CHAPTER -2

POLARIZATION MODE DISPERSION

2.1 DISPERSION
Dispersion is a phenomenon in which the velocity of propagation of any
electromagnetic wave is wavelength dependent.
Dispersion is used to describe any process by which any electromagnetic signal
propagating in a physical medium is degraded because the various wave frequencies of
the signal have different propagation velocities within the physical medium.
There are 3 dispersion types in the optical fibers, in general:
1- Modal Dispersion (MD)
2- Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
3- Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Figure 2.1: Various Dispersion Types.

1

(1) MODAL DISPERSION:

Modal dispersion is due to change in velocity from one mode to other. In a multimode
fiber different modes travel at different velocities, if a pulse is constituted from
different modes then inter- modal dispersion occurs. Modal dispersion is greatest in
multimode step index fibers. More the modes greater the modal dispersion. Typical
bandwidth of a step index fiber may be as low as 10 MHz over 1 km. The drive to
reduce modal dispersion led to the development of graded index multimode fiber and
single mode fiber. A ray model can give and adequate description of modal dispersion.

2. CHROMATIC DISPERSION:
Chromatic dispersion is caused by different spectral components of the light impulse
(different wavelengths) propagate in the optical fiber at different speeds. The receiver
cannot correctly recognize whether a transmitter in a specific bit interval sent a value
of logical one or zero. As the consequence of different speeds the light impulse spectral
components have different time of arrival to the end of fiber, impulse width increases
and inter-bit spaces narrow (see the Figure above). The distortion of the transmitted
information will then increase the bit error rate.
3 POLARIZATION MODE DISPERSION:
Here, according to my thesis, I have to deal with mainly Polarization mode dispersion
and understand it and combat it. The effects of fiber-birefringence on the polarization
states of an optical wave are another source of pulse broadening. Polarization mode
dispersion (PMD) is due to slightly different velocity for each polarization mode
because of the lack of perfectly symmetry of the fiber. If the group velocities of two
orthogonal polarization modes are then the differential time delay between these two
polarizations over a distance L is

The rms value of the differential group delay can be approximated as:

PMD is difficult to compensate, this ultimately limits the rate at which data can be
transmitted over a fiber. It is a form of modal dispersion where two different
polarizations of light in a waveguide, which normally travel at the same speed, travel
at different speeds due to random imperfections and asymmetries, causing random
spreading of optical pulses.

Figure 2.2: Pulse spreading due to PMD

Let that the core refractive index has different values along two orthogonal directions
corresponding to electric field oscillation direction (polarization). We can take x and y
axis along these directions. An input light will travel along the fiber with E x and Ey
polarizations having different group velocities and hence arrive at the output at
different times.
Effect of Polarization mode dispersion:

Figure 2.3: Effect of PMD on Signal.

3

In optical fibers, a slight difference in the propagation characteristics of light waves

with different polarization states results in PMD and differential group delay can occur
even for fibers which according to the design should have a rotational symmetry and
thus exhibit no birefringence. It can result from random imperfections or bending of
the fibers, or from other kinds of mechanical stress.
Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) describes a situation in which the electromagnetic
wave components that make up an optical signal travel at different speeds within the
fiber. This causes a multipath interference at the receiver. PMD is difficult to predict
and may possibly vary with temperature and environment, the twisting of the cable as
it was pulled, and even between production runs from the same manufacturer. The very
high-speed systems that are soon to be deployed are more prone to failing in the
presence of significant levels of PMD. Some modeling has been performed recently
that suggests that PMD will only be a problem for long haul systems (> 500 km). The
analysis took into account that link components such as dispersion shifted fiber (DCF)
and EDFAs contribute their own degree of PMD. Keeping in mind that existing routes
are limited to distances requiring regenerators rather than the cascaded EDFAs those
long haul carriers plan to deploy to maximize bandwidth and economize on signal
regeneration.

2.2 BIREFRINGENCE
In a single mode fiber we have two modes. An ideal single mode fiber has two
orthogonally polarized modes. It can be explained by the fact that we can inject
polarized light from a laser in a mono mode fiber, rotate it 90 and inject light again, if
the fiber is short or ideal with no interference between the two modes, both
polarizations can be recovered at the other end of the fiber. So, if a fiber can carry two
orthogonal modes in two different instants, then it can carry both modes at the same
time. Furthermore if there was only one mode in a single mode fiber, there would be
no PMD. But there can be no PMD in a perfect fiber with these two modes.
The two polarization modes are caused by manufacturing defects, and are therefore
named intrinsic perturbations, which in turn cause birefringence to occur in the fiber.
Some of the most relevant are: - noncircular core which will cause geometric
birefringence and nonsymmetrical stress fields in the glass around the core which will
cause stress birefringence, in Figure below both perturbations can be easily seen.

Figure 2.4: Optical Fiber Manufacturing Defects and optical modes

The techniques have evolved past intrinsic perturbations and that we can now
manufacture a very perfect circular stress free fiber. But merely 1% deviation of a
perfect circle in the core can result in a great deal of PMD, this degree of precision
would not be so hard to achieve if the fiber section was big, but it is so small, that
these microscopic tolerances are hard to maintain. Extrinsic perturbations occur when
the fiber is exposed to external perturbations such as cabling, transport or installation;
these perturbations are also a cause of birefringence. In these situations the fiber will
be subject to compression, bending and twisting, as seen in Figure below.

Figure 2.5: a) Intrinsic and b) extrinsic mechanisms of fiber birefringence

Birefringence in a fiber is not uniform, it varies throughout the fiber as stress and
manufacturing quality varies, but in short lengths, birefringence can be considered to
be uniform, as long as in the considered region the fiber has constant perturbations.
The difference between propagation constants of both modes is given by the following
equation:

..(1)
Being the angular optical frequency, c the speed of light in vacuum and n=n snf the
difference of refractive index between both orthogonal modes (named slow and fast).
5

Since there is a difference in speed from these two orthogonal modes, there can be the
case that polarization changes throughout the fiber. This is clearly seen when we inject
linearly polarized light into the fiber in a way that both birefringent axes receive
power.
As each component propagates with different speed, at each length of fiber we have a
different polarization changing from linear at 45 to elliptical, then to circular and
elliptical again back to linear polarization; this last polarization is opposite to the initial
one, therefore -45. The process is repeated until we have the initial polarization and is
repeated over and over as seen in Figure below.

Figure 2.6: Changes in polarization throughout a fiber caused by Birefringence

The Poincare sphere is a visual representation of light polarization, which is
represented by a point in a sphere where the three axes represent: vertical polarization,
45 polarization and right circular polarization. The opposite point of each of these
axes represent the opposite polarization, being horizontal polarization for vertical
polarization, -45 polarization for 45 polarization and left circular polarization for
right circular polarization. We can represent any type of polarization by choosing any
point in the sphere, thus we can have any combination of two or three of the original
polarizations.

Figure 2.7: Poincare sphere of PMD.

2.3 POLARIZATION MODE COUPLING

The most effective countermeasure to PMD is to transmit and receive using one
propagation mode and discard the other. It might seem that in this way we can avoid
dispersion due to PMD since we will be selecting one signal from one mode and not
both signals from the two orthogonal modes, therefore producing DGD. If we can
detect the axes alignment, this is possible to do, but only in short fibers. After a
reasonable length of fiber, the effect of PMD is greater, since a longer fiber will make
the DGD greater as the signal from one mode travels faster than the other for a longer
time, because the fiber is longer, so the longer the fiber, the bigger the PMD, but not
6

linearly bigger. In long fibers the axes vary in a random way throughout the fiber, this
causes polarization-mode coupling.
A long span of fiber can be seen as a large sequence of short fiber segments, each of
these spans will have its own orientation. These segments have different orientation
that vary in a random manner, this variation will cause polarization-mode coupling,
therefore, Polarization-mode coupling is a phenomenon that occurs when slow and fast
polarization modes from one fiber segment are fed into slow and fast polarization
modes of the next segment, and this is done in such a way that the signal that was in
the fast mode of the first segment is not completely fed to the fast mode of the next
segment, so at each segment both signal are mixed a certain amount depending on the
angle the second segment has when compared to the first segment. An example of this
can be seen in Figure below.

Figure 2.8: Randomly oriented fiber section and with different propagation speeds.
Polarization-mode coupling occurs from stresses and manufacturing defects, just like
PMD. Mode coupling may or may not have a detrimental effect in overall PMD,
depending on the orientation of the axes and their magnitude. It is straightforward to
understand how polarization-mode coupling prevents PMD from increasing linearly
throughout the fiber to unconpensatable levels. Consider if we have two fiber sections
with same propagation speed difference, one is rotated 90 so that the fast axis of the
first is aligned with the slow axis of the second and vice versa. The first section causes
PMD since there is a propagation speed difference between both modes. When light
propagates to the second section the mode that propagated faster will now propagate
slower and to the other happens the opposite. At the receiver end, both signals will
arrive at the same time, since they faced the same delay. The second section eliminated
PMD. There is an extremely low probability that this exact occurrence may happen,
especially in a long fiber. It shows that PMD can be reduced, or not grow so fast, due
to polarization-mode coupling.

2.4 THE PRINCIPLE STATES OF POLARIZATION

In a short or long fiber for a given wavelength we can always find two orthogonal
polarization modes at the input that will make the output signal undistorted in respect
to PMD. Given the randomness of polarization modes orientation, we can choose to
inject the signal aligned with each one of the two axes available and thus the pulse will
travel faster or slower depending on the selected axis.
The model used to characterize PMD is the Principal States Model; this model has
time and frequency characterization of PMD. For frequency domain, the definition
states that for a given length of fiber and for a given frequency there are two
polarization states, named Principal States of Polarization (PSP) that make the output
polarization independent of frequency in the first order, or in a small frequency range.
7

If there is no polarization dependent loss, these PSP are orthogonal, which means that
for each pair of input PSP, there is also a pair of output PSP that are orthogonal. As
with any output polarization that is related to the input polarization by means of the
fiber transmission matrix, PSP shares this property.

2.5 1ST ORDER PMD

The need for understanding first order PMD arrived as the bit rate can be increased
when chromatic dispersion is compensated typically to a small in wavelength division
multiplexed systems until it is limited by the dispersive effect, this results in a
broadening of the received pulse. Every network exhibits two slightly different
propagation delays that correspond to different input polarizations. Some of the pulse
energy experiences the longer delay and the rest of the energy experiences the shorter
delay.

Figure 2.9: DGD in real optical fiber.

PMD is considerably more complex, PMD in single-mode optical fiber originates with
no circularity of the core. Fiber birefringence has two components. Form birefringence
is a basic characteristic of any oval waveguide. Stress birefringence is induced by the
mechanical stress field that is set up when the fiber is drawn to other than a perfectly
circular shape. Over short lengths, fiber birefringence splits the input pulse into linear
slow and fast polarization modes, behaving like a linearly birefringent crystal. The
corresponding difference in propagation time is called the Differential Group Delay
(DGD), expressed in picoseconds.

Figure 2.10: Slow and Fast axis representation.

Together, the differential group delay and the orthogonal polarization modes are the
fundamentals of first-order PMD. The impact of first-order PMD depends upon both
the relative intensities of light in the principal states of polarization and the differential
group delay. When equal amounts of light are coupled into the input principal states of
polarization the impairment is severe, and the impairment is negligible when all of the
light is coupled to a single principal state of polarization.
Measurement of the PMD of installed fiber is a key step in upgrading to higher data
rates. First-order PMD can be mitigated, but the amount of improvement is limited by
the unmitigated effects of second-order PMD. Digital transmission systems are
designed to tolerate 10 to 15 percent of a bit period of average differential group delay,
or 10 to 15 ps for a 10 GB/s system. The average differential group delay of long
routes of legacy fiber is often greater than this limit and in particularly severe cases
can exceed 100 ps.

Figure 2.11: (a) shows frequency dependence of DGD and (b) Shows depolarization
and indicates that PSP varies with frequency.
First Order PMD is defined as either the mean or root mean square (RMS) value of the
differential group delay (DGD) between the two principal states of polarization (PSP)
of a single mode fiber.

2.6

2nd ORDER PMD

PMD vector, () = ()q(), where () is the dierential group delay (DGD

= rst-order PMD) between the two principle states of polarization (PSPs) and q(w)
is a unit vector that points in the direction of the fast principal axis. Second-order PMD
(SOPMD) is dened as the frequency derivative of the PMD. Hence second order
PMD is given by:

2nd order PMD equation =

q^() + ()

..(1)

The two terms in above equation are often treated separately by breaking the second
order PMD in to parallel and prependicular components:

ll =

q^ .(2)

10

(3)

Where ll causes polarization dependent chromatic dispersion and represents a

frequency dependent rotation of PSPs, both of which in turn cause signal
depolarization. Also we have used short hand =

Figure 2.22: Vector picture of PMD Vector () and its derivatives

Since PMD is a vector quantity, second order PMD has two components. The first and
dominant component of SOPMD is known as depolarization. Depolarization is the
change in the direction of the PMD vector with a change in wavelength. Second-order
PMD is the change of the DGD (first-order PMD) with changes in wavelength. The
second component of SOPMD is the polarization dependent chromatic dispersion
(PDCD). PDCD measures the change in the DGD with a change in wavelength. The
SOPMD level positively correlates with the DGD level. The magnitude of the
depolarization component of SOPMD increases with increasing DGD in a linear
manner. As DGD gets worse, SOPMD also gets worse. Moreover SOPMD depends on
the modulation bandwidth of the signal. As bit rates increase the SOPMD also
increases.
Second order PMD is more harmful to bit rates of 40GB/s and higher, hence it is
important to be able to determine the magnitude of SOPMD given a known first order
PMD. The difficulty in compensating polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is largely
because of its statistical nature. Therefore, it is essential to understand the statistical
characteristics of first and second order PMD for high bit rate transmission systems.

11

Figure 2.23: Poincare Sphere for 2nd order PMD.

The DGD and PSP in discrete components are nearly independent of wavelength. But
DGD and PSP both have measurable wavelength dependence in long fibers. The
wavelength dependence in these two parameters gives rise to PMD. The second-order
effect is sharp than the first-order effect.

Figure 2.24: Maxwellian distribution for instantaneous DGD.

2.7

POLARIZATION DEPENDENT LOSSES

In optical components, Loss that varies as the Polarization state of the propagating
Wave changes and expressed as the difference between the maximum and minimum
loss in decibels. It is abbreviated PDL. Effect of PMD can be attributed to fiber length,
for short fiber sections, the DGD is proportional to the fiber length. For longer
12

sections, different portions of fiber contribute uncorrelated amounts of DGD, and the
total R.M.S. value of the differential group delay scales only with the square root of
the fiber length.
The polarization dependence of the transmission properties of optical components has
many sources. Polarization dependent loss is a measure of the peak-to-peak difference
in Transmission of an optical component or system with respect to all possible states of
polarization. It is the ratio of the maximum and the minimum transmission of an
optical device with respect to all polarization states. Some of the most common effects
are: Dichroism Fiber bending Angled optical interfaces Oblique reflection.

Figure 2.25: Poincare Sphere representation of PDL.

Polarization-dependent loss refers to energy loss that is preferential to one polarization
state; one axis suffers more loss than the other. This differential loss changes the output
polarization state and imparts common loss to an unpolarized light beam. The
complement of polarization-dependent loss is polarization-dependent gain (PDG).
PDG is an effect that is related to preferential gain between signal and noise in optical
amplifiers.
Polarization Dependent Loss (PDL) is analogous to the maximum change in the power
transmitted by an optical device as the input state of polarization (SOP) is varied over
all possible polarization states. The measurement of PDL and especially the
characterization of its wavelength dependence in wavelength selective optical
components such as fiber gratings become critically important for system design and
evaluation.

The power transmission coefficient T of a component (or a system) with PDL depends
on the input state of polarization. The largest transmission coefficient is called T MAX,
the smallest TMIN. The corresponding polarization states in Stokes space (S MAX and
SMIN), and they are mutually orthogonal.

13

14

CHAPTER 3
PMD COMPENSATION TECHNIQUES
3.1 Optical PMD Compensation
Optical PMD compensation has been demonstrated to 160 Gb/s [26]. One of themost
common optical PMD compensators requires a polarization controller (PC) and length
of polarization-maintaining fiber (PMF), as shown in Figure 1.4 . The PC is used to
align the polarization of the light signal such that it is aligned with the principal states
of polarization (PSPs) of the PMF. PMF is fiber which has been intentionally
manufactured to have a large, but controlled, birefringence, and therefore can be used
to generate a specifc amount of DGD. In this way, the power in the fast SOP can be
delayed by an amount equal to the DGD of the PMF, resulting in a reduction in the
overall DGD. More complicated compensators can be made by replacing the fixed
length of PMF with a variable delay to enable cancellation of arbitrary amounts of
DGD, or by using multiple PC-PMF stages to increase the degrees of freedom and
hence the accuracy of the compensation .
Despite the obvious advantages of compensating an optical phenomenon with optical
components, optical compensation has several disadvantages. First, opticalschemes
require expensive and relatively bulky optical components. Also, because of the
dynamic nature of PMD, compensators must be adaptive. Adaptation is not easily
achieved in the optical domain because of the relative lack of flexibility in optical
components, and because of the difficulty in extracting an appropriate error signal to
control the adaptation

Figure 1.5: Typical optoelectronic PMD compensator architecture.

15

3.2 Optoelectronic PMD Compensation

It is also possible to compensate PMD using a scheme which involves both the optical
and electronic domains. Typically, this scheme involves splitting the received light
signal into its two polarization modes by a PC and a polarization beam splitter (PBS).
The resulting light signals are then converted to electrical signals by two separate
photodiode-transimpedance amplier (TIA) front-ends. The electrical signal
corresponding to the light in the fast SOP is then delayed by an interval equal to the
DGD. Finally, the two signals are recombined to form a received signal that is free
from PMD effects. This concept is illustrated in Figure 1.5.
The main advantage of optoelectronic compensation is that some of the compensation
hardware is moved from the optical to the electronic domain, increasing the level of
integration. However, optoelectronic compensation still requires extra optical
components (PC and PBS), so greater integration is possible using an electronic
scheme. Also, the addition of a second front-end is a significant expense.

3.3 Electronic PMD Compensation

Electronic PMD compensation is performed by equalization of the received signal
after it has been converted from light to electricity by a photodiode and TIA.
Electronic equalization is attractive because it offers a higher level of integration and
hence a lower cost when compared to optical and optoelectronic solutions. A high level
of integration is especially important in WDM systems, in which PMD compensation
is required for each channel . Also, the adaptation that is required to track changing
PMD conditions is relatively simple to implement electronically, with established
adaptation algorithms such as the least mean square (LMS) algorithm readily available.
As a result of these considerations, electronic compensation is favoured when it is
possible within the bounds of IC technology.

Figure 1.6: Block diagram of optical receiver including electronic PMD compensator

16

CHAPTER- 4
Adaptive Channel Equalization
Fig.3.1 shows a block diagram of a digital communication system in
which an adaptive equalizer is used to compensate for the distortion
caused by the transmission medium (channel).

Fig:4.1 Digital communication using adaptive equalizer

The digital sequence of information symbols a(n) is fed to the
transmitting filter whose output is

s (t) a( k) p(t kTs )

k0

where, p(t) is the impulse response of the filter at the transmitter and s T is the time
interval between information symbols; that is, s 1 T is the symbol rate. For the purpose
of this discussion, we may assume that a(n) is a multilevel sequence that takes on
values from the set 1, 3,5,............,(k 1), where k is the number of possible
Typically, the pulse p(t) is designed to have the characteristics illustrated in fig.3.2.

17

Figure 4.2: Pulse Shape for Digital Transmission of Symbols

Note that p(0) 1 at t 0 and ( ) 0 s p nT at t nT , n 1,2,......... As a
consequence, successive pulses transmitted sequentially every s T second
do not interfere with one another when sampled at the time instants s t nT . Thus,The
channel, which is usually modeled as a linear filter, distorts the pulse and, thus,causes
intersymbol interference. For example, in telephone channels, filters are used
throughout the system to separate signals in different frequency ranges. These filters
causes frequency and phase distortion. Fig.3.3 illustrates the effect of channel
distortion of pulse p(t) as it might appear at the output of the telephone channel.

Figure.4.3: Eect of Channel Distortion on the Signal Pulse in fig.3.2.

18

Now, we observe that the samples taken every s T second are corrupted by interference
from several adjacent symbols. The distorted signal is also corrupted by additive noise,
which is usually wide band.
At the receiving end of communication system, the signal is first passed through a
filter that is primarily designed to eliminate the noise outside of the frequency band
occupied by the signal. We may assume that this filter is a linear phase FIR filter that
limits the bandwidth of the noise but causes negligible additional distortion on the
channel-corrupted signal.
Samples of the received signal at the output of this filter reflect the presence of
intersymbol interference and additive noise. If we ignore, for the moment, the where,
w(t) represents the additive noise and q(t) represents the distorted pulse at the output of
the receiver filter.
To simplify the discussion, we assume that the sample q(0) is normalized to unity by
means of an automatic gain control (AGC) contained in the receiver. Then, the
sampled signal given in the equation (3.1) may be expressed as

x(n)=a(n)+ a(k)q(n-k)+w(n)
k0

3.2

. The term a(n) in equation (3.2) is the desired symbol at the nth
sampling instant. The second term, time variations in the channel,
we may express the sampled output at the receiver as where, w(t)
represents the additive noise and q(t) represents the distorted pulse
at the output of the receiver filter.
To simplify the discussion, we assume that the sample q(0) is
normalized to unity by means of an automatic gain control (AGC)
contained in the receiver. Then, the sampled signal given in the
equation
(3.1)
may
be
expressed

x(n)=a(n)+ a(k)q(n-k)+w(n)
k0

3.3

. The term a(n) in equation (3.2) is the desired symbol at the nth
sampling instant. The second term,

h(n) = a(k)q(n-k)
19

k0
kn
constitutes the intersymbol interference
distortion, and w(n)
represents the additive noise in the system.

due

to

the

channel

In general, the channel distortion eect embodied through the

sampled values q(n) is unknown at the receiver. Further more, the
channel may vary slowly with time such that the intersymbol
interference eects are time-variant. The purpose of adaptive
equalizer is to compensate the signal for the channel distortion, so
that the resulting signal can be detected reliably. Let us assume that
the equalizer is an FIR filter with M adjustable coefficients, h(n). Its
output may be expressed as

M-1
(n) =

h(k)x(n+D-k)

3.3

k0

where D is some nominal delay in processing the signal through the

filter and a(n) represents an estimate of the nth information symbol.
Initially, the equalizer is trained by transmitting a known data
sequence d(n) . Then, the equalizer output, say d(n) , is compared
with d(n) and an error e(n) is generated that is used to optimize the
filter coefficients. This is illustrated in fig.3.4.

Figure 4.4: Channel Equalization using Training Sequence.

20

If we again adopt the least squares error criterion, we select the

coefficients
h(k) to minimize the quantity.
N

M-1

(n)]2 = [d(n)- h(k)x(n+D-k)]2

M = [d(n)
3.4

n=0

n=0

k=0

where, xx(l ) r is the autocorrelation of the sequence x(n) and r (l) dx is the cross
correlation between the desired sequence d(n) and the received sequence x(n) .
Although the solution of the equation (3.5) is obtained recursively in practice, in
principle, we observe that these equations result in values of the coefficient for the
initial adjustments of the equalizer. After the short training period, which usually last
less than one second for most of the channels, the transmitter begins to transmit the
information sequence a(n) . In order to track the possible time variations in the
channel, the equalizer coefficients must continue to be adjusted in an adaptive manner
while receiving data.
As illustrated in fig.3.1, this is usually accomplished by treating the decisions at the
output of the decision device as correct, and using the decisions in place of the
reference d(n) to generate the error signal. This approach works quite well when
decision errors occur frequently (for example, less than one decision error per hundred
symbols). The occasional decision error cause only small misadjustments in the
equalizer coefficients.

4.4 Types of Equalization Techniques

4.4.1 Linear Equalization
Consider the linear equalizer structure in fig 3.5. The linear filter tries to invert the
channel dynamics and the decision device is a static mapping, working according to
the nearest neighbor principle.

21

A linear equalizer consists of a linear filter C(q) followed by a decision device.

The equalizer is computed from knowledge of a training sequence of t u . The
underlying assumption is that the transmission protocol is such that a training
sequence,known to the receiver is transmitted regularly.
This sequence is used to estimate the inverse channel dynamics C(q) according to the
least squares principle. The dominating model structure for both channel and linear
equalizer is FIR filters. The FIR model for channel is motivated by physical reasons;
the signal is subject to multi-path fading or echoes, which implies delayed and scaled
versions of the signal at the receiver. The FIR model for equalizer structures, where the
equalizer consists of a linear filter in series with the channel, is motivated by practical
reasons.
An equalizer of order n, n C , is to be estimated from L training symbols t u aiming at
a total time delay of D. Introduce the loss function
L
VL (Cn , D) = 1 (ut-D
L t=1

Cn (q) yt )2

3.3.1

The least squares estimate of the equalizer is nowThe designer of the communication
system has three degrees of freedom.
n

(D)=arg min VL(Cn , D)

The first, and most important, choice for performance and spectrum efficiency is the
length of the training sequence, L. This has to be fixed at an early design phase when
the protocol, and for commercial systems the standard, is determined. Then the order n
and delay D have to be chosen. This can be done by comparing the loss in the three
dimensional discrete space L, n, D.

22

4.4..2 Decision Feedback Equalization

Fig. 3.5 shows the structure of a decision feed back equalizer. The upper part is
identical to a linear equalizer with a linear feed-forward filter, followed by a decision
device. The difference lies in the feed back path from the non-linear decisions. One
fundamental problem with a linear equalizer of FIR type is the many taps that
are needed to approximate a zero close to the unit circle in the channel. With the extra
degree of freedom we now have, these zeros can be put in the feedback path, where no
inversion is needed.
In theory, D(q) =B(q) and C(q) =1 would be a perfect
equalizer. However, if the noise induces a decision error, then there might be a
recovery problem for the DFE equalizer. There is the fundamental trade-off: split the
dynamics of the channel between C(q) and D(q) so few taps and robustness to decision
errors are achieved.

Figure 3.6: Structure of Decision Feedback Equalizer.

In the design, we assume that the channel is known. In practice, it is estimated from a
training sequence. To analyze and design a non-linear system is generally very
difficult. A simplifying assumption, that dominates the design described in the
literature, is one of so called Correct Past Decisions (CPD). The assumption implies
that we can take the input to the feedback filter from the true input and we get the
block diagram in fig.3.7.The assumption is sound when the Signal-to-Noise Ratio
(SNR) is high, so a DFE can be only assumed to work properly in such systems

23

Figure 4.7: Modified Structure of DFE under CPD.

We can see from fig.3.7 that, if there are no decision errors, then
t z =(C(q) B(q) +D(q))u +C(q)H(q) e .
For the CPD assumption to hold, the estimation errors must be small. That is, choose
C(q) and D(q) to minimize

ut-D

t-D

Zt =

(q-D C(q)B(q) D(q)ut

C(q)H(q)et
There are two principles described in the literature:

The zero forcing equalizer. Neglect the noise in the design and choose C(q)
and D(q) so that
q-D -C(q) B(q) -D(q) =0.
The minimum variance equalizer.

) = 2 t-D arg min E

2
tD

= arg

min |e-twD

C(etw)B(etw ) D(etw)
C(q)D(q)

C(q)D(q)
2

| u (etw )+| C(etw )H(etw)|2 e (etw)

24

Here, we have used Parsevals formula and an independence assumption between u

and e.In both cases, a constraint of the type c 0 = 1 is needed to avoid the trivial
minimum for C(q) = 0, in case the block diagram in fig.3.6 does not hold.
The advantage of DFE is a possible considerable performance gain at the cost of an
only slightly more complex algorithm, compared to a linear equalizer. Its applicability
is limited to cases with high SNR.
As a final remark, the introduction of equalization in very fast modems, introduces a
new kind of implementation problem. The basic reason is that the data rate comes
close to the clock frequency in the computer, and the feedback path computations
introduce a significant time delay in the feedback loop. This means that the DFE
approach collapses, since no feedback delay can be accepted.
4.3.3 Non-Blind Equalization
In the previous two sections, we have seen that the adaptive equalizers used, require an
initial training period, as illustrated in fig 3.4, during which a known data sequence is
transmitted. A replica of this sequence is made available at the receiver in proper
synchronism with the transmitter, thereby making it possible for adjustments to be
made to the equalizer coefficients in accordance with the adaptive filtering algorithm
employed in equalizer design.
When the training is completed, the equalizer is switched to its decision directed
mode, and normal data transmission may commence. This type of equalization, in
which the training period is available to the receiver, is known as Non- Blind
equalization.
4.3.4 Blind Equalization
When training signals are entirely absent, the transmission is called blind, and adaptive
algorithms for estimating the transferred symbols and possibly estimating channel or
equalizer information are called blind algorithms. Since, training information is not
available; a reliable reference is missing, leading to a very slow learning behavior in
such algorithms. Thus, blind methods are typically of interest when a large amount of
data is available and quick detection not important. The structure of blind equalizer is
shown in fig 3.8.

Figure 3.8: Structure of Blind Equalizer.

25

Their major application is thus, broadcasting for digital radio or T.V. However,
recently the concept of basis function to describe time-variant channels has been
incorporated, proving that blind techniques also have potential for time-varying
channels.
The best known application of blind equalization is to remove the distortion caused by
the channel in digital communication systems. The problem also occurs in
seismological and underwater acoustics applications. The channel of a blind equalizer
is as usual modeled as a FIR filter, as shown in fig 3.8.

B(q) = bt1q-1 + bt2q-2 + + btnb q-nb , .. 3.6

and the same model structure is used for the blind equalizer

C(q) = ct1q-1 + ct2q-2 + + ctnc q-nc

3.7

The impulse response of the combined channel and equalizer, assuming FIR models
for
both, is
ht = (b *c)
where * denotes convolution. Again, the best one can hope for is t t D h m - d ,
where D is an unknown time delay, and m with m =1 is an unknown modulus. For
instance, it is impossible to estimate the sign of the channel. The modulus and delay do
not matter for the performance, and can be ignored in applications.
Assume signal ut (QPSK). For this special case, the two most popular loss
functions defining the adaptive algorithm are given by:

V=

E [(1 z 2 )2 ]

V=

E [ (sign(z) z )2 ]

Modulus restoral (Godard )

Decision directed (Sato)

3.8

3.9

The modulus restoral algorithm also goes under the name Constant Modulus
Algorithm
(CMA). Note the convention that decision-directed means that the decision is used in a
parameter updates equation, where as decision feedback means that the decisions are
26

used in a linear feedback path.

Algorithms using the constant modulus (CM) property of the transmitted signal are
historically probably the first blind algorithms. The constant modulus algorithm is the
most well-known procedure and depends on the non-linear function in many variations
and applications. While, the convergence analysis of such algorithms is limited to very
few cases the analysis of its tracking behavior .

CHAPTER -5
CONSTANT MODULUS ALGORITHM
Many wireless communication and radar signals are frequency or phase-modulated
signals, such as FM, PSK, FSK, QAM and polyphase. This being the case, the
amplitude of the signal should ideally be a constant. Thus the signal is said to have a
constant magnitude or modulus. So if we know that the arriving signal of interest
should have a constant modulus, we can devise algorithms that restore or equalize the
amplitude of the original signal. The CMA is perhaps the most well-known blind
algorithm and it is used in many practical applications because it does not require
carrier synchronization. Dominique Godard [9] used a cost function called a dispersion
function of order p which is given by,

Where
is the array output at the time k and p is the positive integer and
q is a positive integer = 1
The gradient of this cost function is zero when is defined by

27

Where s(k) is the zero-memory estimate of y(k). the resulting error signal is given by

This error signal can replace the traditional error signal in the LMS algorithm to
yield

By selecting values of 1 or 2 for p different version of CMA may be obtained

The case of p =1, the cost function will be reduced to

Where

If we scale the output estimate s(k) to unity we can write the error signal

Thus the weight vector becomes

(17)

Similarly when p = 2 the cost function will reduce to

(18)
Where
(19)
If we equally scale the output of the estimate s(k) to unity ,we can write error
signal of equation (12) as
(20)
28

Thus, the weight vector becomes

(21)
One of the attractive features of the CMA is that carrier synchronization is not
required; furthermore it can be applied successfully to non-constant modulus signal if
the Kurtosis of the beam former output is less than two. This means that CMA can be
applied to for example PSK signals that have non-rectangular pulse shape. This is
important because it implies that the CMA is also robust to symbol timing error when
applied to pulse-shaped PSK signals. Pulse shaping typically is used to limit the
occupied bandwidth of the transmitted signal.

LEAST MEAN SQUARE ALGORITHM

.
The signal input x(t) is filtered by a forward filter, or a linear equalizer. Parameter
Forward taps coefficients define the number of forward tap coefficients for the filter.
Forward taps space defines the tap spaces, or the K parameter in the schematic bellow.
If K is greater than one the filter is fractionally spaced.
At the output of the forward filter, the output signal y'(t) goes to a decision stage
where the signal is detected based on the parameters Threshold and Decision instant.
The detected signal will have values of high and low level depending on parameters
High level and Low level.
Parameter Decision output defines if the output signal y(t) is y'(t) or the detected signal
yd(t). The user can also select whether the input to the feedback filter stage is the
detected signal yd(t) or the linear signal y'(t) (parameter Linear feedback).
algorithm, where the error is calculated according to:

ek = y(k ) - d(k)
The filter taps (w) coefficients are updated according to
Wk +1 = Wkl + uk * ek
Where l is the parameter Leakage factor and is the parameter Step size. The user can
disable the filter updates by setting parameter Update taps coefficients to false.
By default, the equalizer will estimate the filter coefficients using the training
sequence. The user can limit the training sequence to a value defined by the parameter
29

Training sequence length. If the user wants to disable the training simply set this
parameter to zero or connect the training input to a electrical null component.
The values for the error level (ek) are available in two graphs. The first graphs plots the
error values versus for the training sequence , the second graph plots the error values
for the detected signal.
The user can provide the tap coefficients as an initial value for the equalizer, or the
component can also be used as a linear FIR filter by disabling Update tap coefficients
and limiting the training sequence length to zero. Alternatively, setting the Step size to
zero also disables the updating of the tap coefficients and the initial values will not
change during the calculation.

CONSTANT MODULUS ALGORITHM- RADIUS DISTANCE

Dominique Godard [9] used a cost function called a dispersion function of order p
which is given by,

Where
is the array output at the time k and p is the positive integer and
q is a positive integer = 1
The gradient of this cost function is zero when is defined by

Where s(k) is the zero-memory estimate of y(k). the resulting error signal is given by

This error signal can replace the traditional error signal in the LMS algorithm to
yield

By selecting values of 1 or 2 for p different version of CMA may be obtained

30

The case of p =1, the cost function will be reduced to

Where

If we scale the output estimate s(k) to unity we can write the error signal

Thus the weight vector becomes

(17)

Similarly when p = 2 the cost function will reduce to

(18)
Where
(19)
If we equally scale the output of the estimate s(k) to unity ,we can write error
signal of equation (12) as
(20)
Thus, the weight vector becomes

(21)

Radius Directed Implementation

The RD optimization is based on the equalizer output and the nearest constellation
radius. The error criterion for RD is defined as:
31

e(k)=y(k)* (Rpk -|y(k)p|)

(18)

where Rk is the radius of the nearest constellation symbol for each equalizer output (p=
2 by default). The tap weights for the RD are then updated as follows:
W(k+1) = W(k) + X(k).e*(k)

(19)

For dual polarization signals, there are four choices for the initial tap weights (initial
value index 1 is set as the default):

Initial value index 1:

hxx = [0, 0,,0, 1, 0,,0, 0]
hxy = [0, 0,,0, 0, 0,,0, 0]
hyx = [0, 0,,0, 0, 0,,0, 0]
hyy = [0, 0,,0, 1, 0,,0, 0]
Initial value index 2:
hxx = [0, 0,,0, 0, 0,,0, 0]
hxy = [0, 0,,0, 1, 0,,0, 0]
hyx = [0, 0,,0, 1, 0,,0, 0]
hyy = [0, 0,,0, 0, 0,,0, 0]
Initial value index 3:
hxx = [0, 0,,0, 1, 0,,0, 0]
hxy = [0, 0,,0, 0, 0,,0, 0]
hyx = [0, 0,,0, 1, 0,,0, 0]
hyy = [0, 0,,0, 0, 0,,0, 0]
Initial value index 4:
hxx = [0, 0,,0, 0, 0,,0, 0]
hxy = [0, 0,,0, 1, 0,,0, 0]
hyx = [0, 0,,0, 0, 0,,0, 0]
hyy = [0, 0,,0, 1, 0,,0, 0]

It should be noted that a large data sample is required to get a good result. Therefore
we use multiple iterations to adapt the tap weights. If the bit length is short, then the
parameter Iterations needs to be increased.

32

CHAPTER 6

SYSTEM DESIGN COMPONENTS

This thesis proposes an OTDM to WDM converter which enables wavelength
tunebility, flexible OTDM tributary to WDM channel mapping and modulation format
transparency. To implement this system various components are required. So detail
description of each and every component is given below with Block Diagram of the
system.

6.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PDM-QPSK SYSTEM

The block diagram for the conversion of 40-Gb/s OTDM to 4 10 Gb/s WDM signals is
shown below:

33

Fig 6.1: Block Diagram of the system

The Figure above shows the block diagram of whole system and the system consists of
mainly four blocks:

PDM-QPSK transmitter
PMD Emulator
Polarization and Phase diversity Receiver
Signal Processing Unit

6.1.1

TRANSMITTER BLOCK

This block generates the pulses of different wavelength with the help of EAM
modulator which is interleaved and then conversion takes place. It consistitutes the
following subsystems:
1. PDM-QPSK transmitter
34

This component simulates a single channel optical coherent transmitter

with an optical dual-polarization QPSK signal. At a PM-DQPSK
transmitter a more complex modulator is needed consisting of two
embedded MZ-I/Q-modulator which modulate each half of the laser light.
The two DQPSK signals are combined orthogonally polarized using a
polarization beam combiner. Compared to single polarization DQPSK two
pre-coders are needed each operated at 28 Gbaud. For fiber transmission
chromatic dispersion compensation is needed, even when dispersion
tolerance is 4 times larger compared to single polarization DQPSK
format.

2. PDM-QPSK Receiver

In the receiver a dual polarization optical 90-hybrid which splits the incoming signal in
orthogonal components and combines them with the light of the optical local oscillator
on four different photodiodes or balanced photo receivers. The four electrical output
signals are converted by four high speed digital-to-analog converters into the electrical
domain and processed by the DSP. Due to the reception of signal amplitude and phase
by the coherent receiver, the polarization can be demultiplexed electronically and
linear fiber distortions like the chromatic dispersion as well as the PMD can be
compensated by digital signal processing.

35

The layout representing the optical coherent dual-polarization QPSK transmitter

component is shown in the figure below. In this case, polarization multiplexing is used,
the laser output is split into two othogonal polarization components, which are
modulated separately by QPSK modulators (similar to the one shown in the QPSK
transmitter layout) and then combined using a polarization beam splitter (PBS)..

2. PMD Emulator
This component simulates the eects of first- and second-order PMD in a
linear fiber.

36

2. Erbium doped fiber amplifier(EDFA)

Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers are the by far most important fiber amplifiers in the
context of long-range optical fiber communications; they can efficiently amplify light
in the 1.5-m wavelength region, where telecom fibers have their loss minimum.
A particular attraction of EDFAs is their large gain bandwidth, which is typically tens
of nanometres and thus actually more than enough to amplify data channels with the
highest data rates without introducing any effects of gain narrowing. A single EDFA
may be used for Simultaneously amplifying many data channels at different
wavelengths within the gain region this technique is called wavelength division
multiplexing. Before such fiber amplifiers were available, there was no practical
method for amplifying all channels e.g. between long fiber spans of a fiber-optic link:
one had to separate all data channels, detect and amplify them electronically, optically
resubmit and again combine them. The introduction of fiber amplifiers thus brought an
enormous reduction in the complexity, along with a corresponding increase in
reliability. Very long lifetimes are possible by using redundant down-rated pump
diodes. The only competitors to erbium-doped fiber amplifiers in the 1.5-m region are
Raman amplifiers, which profit from the development of higher power pump lasers.
Raman amplification can also be done in the transmission fiber. Nevertheless, EDFAs
remain very dominant.

EDFAs have a number of attractive technical characteristics:

Efficient pumping
Minimal polarisation sensitivity
Low insertion loss
High output power (this is not gain but raw amount of possible output power)
Low noise
Very high sensitivity
Low distortion and minimal inter-channel crosstalk

37

Amplitude Modulator
A phase modulating EOM can also be used as an amplitude modulator by using a
Mach-Zehnder interferometer. A beam splitter divides the laser light into two paths,
one of which has a phase modulator as described above. The beams are then
recombined. Changing the electric field on the phase modulating path will then
determine whether the two beams interfere constructively or destructively at the
output, and thereby control the amplitude or intensity of the exiting light. This device
is called a Mach-Zehnder modulator.

4. Pseudorandom bit Sequence (PRBS)

PRBS pattern is a sequence of random bits of 1 and 0. It is used as test pattern because
it can be used as a worst case test pattern. Using sequential bit 1 and 0 will not be a
worst case test pattern. It is always better to test a transmitter with the worst signal to
check if we can retrieve the worst signal at the receiver. A transmitter that can transfer
a noisy signal accurately to the reciver definitely can transfer a good signal without
any problem. Therefore, we use PRBS as the test pattern. The PRBS is generated by a
Pulse Pattern Generator. Pseudorandom bit sequence is just a "highly random"
sequence with completely no correlation with adjacent bits... It may be considered
equivalent to "noise" since the autocorrelation is a delta function. It is 'pseudo' because
it is deterministic and after N elements it starts to repeat itself, unlike real random
sequences, such as sequences generated by radioactive decay or by white noise. The
PRBS is more general than the n-sequence, which is a special pseudo-random binary
sequence of n bits generated as the output of a linear shift register. An n-sequence
always has a 1/2 duty cycle and its number of elements
N 2K 1.

Fig 5.8 PRBS

38

CHAPTER 7
METHODOLOGY AND SIMULATION MODEL

This chapter presents the details methodology of the project, in which the methods
which have been carried out in this project is explained. This chapter will describe
about the design procedure and simulation procedures with system construction.

7.1 PDM-QPSK
In order to complete this project, simulation technique had been conducted. The
software used is Opti System. The Opti System function as simulator based on realistic
modelling of fiber optic communication system possesses powerful new simulation
environment and a truly hierarchical definition of components and systems. A robust
graphical user interface controls the optical component layout and net list, component
models, and presentation graphics.
7.1.1 Simulation Modelling
The system modeled in Opti System is shown as below:

Fig 7.2 Simulation Set Up with DGD

39

40

The following are the simulation parameters which are used to design the transmitter :PAREMETERS

VALUES

Laser frequency

193.1 THz

Power

0 db

Extinction Ratio

60 db

Line width

0.1 MHz

Bit Rate

100Gbps

Table 1: List of parameters used in transmitter

Table 2:These following are the fiber parameters which are used:
PAREMETERS

VALUES

Optical Fiber Length

400 km

Reference wavelength

193.1 THz

Birefingence Type

For 2nd order PMD = stochastic

Value of PMD coefficients

0.04,0.08,0.4,0.7

Value of DGD

4 dB

EDFA gain

20 dB

Noise Figure

6 dB

Table 3: These are the Parameters of Optical Filter which are used:

41

PAREMETERS

VALUES

Optical Filter Frequency

193.1 THz

Bandwidth

100 GHz

Insertion Loss

0 dB

Table 4: These are the Parameters which are used to design receiver:
PAREMETERS

VALUES

Frequency

193.1 THz

Power

10 dBm

Linewidth

0.1 MHz

Photodetector

PIN

Electrical Amplifier Gain

15 dB

Table 5 These are the Parameters Of MATLAB Component:

PAREMETERS

VALUES

Propagation Length

400 km

Step Size

0.0003

Tap Number

7,11,13,15

Symbol Rate

Bit Rate /4

No. of Symbols

Sequence length /4

16-QAM

42

Fig6.1 :system design of 16-QAM

The following are the simulation parameters which are used to design the
transmitter :PAREMETERS

VALUES

Laser frequency

193.1 THz

Power

0 db

Extinction Ratio

60 db

Line width

0.1 MHz

Bit Rate

100Gbps

Table 1: List of parameters used in transmitter

Table 9 :These following are the fiber parameters which are used:
PAREMETERS

VALUES
43

Optical Fiber Length

400 km

Reference wavelength

193.1 THz

Birefingence Type

For 2nd order PMD = stochastic

Value of PMD coefficients

0.04,0.08,0.4,0.7

Value of DGD

4 dB

EDFA gain

20 dB

Noise Figure

6 dB

Table 10These are the Parameters of Optical Filter which are used:
PAREMETERS

VALUES

Optical Filter Frequency

193.1 THz

Bandwidth

100 GHz

Insertion Loss

0 dB

Table 11: These are the Parameters which are used to design receiver:
PAREMETERS

VALUES

Frequency

193.1 THz

Power

10 dBm

Linewidth

0.1 MHz

Photodetector

PIN

Electrical Amplifier Gain

15 dB

Table 12: These are the Parameters Of MATLAB Component:

PAREMETERS

VALUES

Propagation Length

400 km

Step Size

0.0003

Tap Number

7,11,13,15
44

Symbol Rate

Bit Rate /4

No. of Symbols

Sequence length /4

45

64 QAM

Fig 64 QAM transmitter

Fig : 64 QAM Receiver

46

Fig : 64 qam simulation diagram

Table 12: The following are the simulation parameters which are used to design the
transmitter :PAREMETERS

VALUES

Laser frequency

193.1 THz

Power

0 db

Extinction Ratio

60 db

Line width

0.1 MHz

Bit Rate

100Gbps

47

Table 14: These following are the fiber parameters which are used:
PAREMETERS

VALUES

Optical Fiber Length

400 km

Reference wavelength

193.1 THz

Birefingence Type

For 2nd order PMD = stochastic

Value of PMD coefficients

0.04,0.08,0.4,0.7

Value of DGD

4 dB

EDFA gain

20 dB

Noise Figure

6 dB

Table 15: These are the Parameters of Optical Filter which are used:
PAREMETERS

VALUES

Optical Filter Frequency

193.1 THz

Bandwidth

100 GHz

Insertion Loss

0 dB

Table 16:These are the Parameters which are used to design receiver:
PAREMETERS

VALUES

Frequency

193.1 THz

Power

10 dBm

Linewidth

0.1 MHz

Photodetector

PIN

Electrical Amplifier Gain

15 dB

Table 17 :These are the Parameters Of MATLAB Component:

PAREMETERS

VALUES
48

Propagation Length

400 km

Step Size of CMA-RD

6e-06

Tap Number of CMA-RD

7,11,13,15

Symbol Rate

Bit Rate /4

No. of Symbols

Sequence length /4

6.2MEASURE OF SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

49

Extinction Ratio:-The ratio of minimum power assign to bit 1 to the minimum

power assigns to bit 0 is called the Extinction Ratio. It should be as high as
possible.

Q-Factor:-BER is determined by the standard deviation (RMS avg) of the noise

and the distance between the signal level.

Power Penalty:- The power penalty, regarding system performance, is governed

by both the receiver sensitivity and the bit-error rate (BER). A receiver is
considered more sensitive if it can achieve the same performance with less
optical power incident upon it. Therefore, the receiver sensitivity is defined in
optical communications as the minimum average received power that is
required to operate the system at a given BER. When the extinction ratio is not
optimum; however the transmission power must be increased in order to
maintain the same BER. This increase in transmission power due to non ideal
value of extinction ratio is called power penalty.

Insertion loss:- Fiber to fiber loss under zero bias.

CHAPTER 7
RESULT AND ANALYSIS
50

This chapter present the details of results after performing the simulation and finally
the analysis of the results is explained. The

7.1 SIMULATED RESULTS

For DP-QPSK

Fig: MATLAB output of CMA algorithm

51

Fig: before equalization

PMD co-efficients

Fig:after equalization
with CMA algorithm
Q-factor with CMA equalizer

0.04

0.08

9.6

0.3

12.5

0.5

13

52

53

LEAST MEAN SQUARE ALGORITHM IN QPSK

PMD coefficient

Q-factor with LMS equalizer

0.04

0.08

6
54

0.3

7.2

0.5

16-QAM

Fig: MATLAB output of

CMA-DD algorithm

55

Fig: constellation diagram

before equalization

Fig:constellation diagram
after equalization

64-QAM

56

Fig: before Equalization

Fig: after Equalization

57

58

Q-factor with Bit Error Rate

DP-QPSK
BER=6.048e-18
Q

factor=8.4992

64-QAM
BER = 2.1345e-14
Q
=

factor

7.5

16-QAM

BER=3.211e-21
Q-factor=9.33

59

Fig comparison of CMA and LMS

Fig

QAM with CMA DD with PMD coefficients

60

61

CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

8.1 CONCLUSION
A comprehensive study of dfferent electronic equalizer has been done
With different modulation formats .it has been observed that CMA equalizer works
better than LMS equalizer in strong PMD regime whereas LMS equalizer works better
in weak PMD regime .
Good performance is achieved with a limited no. of Taps & a low update frequency
CMA is useful when no training sequence is available and work best for Quadrature
phase shift key
As the no. of taps increased ,the complexity of the system is also increased.As the
OSNR (optical sig nal to noise ratio increases our system gives better results.

8.2 FUTURE WORK

The system can be further improved to operate at higher bit rates by accommodating
more channels in the setup. it can be applied to WDM networks

62

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63

16. Chongjin Xie And S. Chandrasekhar Two-Stage Constant Modulus Algorithm

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