christians, Muslims and Buddhists in Karakorum, a cosmopolitan city of many religions. The Mongolic Empire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a special leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic towards Christianity while still worshipping Tengri. The
Mongolic leader Abaqa Khan sent a delegation of 13
16 to the Second Council of Lyon (1274), which created
a great stir, particularly when their leader 'Zaganus underwent a public baptism. Yahballaha III (12451317)
and Rabban Bar Sauma (c. 12201294) were famous
Mongolic Nestorian Christians. The Kerait tribe in central Mongolia was Christian and Shamanistic.The western Khanates, however, eventually adopted Islam (under Berke and Ghazan) and the Turkic languages (because of its commercial importance), although allegiance
to the Great Khan and limited use of the Mongolic
languages can be seen even in the 1330s. The Mon-

9
golic nobility during the Yuan dynasty studied Confucianism, built Confucian temples (including Beijing Confucius Temple) and translated Confucian works into Mongolic but mainly followed the Sakya school of Tibetan
Buddhism under Phags-pa Lama. The general populace still practised Shamanism. Dongxiang and Bonan
Mongols adopted Islam, as did Moghol-speaking peoples in Afghanistan. In the 1576 the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion of the Mongolia. The Red Hat sect of Tibetan Buddhism coexisted
with the Gelug Yellow Hat sect. Shamanism was absorbed into the state religion while being marginalized in
its purer forms, later only surviving in far northern Mongolia. Monks were some of the leading intellectuals in
Mongolia, responsible for much of the literature and art
of the pre-modern period. Many Buddhist philosophical works lost in Tibet and elsewhere are preserved in
older and purer form in Mongolian ancient texts (e.g. the
Mongol Kanjur). Zanabazar (16351723), Zaya Pandita
(15991662) and Danzanravjaa (18031856) are among
the most famous Mongol holy men. The 4th Dalai Lama
Yonten Gyatso (15891617), a Mongol himself, was the
only non-Tibetan Dalai Lama.The name is a combination of the Mongolian word dalai meaning ocean and
the Tibetan word (bla-ma) meaning guru, teacher, mentor.[1] Many Buryats became Orthodox Christians due
to the Russian expansion. During the socialist period religion was ocially banned, although it was practiced in
clandestine circles. Today, a sizable proportion of Mongolic peoples are atheist or agnostic. In the most recent
census in Mongolia, almost forty percent of the population reported as being atheist, while the majority religion
was Tibetan Buddhism, with 53%.[66] Having survived
suppression by the Communists, Buddhism among the
Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western Mongols is today primarily of the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat sect) school of
Tibetan Buddhism. There is a strong shamanistic inuence in the Gelugpa sect among the Mongols.

5 Military
Main article: Mongol military tactics and organization
They battled against the most powerful armies and warriors in Eurasia. The beating of the kettle and smoke signals were signs for the start of battle. One battle formation that they used consisted of ve squadrons or units.
The typical squadrons were divided by ranks. The rst
two ranks were in the front. These warriors had the heaviest armor and weapons. The back three ranks broke
out between the front ranks and attacked rst with their
arrows.[67] The forces simply kept their space from the enemy and killed them with arrow re, during which time
archers did not aim at a specic target, but shot their
arrows at a high path into a set 'killing zone' or target
area.[68] Mongolics also took hold of engineers from the
defeated armies. They made engineers a permanent part
of their army, so that their weapons and machinery were
complex and ecient.[69]

6 Kinship and family life

See also: Society of the Mongol Empire
The traditional Mongol family was patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal. Wives were brought for each of the
sons, while daughters were married o to other clans.
Wife-taking clans stood in a relation of inferiority to
wife-giving clans. Thus wife-giving clans were considered elder or bigger in relation to wife-taking clans,
who were considered younger or smaller.[70][71] This
distinction, symbolized in terms of elder and younger
or bigger and smaller, was carried into the clan and
family as well, and all members of a lineage were terminologically distinguished by generation and age, with
senior superior to junior.

In the traditional Mongolian family, each son received a

part of the family herd as he married, with the elder son
receiving more than the younger son. The youngest son
would remain in the parental tent caring for his parents,
and after their death he would inherit the parental tent
in addition to his own part of the herd. This inheritance
system was mandated by law codes such as the Yassa,
created by Genghis Khan.[72] Likewise, each son inherited a part of the familys camping lands and pastures,
with the elder son receiving more than the younger son.
The eldest son inherited the farthest camping lands and
pastures, and each son in turn inherited camping lands
and pastures closer to the family tent until the youngest
son inherited the camping lands and pastures immediately
surrounding the family tent. Family units would often reThe Mughal Emperor Babur and his heir Humayun, The word main near each other and in close cooperation, though
extended families would inevitably break up after a few
Mughal, is derived from the Persian word for Mongol.
generations. It is probable that the Yasa simply put into

10

written law the principles of customary law.

It is apparent that in many cases, for example in family instructions, the yasa tacitly
accepted the principles of customary law and
avoided any interference with them. For example, Riasanovsky said that killing the man
or the woman in case of adultery is a good illustration. Yasa permitted the institutions of
polygamy and concubinage so characteristic of
southerly nomadic peoples. Children born of
concubines were legitimate. Seniority of children derived their status from their mother. Eldest son received more than the youngest after
the death of father. But the latter inherited the
household of the father. Children of concubines also received a share in the inheritance,
in accordance with the instructions of their father (or with custom.)
Nilgn Dalkesen, Gender roles and
womens status in Central Asia and Anatolia between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries[73]
After the family, the next largest social units were the
subclan and clan. These units were derived from groups
claiming patrilineal descent from a common ancestor,
ranked in order of seniority (the conical clan). By the
Chingissid era this ranking was symbolically expressed
at formal feasts, in which tribal chieftains were seated
and received particular portions of the slaughtered animal according to their status.[74] The lineage structure of
Central Asia had three dierent modes. It was organized
on the basis of genealogical distance, or the proximity of
individuals to one another on a graph of kinship; generational distance, or the rank of generation in relation to a
common ancestor, and birth order, the rank of brothers
in relation to each another.[75] The paternal descent lines
were collaterally ranked according to the birth of their
founders, and were thus considered senior and junior to
each other. Of the various collateral patrilines, the senior
in order of descent from the founding ancestor, the line
of eldest sons, was the most noble. In the steppe, no one
had his exact equal; everyone found his place in a system
of collaterally ranked lines of descent from a common
ancestor.[76] It was according to this idiom of superiority
and inferiority of lineages derived from birth order that
legal claims to superior rank were couched.[77]
The Mongol kinship is one of a particular patrilineal type
classed as Omaha, in which relatives are grouped together
under separate terms that crosscut generations, age, and
even sexual dierence. Thus, a mans fathers sisters
children, his sisters children, and his daughters children
are all called by another term. A further attribute is strict
terminological dierentiation of siblings according to seniority.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

twentieth century. During the 1920s the Communist

regime was established. The remnants of the Mongolian aristocracy fought alongside the Japanese and against
Chinese, Soviets and Communist Mongols during World
War II, but were defeated.
The anthropologist Herbert Harold Vreeland visited three
Mongol communities in 1920 and published a highly detailed book with the results of his eld work, Mongol community and kinship structure, now publicly
available.[78]

7 Historical population

This map shows the boundary of 13th century Mongol Empire

and location of todays Mongols in modern Mongolia, Russia and
China.

8 Geographic distribution
Today, the majority of Mongols live in the modern state
of Mongolia, China (mainly Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang), Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan.
The dierentiation between tribes and peoples (ethnic
groups) is handled dierently depending on the country. The Tumed, Chahar, Ordos, Barga, Altai Uriankhai,
Buryats, Drbd (Drvd, Drbed), Torguud, Dariganga,
zemchin (or zmchin), Bayads, Khoton, Myangad
(Mingad), Eljigin, Zakhchin, Darkhad, and Olots (or
lds or lts) are all considered as tribes of the Mongols.

8.1 Subgroups
The Eastern Mongols are mainly concentrated in Mongolia, including the Khalkha, Eljigin Khalkha, Darkhad,
Sartuul Khalkha, and Dariganga (Khalkha).

The Buryats are mainly concentrated in their homeland,

The division of Mongolian society into senior elite lin- the Buryat Republic, a federal subject of Russia. They
eages and subordinate junior lineages was waning by the are the major northern subgroup of the Mongols. The

8.4

Russia

11

Barga Mongols are mainly concentrated in Inner Mongo- The 2010 census of the Peoples Republic of China
lia, China, along with the Buryats and Hamnigan.
counted more than 7 million people of various MonThe Southern or Inner Mongols mainly are concen- golic groups. It should be noted that the 1992 census
trated in Inner Mongolia, China. They comprise the of China counted only 3.6 million ethnic Mongols. The
Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohan, Asud, Baarins, 2010 census counted roughly 5.8 million ethnic MonChahar, Durved, Gorlos, Kharchin, Hishigten, Khorchin, gols, 621,500 Dongxiangs, 289,565 Mongours, 132,000
Huuchid, Jalaid, Jaruud, Muumyangan, Naiman (South- Daurs, 20,074 Baoans, and 14,370 Yugurs. Most of
ern Mongols), Onnigud, Ordos, Sunud, Tmed, Urad, them live in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, followed by Liaoning. Small numbers can also be found in
and Uzemchin.
provinces near those two.
The Western Mongols or Oirats are mainly concentrated
There were 669,972 Mongols in Liaoning in 2011, makin Western Mongolia:
ing up 11.52% of Mongols in China.[87] The closest Mongol area to the sea is the Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township
184,000 Kalmyks (2010) Kalmykia, Russia
(
) in Fengcheng, Liaoning. With 8,460 Mongols
(37.4% of the township population)[88] it is located 40 km
205,000 Mongolian Oirats (2010)
from the North Korean border and 65 km from Korea Bay
140,000 Oirats (2010) Xinjiang region, China
of the Yellow Sea. Another contender for closest Mon 90,000 Upper Mongols (2010) Qinghai region, gol area to the sea would be Erdaowanzi Mongol Ethnic
) in Jianchang, Liaoning. With
China. The Khoshuts are the major subgroup of Township (
5,011
Mongols
(20.7%
of
the township population)[89] it
the Upper Mongols, along with the Choros, Khalkha
is located around 65 km from the Bohai Sea.
and Torghuts.
Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are the Daur,
12,000 Sart Kalmyks (Zungharian descents) (2012)
Sogwo Arig, Monguor people, Dongxiangs, Bonans,
Kyrgyzstan. Religion: Sunni Islam.
Sichuan Mongols and eastern part of the Yugur people.
Those do not ocially count as part of the Mongol ethAltai Uriankhai, Baatud, Bayad, Chantuu, Choros, nicity, but are recognized as ethnic groups of their own.
Durvud, Khoshut, Khoid, Khoton, Myangad, Olots, Sart The Mongols lost their contact with the Mongours, BoKalmyks (mainly Olots), Torghut, Zakhchin.
nan, Dongxiangs, Yunnan Mongols since the fall of the
Yuan dynasty. Mongolian scientists and journalists met
Kalmyks Baatud, Buzava, Choros, Durvud, with the Dongxiangs and Yunnan Mongols in the 2000s.
Khoid, Olots, Torghut.
Southern Mongolia: Southern Mongols, Barga, Buryat,
Upper Mongolian Oirats Choros, Khoshut, Drbet Oirat, Khalkha, Dzungar people, Eznee Torgut.
Torghut.
Xinjiang province: Altai Uriankhai, Chahar, Khoshut,
Olots, Torghut, Zakhchin.

8.2

Mongolia

Qinghai province: Upper Mongols: Choros, Khalkha

Mongols, Khoshut, Torghut.

See also: Demographics of Mongolia

In modern-day Mongolia, Mongols make up approxi- 8.4 Russia
mately 95% of the population, with the largest ethnic
group being Khalkha Mongols, followed by Buryats, both Main articles: Buryats, Kalmyk people, Demographics
belonging to the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They are fol- of Russia and Demographics of Siberia
lowed by Oirats, who belong to the Western Mongolic
peoples.
In Russia, the largest Mongolic ethnic group are the
Mongolian ethnic groups: Baarin, Baatud, Barga, Buryats of 2010 census of 461,410, with the sole other
Bayad, Buryat, Selenge Chahar, Chantuu, Darkhad, representative being the Kalmyks of 183,400 in 2010
Dariganga Drbet Oirat, Eljigin, Khalkha, Hamnigan, census.[90]
Kharchin, Khoid, Khorchin, Hotogoid, Khoton,
Huuchid, Myangad, Olots, Sartuul, Torgut, Tmed,
zemchin, Zakhchin.

8.5 Elsewhere

8.3

China

Main article: Mongols in China

Smaller numbers of Mongolic peoples exist in Western

Europe and North America. Some of the more notable
communities exist in South Korea, the United States, the
Czech Republic and the United Kingdom.

12

11

Gallery
4th century Mongolic Xianbei archer

REFERENCES

10 See also
11 References

Guard at tomb of Xianbei Emperor Xuanwu (483515).

[1] " ". National

Statistical Oce of Mongolia. Retrieved 2013-11-14.

Khitan Pagoda of Fogong Temple, 1056

[2] Demographics of China

Khitan tomb painting (Liao Dynasty) at Ar Horqin

Banner, Inner Mongolia.
Mongolic Khitan guard in Liao Dynasty (907-1125)
fresco
Mongolic Khitan men, women and children from the
Liao Dynasty.
Mongol Empress Zayaat (Jiyatu), wife of Kulug
Khan (12811311)

[3] 2,656 Mongols proper, 461,389 Buryats, 183,372

Kalmyks (Russian Census (2010))
[4] "'Korean Dream' lls Korean classrooms in Mongolia,
The Chosun Ilbo, 2008-04-24, retrieved 2009-02-06
[5] Bahrampour, Tara (2006-07-03). Mongolians Meld Old,
New In Making Arlington Home. The Washington Post.
Retrieved 2007-09-05.
[6] President of Mongoli Received the Kalmyk Citizens of the
Kyrgyz. 2012

Genghis son Tolui with Queen Sorgaqtani

[7] Latest numbers show 7,500 Mongolians working in

Czech Republic, Mongolia Web, 2008-02-19, retrieved
2008-10-04

Hulegu Khan, ruler of the Ilkhanate

[8] Mongolia National Census 2010 Provision Results. National Statistical Oce of Mongolia (Mongolian)

13th century Ilkhanid Mongol archer

[9] NHS Prole, Canada, 2011

Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din in 1305

Kalmyk Mongol girl Annushka (painted in 1767)

[10] Bevlkerung nach Staatsangehrigkeit und Geburtsland

[Population by citizenship and country of birth] (in German). Statistik Austria. 3 July 2014. Retrieved 21 August
2014.

The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso

[11] National Bureau of Statistics of the Peoples Republic of

China (April 2012). Tabulation of the 2010 Population
Census of the Peoples Republic of China. China Statistics
Press. ISBN 978-7-5037-6507-0. Retrieved 2013-02-19.

Dolgorsrengiin Dagvadorj became the rst Mongol

to reach sumos highest rank.

[12] China Mongolian, Mongol Ethnic Minority, Mongols History, Food

A 20th-century Mongol Khan, Navaanneren

Mongol women archers during Naadam festival

A Mongol musician
A Mongol Wrangler
Buryat Mongol shaman
Kalmyks, 19th century
Mongol girl performing Bayad dance
Buryat Mongols (painted in 1840)

[13] China.org.cn The Mongolian ethnic minority

[14] China.org.cn The Mongolian Ethnic Group
[15] Mongolia: Ethnography of Mongolia. Encyclopdia
Britannica. Retrieved 2007-07-22.
[16] Geng 2005
[17] tienne de la Vaissire, Xiongnu. Encyclopdia Iranica
online, 2006
[18] Dr. Obrusnszky, Borbla : The History and Civilization
of the Huns. Paper of the University of Amsterdam, 8
October 2007. Page 60.
[19] Frances Wood, The Silk Road: two thousand years in the
heart of Asia, p. 48

Daur Mongol Empress Wanrong (1906-1946), also

[20] Xin Tangshu 219. 6173.
had Borjigin blood on maternal side.
Buryat Mongol boy during shamanic rite

[21] University of California, Berkeley. Project on Linguistic

Analysis, Journal of Chinese linguistics, p. 154

13

[22] Thomas Hoppe, Die ethnischen Gruppen Xinjiangs: Kulturunterschiede und interethnische, p. 66
[23] Uradyn Erden Bulag The Mongols at Chinas edge: history
and the politics of national unity, p.167
[24] Ruofu Du, Vincent F. Yip, Ethnic groups in China, p.27
[25] Paul Ratchnevsky, Thomas Nivison Haining Genghis
Khan: his life and legacy, p. 7
[26] Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural
Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1993), 136.

[45] Twentieth Century Atlas Death Tolls

[46] L.Jamsran, Mongol states in Russia, 1995
[47] / / (Russian)
[48] - ,
(Mongolian)
[49] ( XX ) (Russian)
[50] XX 20, 30- 98
(Mongolian)

[27] Sechin Jagchid, Van Jay Symons Peace, war, and

trade along the Great Wall: Nomadic-Chinese interaction
through two millennia, p.49

[51] (Mongolian)

[28] Janhunen, Juha The Mongolic languages, p.177

[53] China plays long game on border disputes

[29] Elizabeth E. Bacon Obok: A Study of Social Structure in

Eurasia, p.82

[54] Mongolian oce to ride into Taipei by end of the year.

Taipei Times. 2002-10-11. Retrieved 2009-05-28. In
October 1945, the people of Outer Mongolia voted for
independence, gaining the recognition of many countries,
including the Republic of China. (...) Due to a souring of
relations with the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, however, the ROC revoked recognition of Outer Mongolia,
reclaiming it as ROC territory.

[30] (Mongolian)
[31] Michael Edmund Clarke, In the Eye of Power (doctoral
thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37 Archived 11 February 2011
at WebCite
[32] Dr. Mark Levene, Southampton University, see Areas
where I can oer Postgraduate Supervision. Retrieved
2009-02-09.
[33] A. Dirk Moses (2008). "Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History". Berghahn Books. p.188. ISBN 1845454529
[34]
(Russian)
[35] (Mongolian)
[36] (Mongolian)
[37]
(Mongolian)
[38] (Mongolian)
[39]
1771 (Russian)
[40] Michael Khodarkovsky (2002).Russias Steppe Frontier:
The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 15001800". Indiana
University Press. p.142. ISBN 0253217709
[41] ,
: , ,
(Russian)
[42]

(Russian)
[43] Inner Mongolian Peoples Party
[44] (Mongolian)

[52] Regions and territories: Kalmykia

[55] Taiwan 'embassy' changes anger China. BBC News.

2002-02-26. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
[56] The History of MTAC. Mongolian & Tibetan Aairs
Commission. Retrieved 2009-05-07.
[57] unpo.org
[58] Janhunen, Juha (November 29, 2012). 1. Mongolian.
John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 11.
[59] Tsung, Linda (October 27, 2014). 3. Language Power
and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 59.
[60] Tsung, Linda (October 27, 2014). 3. Language Power
and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China. Bloomsbury Academic.
[61] Iredale, Robyn; Bilik, Naran; Fei, Guo (August 2, 2003).
4. Chinas Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies.
p. 84.
[62] Janhunen, Juha (November 29, 2012). 1. Mongolian.
John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 16.
[63] Otsuka, Hitomi (30 Nov 2012). 6. More Morphologies:
Contributions to the Festival of Languages, Bremen, 17 Sep
to 7 Oct, 2009. p. 99.
[64] Iredale, Robyn (August 2, 2003). 3. Chinas Minorities
on the Move: Selected Case Studies. Routledge. pp. 56,
6467.
[65] Janhunen, Juha (November 29, 2012). 1. Mongolian.
John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 11.Iredale,
Robyn; Bilik, Naran; Fei, Guo (August 2, 2003). 3.
Chinas Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies. p.
61.

14

[66] National Census 2010 Preliminary results (Mongolian)

[67] Per Inge Oestmoen. The Mongo Military Might. Cold
Siberia. N.p., 18 Jan. 2002. Retrieved on 12 November
2012
[68] Matthew Barnes. The Mongol War Machine: How Were
the Mongols Able to Forge the Largest Contiguous Land
Empire in History? |. The Pica A Global Research Organization. Pica, n.d. 14 November 2012

12

EXTERNAL LINKS

[87] Tianya network: General situation of Mongols in Liaoning (in Chinese)

[88] Baidu network: Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township (in
Chinese)
[89] Baidu network: Erdaowanzi Mongol Ethnic Township
(in Chinese)
[90] Kalmyks. World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. 2005. Retrieved 2008-05-18.

[69] Jack Weatherford , Genghis Khan and the Making of the

Modern World. (New York: Crown, 2004.), 94.
[70] Vreeland 1962:160
[71] Aberle 1953:2324

12 External links

[72] THE INFLUENCE OF THE GREAT CODE YASA

ON THE MONGOLIAN EMPIRE

"Evidence that a West-East admixed population

lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze
Age" Li et al. BMC Biology 2010, 8:15.

[73] http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12608663/index.pdf

Ethnic map of Mongolia

[74] Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical

history edited by Adas

Map share of ethnic by county of China

[75] Cuisenier (1975:67)

[76] Krader (1963:322, 269)
[77] Kinship Structure and Political Authority: The Middle
East and Central Asia Charles Lindholm Comparative
Studies in Society and History Vol. 28, No. 2 (Apr.,
1986), pp. 334-355 Published by: Cambridge University
Press Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/
178975, Charles Lindholm
[78] Mongol community and kinship structure. Vreeland, Herbert Harold, 1920
[79] http://www.bur-culture.ru/
index.php?id=news-detail&tx_
ttnews[tt_news]=42&cHash=ee903f9ae6737362277ed761d6c2ca

.
.
(Russian)
[80] .. .
XX-XXI .
, , (Russian)
[81] .. ,
XIX (Russian)
[82] (Mongolian)
[83] ,
-

(Southern)
Mongolian Liberal Union Party (Mongolian) Millions
of Han Chinese registered as Mongol and "Manchu"
according to Chinese policy since the 1980s.There is no
enough information about Chinese ethnic minorities due
to the government policy.
[84] (Mongolian)
[85] ethnologue.com information
[86] 768,000 families in Mongolia (2013).

15

13
13.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Mongols Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongols?oldid=676378256 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, The Epopt, Derek Ross, Vicki
Rosenzweig, -- April, DanKeshet, Andre Engels, Enchanter, Roadrunner, Ray Van De Walker, Ktsquare, Mintguy, Olivier, Bobdobbs1723,
Leandrod, Alan Peakall, DopeshJustin, Khub, Menchi, Ixfd64, Zeno Gantner, Ahoerstemeier, Moriarty, Nanshu, Hermeneus, Jiang,
Goododa, Bassington, Lancevortex, Lukobe, Adam Conover, Dwo, Adam Bishop, Andrevan, Yanyang1985, Paul-L~enwiki, Samsara,
Topbanana, Joy, Mksmith, Wetman, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Altenmann, Henrygb, YBeayf, Rholton, Auric, Sunray, Dina, DocWatson42,
Jyril, Inter, Lethe, Zigger, Binadot, Spencer195, No Guru, Mishac, Henry Flower, DO'Neil, Ezhiki, Jherico, Bobblewik, Cosal868, Wmahan, Gadum, Manuel Anastcio, Andycjp, SURIV, Mr d logan, Quadell, Ran, Antandrus, MarkSweep, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Gene s, Phil1988,
Je Rutsch, Grunners, Bbpen, Naus, Kasreyn, Adashiel, Esperant, Gest, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Vsmith, Parishan,
Florian Blaschke, Roo72, Murtasa, Guanabot2, Paul August, ESkog, CanisRufus, Pjrich, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Shanes, Art
LaPella, Siege40, James possamai, Fufthmin, Dalf, Bobo192, NetBot, ComradeAF, Infocidal, Smalljim, Shenme, La goutte de pluie,
Nk, Darwinek, Polylerus, Stevay, Ogress, Alansohn, Lordthees, Bathrobe, Sl, Lectonar, SlimVirgin, H27kim, Lightdarkness, Fritzpoll,
Zyqqh, Mysdaao, Wtmitchell, KingTT, Mikeo, Ghirlandajo, Dan100, Woohookitty, Madxmanx, Vorpalbla, Spettro9, Briangotts, Pol098,
Bruce Cabot, Greg-nz, Sengkang, John Hill, Male1979, Zzyzx11, Gimboid13, A3r0, Marudubshinki, Dysepsion, MrSomeone, Mandarax,
Blisco, Deltabeignet, Gururvishnu, Rsg, BD2412, Tiresais, Kbdank71, Mana Excalibur, Paul Stokstad, Rjwilmsi, Tombseye, Astronaut,
Vary, TheRingess, SMC, Ligulem, Bhadani, Olessi, Sango123, SchuminWeb, RobertG, Old Moonraker, Latka, Hottentot, Jameshsher,
RexNL, Airunp, AdamantlyMike, Algri, Alphachimp, Le Anh-Huy, Benlisquare, Volunteer Marek, Bgwhite, Cactus.man, Vmenkov,
Sceptre, Brandmeister (old), RussBot, Anonymous editor, Briaboru, Fz22, Takwish, Stephenb, Ksyrie, Kennethtennyson, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Grafen, Voyevoda, Lowe4091, Deemo, Dureo, Dhollm, Luis1972, CaliforniaAliBaba, Mlouns, Starryboy, Syrthiss, Gadget850,
DeadEyeArrow, Nlu, AjaxSmack, Igin, YoungKracauer, E Wing, Pb30, Dspradau, Colin, MStraw, Tropylium, Zorigt, Ayazid, Allens,
Katieh5584, Selkem, Roke, Appleby, Eog1916, Teo64x, Hiddekel, Catalystix, RupertMillard, SmackBot, Akumatatsu61, Bobet, Zazaban, Baad, Bomac, Jagged 85, Big Adamsky, Jab843, Nhrenton, Kintetsubualo, Buzava, Macintosh User, Sloman, Hmains, Skizzik,
Ndesi62, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Bluebot, TimBentley, Quinsareth, Sirex98, G.dallorto, IanBailey, Miquonranger03, Kemet, Monkeycheetah, Colonies Chris, Toad king, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jahiegel, Tim Pierce, KaiserbBot, Whpq, Jjjsixsix, Huon, Khoikhoi,
Tekka, Emre D., Hakozen, Model Citizen, Cybercobra, Wirewad, Jwy, Dreadstar, David Shepheard, ShaunES, Hammer1980, BryanG,
Latebird, -Inanna-, -Marcus-, Richard0612, Enriquecardova, Ck lostsword, Kukini, Dkusic~enwiki, FunkyFly, AThing, Kuru, Ergative
rlt, Mmounties, Njk92, Spudkin, JorisvS, Green Giant, Scetoaux, IronGargoyle, Andypandy.UK, Overnight darkness, Mets501, Kurtle,
Onetwo1, Andrwsc, Pseudoanonymous, Jose77, Keitei, Politepunk, Lemonhead, Shunsuke~enwiki, Shoeofdeath, Octane, SweetNeo85,
Shoshonna, Jztinnity, Ziusudra, Tawkerbot2, Daveny1979, Picaroon, Ub3rp4nc4k3, JohnCD, Goldpin, Krul~enwiki, Wnsdnd, Dgw, Ville
Lehtonen, ShelfSkewed, Dulylomo, Vnvns, Rudjek, Slazenger, Mmoyer, Michaelas10, Kilhan, Laenir, Yeanold Viskersenn, Shirulashem,
Doug Weller, Walter Humala, DBaba, Nargnohurt, Jed keenan, Bellpepper, Wandalstouring, Epbr123, Mojo Hand, ChristineDelusion,
West Brom 4ever, TheTruthiness, Dagvadorj, Nick Number, Stevvvv4444, CTZMSC3, Wavetossed, AntiVandalBot, Yonatan, Gioto,
TrevorLSciAct, G Purevdorj, Quintote, Tangerines, Mack2, Modernist, Spacecat2, Storkk, Myanw, Yalens, JAnDbot, Leuko, Scythian1,
Emyrpugh, Fetchcomms, Andonic, Roleplayer, Leolaursen, Janarbek, Coee2theorems, Edipedia, Glacial23, Bongwarrior, VoABot II,
Professor marginalia, Davidgoymt, JamesBWatson, Ling.Nut, PeterStJohn, Dude12345, Midgrid, Bubba hotep, Allstarecho, Cpl Syx, PoliticalJunkie, E104421, DerHexer, JaGa, Esanchez7587, Lost tourist, NatureA16, FisherQueen, Supermath, Hdt83, MartinBot, Ebizur,
Kl711, Poeloq, Tekleni, Ravichandar84, Clarin, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Captain panda, Bogey97, Lizrael, Ginsengbomb, 12dstring, Maproom, Tannkremen, Doctor Sunshine, Janus Shadowsong, Jigesh, M-le-mot-dit, Bogomolov.PL, NewEnglandYankee,
Mscutti11, NovaSkola, Toon05, 5thhour, Brancron, Cometstyles, FuegoFish, Jamesontai, J batbaatar, Inwind, Useight, Zultrix, Speciate,
FeralDruid, Terranbinson, X!, Chinneeb, Deor, VolkovBot, Je G., Indubitably, Al.locke, Philip Trueman, Temurjin, Monkeypoop546,
Pahari Sahib, Zamphuor, Daddio301, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseric, IronMaidenRocks, Adiamas, Ochoo1988~enwiki, Yaan, Julian Riviera, Falcon8765, Aldenvancia, Bamsefan, Jpg5f2, Insanity Incarnate, Mybullsday, Skarz, Monty845, Omg iits sarrahh, PGWG,
Munci, Tvinh, Dantaeos, GeniousLCMS, Thecat22, SieBot, Arun11, Shantigk69, Dawn Bard, RJaguar3, Yintan, Vikingsagas, Pushsdn23,
Seijihyouronka, Keilana, Happysailor, Jrv 257, Flyer22, Belinrahs, JetLover, Le Pied-bot~enwiki, Yerpo, Oxymoron83, Iain99, Ealdgyth,
Hobartimus, Hak-k-ngn, Robo123321~enwiki, UncleMartin, Kudret abi, Johnanth, Shannnnnnnt, Bigen182, Gantuya eng, Sasha Callahan, Angelo De La Paz, Tripod86, Amazonien, Joescrabshack, ImageRemovalBot, MenoBot, ClueBot, Villaroman83, The Thing That
Should Not Be, Jan1nad, JMiscreant, Arakunem, Drmies, Cp111, Mild Bill Hiccup, Jojokintel, Niceguyedc, LizardJr8, Excirial, Giants92, Mongolian976, PixelBot, Eeekster, Madzt7, Enerelt, NuclearWarfare, Tnxman307, Wsese2, Polly, Gaara san, Aitias, Duler23,
Jermister3, Donvito08, Versus22, Berean Hunter, SoxBot III, Vanished User 1004, Local hero, Swissman564, Zombie Hunter Smurf,
Fastily, Koolokamba, Gerhardvalentin, Q247, Torms18, Gazimo, Hippymedes, Navyseal42, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Tar-ba-gan,
CalumH93, Addbot, Swimtst9965, Fyrael, Elbowlik, Halfheart2362189, Ronhjones, Ironholds, Mr. Wheely Guy, CanadianLinuxUser,
BabelStone, Forolsk, Download, Amerul, Kotlyarov, Kaisop, Raayen, Yastanovog, LarryJe, Tide rolls, Taketa, MuZemike, Scott teriman,
Jarble, Arbitrarily0, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Vorrei, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, AlecTrevelyan402, KamikazeBot,
, Backslash Forwardslash,
AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Bsimmons666, IRP, Dwayne, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, Scythian77, Kingpin13, Cyanidethistles, Flewis, Alexikoua, Materialscientist, Rtyq2, Bileg, , HistoryGirl08, GB fan, LilHelpa, Enterphrase, Sionus, Capricorn42, Hommi123,
Teddks, NFD9001, Anna Frodesiak, AbigailAbernathy, J04n, Ute in DC, RibotBOT, Mathonius, Amaury, Uchiah24, GhalyBot, Moxy,
, Yoty, BoomerAB, FrescoBot, Stefenluciano, Tobby72, Lothar von Richthofen, VS6507, 123khan123, Oro2, TruHeir, TTGL,
HamburgerRadio, Hamucan, Pinethicket, KherlenBorjigin, Elockid, Edderso, LinDrug, Skyerise, RedBot, Kaiyr, 3manol, Wernergerman,
Merlion444, PacicWarrior101, Tuguldurs, Zquark, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Beaukarpo, Zanhe, Vrenator, MajorStovall, Miracle Pen,
Wo.luren, Reaper Eternal, Digibee, Mkungaa, Diannaa, Suusion of Yellow, Reepy1, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, TjBot,
Appelsientje, Beyond My Ken, Zujine,
, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Nuujinn, Nouzeg, Pwnzilla1, Gordanpersie,
Tommy2010, AvicBot, Lucky555510, Fernirm, H3llBot, RONRON61093, Wayne Slam, HammerFilmFan, Lathdrinor, Rcsprinter123,
Aidarzver, L Kensington, Shrigley, Donner60, MALLUS, Bbrnrd, Zibran 2, ChuispastonBot, HandsomeFella, Lazyfoxx, Ruggert1, Vanished user ijiqfoineiknsdk356slk4, DASHBotAV, , Davey2010, Special Cases, ClueBot NG, Tskk, , Movses-bot,
Badamsambu, Iritakamas, Lord Roem, Navops47, Frietjes, Elvonudinium, Muon, Lauren68, Widr, Magnai2011, Rhabibuddha, Uyqe54e,
Enchyin, Chris.muntz95, , Kutsuit, Kingzobbles,
, Curb Chain, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Ymblanter, Ramesh
Ramaiah, Mattyjacky, Gomada, PhnomPencil, MongolWiki, Frze, Chinyin, AdventurousSquirrel, YZH1201, Johnny Coch2, WarriorsPride6565, PolishJoker1999, Lieutenant of Melkor, Guitaristani, P.Sridhar Babu, MeanMotherJr, BattyBot, Tonyxc600, Bolorbolorbolor,
ChrisGualtieri, Accountjustforediting, Executivewalrus, Qqeew, Poopbeerinmyface, Khazar2, Googlehoops, Jon Engman, Mogism, Liang
Pengyuan, TrollingRedneck, Paraloco, Lugia2453, SFK2, Graphium, Zyma, The Anonymouse, AlissahVanessa, Dudeswag, General1962,

16

13

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Camyoung54, Rmil Kadyrov, Al Khazar, M tenger, Cassiemae99, Jan Kaninchen, Ancientsteppe, EKhan60, JackFrost2121, Chris1636,
Ansegam, Mr.Lu Kim, Nolifeguy21, Evil Barney, Skoogs, Khereid, Cethe, Sczc, Monkbot, Choi1979, Xqir, Filedelinkerbot, Demoniccathandler, Qwertyxp2000, Mywalnut, Serapolous, Uniquark9, Lux ex Tenebris, Badarchiinayurzana, Cartakes, Teghudir, Anand.orkhon,
Evecurid, KasparBot, Garuth and Anonymous: 1040

13.2

Images

File:Asia_500ad.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Asia_500ad.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:

Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Chinneeb using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Talessman at English Wikipedia
File:Babur_and_Humayun.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Babur_and_Humayun.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/05-10/features1731.htm Original artist: Unknown
File:Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.battle-of-qurman.com.cn/e/hist.htm Original artist: A collaboration between Chinese and European painters. The Jesuit missionaries involved in producing the drawings in China were Giuseppe Castiglione, Jean-Denis Attiret, Ignace
Sichelbart and Jean Damascene. The engravings were executed in Paris under the direction of Charles-Nicolas Cochin of the Acadmie
Royal at the Court of Louis XVI and the individual engravers include Le Bas, Aliamet, Prevot, Saint-Aubin, Masquelier, Choard, and
Launay.
File:Bjambyn_Rintschen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Bjambyn_Rintschen.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brcke-Osteuropa
File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -x File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, construction sheet. Redo by: cs:User:-xfi- Original artist: Made by Andrew Duhan for the
Sodipodi SVG ag collection, and is public domain.
File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License:
domain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)
Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update

Public

File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Current version is SVG implementation of the Mongolian ag as described by Mongolian National Standard MNS
6262:2011 (Mongolian State Flag. General requirements [1]
Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color
guidelines (Russian/English) This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Trk Bayra Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Trk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.
svg License: Public domain Contributors:
-x-'s le
-x-'s code
Zirlands codes of colors
Original artist:
(of code): SVG version by cs:-x-.
File:Flag_of_the_People{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

13.3

Content license

17

File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:

PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Gurvger.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Gurvger.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons.
Original artist: The original uploader was Adagio at English Wikipedia
File:Hakuho_2012_January.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Hakuho_2012_January.JPG License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: FourTildes
File:Hulagu_Khan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Hulagu_Khan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Cropped from File:HulaguAndDokuzKathun.JPG Original artist: Rashid-al-Din Hamadani
File:Khalkhin_Gol_George_Zhukov_and_Khorloogiin_Choibalsan_1939.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/b/b3/Khalkhin_Gol_George_Zhukov_and_Khorloogiin_Choibalsan_1939.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
http://marshal-jukov.narod.ru/photoalbum.html Original artist: soviet reporter
File:Mongols-map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Mongols-map.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Monumento_ruso_en_Ulan_Bator,_Mongolia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Monumento_
ruso_en_Ulan_Bator%2C_Mongolia.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Monumento ruso en Ulan Bator
Original artist: Mario Carvajal
File:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Mooko-Suenaga.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Subudei.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Subudei.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://www.xlegio.ru/armies/khrapachevsky/batu_raid.htm. , Original artist:
/unknown
File:Sukhbaatar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Sukhbaatar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://resource.ireport.mn/reportfile/2011/3/3dgu46q6pcdqheqfsigjbcaq4/5wc2i093xbj03eep70nczo001.jpg Original artist: Unknown
File:Sumo_May09_Asashoryu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Sumo_May09_Asashoryu.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arcimboldo / Eckhard Pecher
File:Skhbaataryn_Yanjmaa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/S%C3%BCkhbaataryn_Yanjmaa.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia
Original artist: Unknown Original uploader was Onetwo1 at en.wikipedia
File:Tamerlan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Tamerlan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
. ., . . XIX . ., 1965 Original artist:

File:Tsedenbal_BundesArchiv.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Tsedenbal_BundesArchiv.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Cropped from File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B0119-0010-063, Berlin, VI. SED-Parteitag, 5.Tag.jpg
Original artist: Schaar, Helmut
File:XianbeiState.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/XianbeiState.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Yastanovog
File:YesheDorje.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/YesheDorje.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.himalayanart.org/image.cfm/1089.html Original artist: ?
File:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/
YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Dschingis Khan und seine Erben (exhibition catalogue), Mnchen 2005, p. 304 Original artist: unknown / (of the reproduction) National Palace Museum in Taipei
File:YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/
YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Artdaily.org Original artist: Anige (also known as
Araniko) of Nepal, an astronomer, engineer, painter, and condant of Kublai Khan
File:YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/
YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Dschingis Khan und seine Erben (exhibition catalogue),
Mnchen 2005, p. 304 Original artist: unknown / (of the reproduction) National Palace Museum in Taipei

13.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0