CHAPTER 7.

PERSONALITY AND ATTITUDES

I.

PURPOSE AND TEACHING OBJECTIVES

To identify the Big Five personality traits and the Myers-Briggs types; present the
development and impact of personal, cognitive variables of personality and work-related
attitudes, on organizational behavior; to discuss the socialization process; and to examine the
major sources and outcomes of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and pro-social,
organizational citizenship behaviors.
II.

TEACHING NOTES AND REVIEW OUTLINE

A. Personality refers to the unique qualities of an individual.
1. Some people tend to equate personality with social success (e.g., popular) and to
describe personality by a single dominate characteristic (e.g., strong or shy).
2. There is disagreement on a definition of personality because scholars operate
from different theoretical bases. The academic definitions are generally more
concerned directly with the person than with the role he/she plays. The most
meaningful approach should include both the person and the role.
3. How people affect others depends primarily on their external appearance and
traits. The Big Five personality traits (extroversion, agreeableness,
conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience) that have
been found to be especially related to job performance and the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator, based on Carl Jungs personality theory, has become a popular
personal development and career assessment tool.
4. Peoples attempts to understand themselves are called the self-concept, which in
essence may be thought of in terms of self esteem and self efficacy. Self-esteem
tends to be a generalized trait while self-efficacy tends to be more situation
specific.
5. Some personality theorists see a need to recognize the person-situation
interaction, and this social cognitive interpretation may be the most
comprehensive and meaningful to the study of organizational behavior.
6. The role of personality in organizational behavior involves both the subjective
evaluation of others and how the person views him or herself in different
situations. Differences between self- and other-evaluations have implications for
the communication and relationships between people at work.

NOTES:

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B. Heredity, environment, maturation, and learning all contribute to the development of

the human personality.
NOTES:

C. Historically, the study of personality attempted to identify specific stages of

personality development. While many well-known stage theories exist, there is
disagreement among researchers as to the exact stages that occur. Some
psychologists even contend that there are no identifiable stages, but rather personality
development is a continuous process dependent upon the learning opportunities and
socialization process encountered by each individual.
NOTES:

D. Evidence is accumulating that socialization may be one of the best explanations why
employees behave the way they do in organizations. The following are widely
accepted characteristics of organizational socialization:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Change attitudes, values and behaviors

Continuity of socialization over time
Adjustment to new jobs, work groups, and organizational practices
Mutual influence between new recruits and the managers
Criticality of the early socialization period

NOTES:

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E. Socialization is also important in the superior-subordinate relationships and when

people change jobs or are promoted. Recently, several strategies leading to
successful organizational socialization have been suggested:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Provide a challenging first job

Provide relevant training
Provide timely and consistent feedback
Select a good supervisor to be in charge of socialization
Design a relaxed orientation program
Place new recruits in work groups with high morale

NOTES:

F. While personality traits have been downplayed and sometimes even totally
discounted, in recent years there is growing support for the Five Factor Model
(FFM).
1. The FFM, now commonly known as The Big Five, identifies five core
personality traits which have been supported by research across time and even
across cultures. These five core traits have been clearly shown to relate to an
individuals job performance and may also be predictive of team performance in
organizations:
a. conscientiousness (shown to have the strongest positive correlation with job
performance);
b. emotional stability;
c. agreeableness;
d. extroversion; and
e. openness to new experiences.
2. It must be remembered that although these traits do significantly relate to
performance in the workplace, considerable variance is still unexplained.
NOTES:

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G. The MBTI has received mixed research support, but is widely used in career
counseling, team building, conflict management, and analysis of management styles.
1. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator or MBTI is a personality inventory that
classifies individuals along four major dimensions, which in combination, yield
the 16 MBTI types. Based on Carl Jungs theory, there are no good or bad
types.
2. Dimensions used in the MBTI include:
a. Extroversion (E) / Introversion (I) based on where do you get your
energy?
b. Judging (J) / Perceiving (P) based on how do you orient yourself to the
outside world?
c. Sensing (S) / Intuiting (N) based on what do you pay attention to/collect
information on?
d. Thinking (T) / Feeling (F) based on how do you evaluate and make
decisions?
3. The MBTI has been shown to be reliable and valid in identifying personality type
and predicting occupational choice, but there is not yet sufficient research
support to base selection decisions or predict job performance using the MBTI.
NOTES:

H. Like personality, attitudes are a complex cognitive process. Attitudes can be defined
as a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular way towards some object.
Attitudes can be characterized in three ways:
1. They tend to persist unless something is done to change them.
2. They can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very
unfavorable.
3. They are directed toward some object about which a person has feelings and
beliefs.
NOTES:

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I.

Attitudes can be broken down into various dimensions.

1. Components of attitudes include:
a. the persons feelings about an object (emotion),
b. the beliefs and information a person has about the object (information), and
c. the persons tendencies to behave in a particular way toward an object
(behavior).
2. Of the three components only the behavioral dimension can be directly observed.
The actual behavior of a person under this approach is a function of beliefs,
attitudes, behavioral intentions, and other cognitive factors.
3. The term emotional labor has recently emerged to represent the work people are
asked to perform beyond their physical and mental contributions. A service
worker may be required to appear cheerful at all times, even when dealing with
unpleasant customers. Like traditional physical and mental labor, this emotional
labor can take a toll in terms of exhaustion and stress.

NOTES:

J.

Antecedents of attitudes include both situational determinants (factors in the social

context) and personality traits (dispositions).
1. Two personality traits receiving considerable attention in studies of job attitudes
are positive affectivity (PA) and negative affectivity (NA).
2. People with high PA tend to have an overall sense of well-being and tend to
experience positive attitudes.
3. NA reflects a personality disposition to experience negative emotional states
(nervousness, tension, anxiety, worry, distress). People with high NA are more
likely to possess negative attitudes about themselves, others, and the world
around them.
4. Whether PA is the bipolar opposite and independent of NA is still under debate
and needs research. People do not necessarily move between opposite states, but
can be both happy and unhappy.

NOTES:

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K. Attitudes are important to the study of organizational behavior because they help
predict work behavior, and attitudes help people adapt to their work environment.
Attitudes serve four basic functions:
A. The Adjustment Function, Ego-Defensive Function, Value-Expressive
Function and the Knowledge Function.
1. They help employees adjust to their environments and are a basis for future
behaviors.
2. They help employees defend their self images and justify actions.
3. They provide a basis for expressing central values.
4. They help supply standards that allow people to organize and explain the world
around them.
NOTES:

L. It is sometimes in the best interests of management to change employee attitudes.

There are, however, two barriers that prevent attitude change: prior commitments to
courses of action and insufficient information. There are ways to overcome these
barriers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Provision of new information

Use of fear
Resolving discrepancies between attitudes and behavior
Influence from friends or peers
Cooptation, taking people who are dissatisfied and getting them involved in
change.

NOTES:

M. The study of employee attitudes has important implications for employee satisfaction
at work. Job satisfaction is a result of employees perceptions of how well their jobs
provide those things which are viewed as important, and is the most frequently
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studied attitude in organizational behavior. There are three generally accepted

dimensions to job satisfaction:
1. An emotional response to a job situation;
2. The degree to which outcomes meet or exceed expectations; and
3. Several related attitudes, such as work itself, pay, promotion opportunities,
supervision, and coworkers, about which employees have affective responses.
NOTES:

N. There are several influences on job satisfaction:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The Work Itself

Pay
Promotions
Supervision
Work Group
Working Conditions

NOTES:

O. The relationship between satisfaction and a number of organizational outcomes

can be examined:
1. Satisfaction and performance - most research evidence indicates that there is no
large positive relationship between satisfaction and individual performance
improvement; however, recent research indicates that satisfaction may lead to
organizational level improvement.
2. Satisfaction and turnover - there is a moderate negative relationship between
satisfaction and turnover. This relationship is affected by job tenure, gender, and
age factors. Other factors which influence the satisfaction - turnover relationship
include organizational commitment and the general economy.
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3. Satisfaction and absenteeism - research indicates only a weak negative

relationship between satisfaction and absence. People who believe that their
work is important tend to have lower absenteeism than those who dont. It is
important to remember, however, that high job satisfaction will not necessarily
result in low absenteeism, but low job satisfaction is likely to bring about high
absenteeism.
4. Satisfaction and other effects - there appears to be a positive relationship between
satisfaction and physical health, and negative relationship between satisfaction
and perceived stress, grievances, and on-the-job accidents. Another outcome of
satisfaction receiving attention is pro-social (or organizational citizenship)
behaviors which includes things like helping coworkers and customers, being
cooperative, etc.
5. The following guidelines are offered as ways to help enhance job satisfaction:
a.
b.
c.
d.

make jobs more fun;

have fair pay, benefits and promotion opportunities;
match people with jobs that fit their interests and skills; and
design jobs to make them exciting and satisfying.

NOTES:

P. Organizational commitment, although strongly related to job satisfaction, is a more

global work-related attitude that is gaining attention in management research.
1. Organizational commitment is most often defined as:
a. a strong desire to remain a member of a particular organization;
b. a willingness to exert high levels of effort or behavior to the organization;
and
c. a definite belief in and acceptance of the values and goals of the organization.
2. Commitment is frequently measured by the Organizational Commitment
Questionnaire developed by Mowday, Steers, and Porter (Figure 7.1). However,
because of the recognized multidimensional nature of organizational
commitment, there is growing support for a three component model by Meyer
and Allen consisting of the following:
a. Affective Refers to the employees emotional attachment, identification
and involvement in the organization.
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b. Continuance Based on the costs (such as seniority and benefits) associated

with leaving the organization.
c. Normative Refers to the employees obligation to stay with the
organization.
3. Organizational commitment has been found to be a somewhat better predictor
than job satisfaction of turnover, absenteeism, and performance.
4. The following guidelines are offered as ways to enhance employees
organizational commitment:
a. commit to people-first values;
b. clarify and communicate your mission;
c. guarantee organizational justice;
d. create a sense of community; and
e. support employee development.
Q. Job satisfaction, organizational commitment and perceived organizational justice
clearly relate to pro-social organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs).
1. OCBs are discretionary or voluntary employee actions that go beyond the call of
duty and which are not necessarily recognized by the organizations formal
reward system. OCBs may take many forms, but major ones include altruism,
conscientiousness, civic virtue, sportsmanship, and courtesy.
2. Employees engage in OCBs as a way to reciprocate the actions of the
organization. Employees who perceive that they are being treated fairly are more
likely to go beyond the formal job requirements and reciprocate with OCBs.
3. Although criticism exists regarding the conceptualization and research of OCBs,
there is growing evidence that OCBs relate to individual, group, and overall
organizational performance.
NOTES:

III.

HINTS FOR INTERNET EXERCISE: Assessing Your Personality

The website http://www.2h.com includes all kinds of self-assessment tests, including those that
assess personality tests, IQ tests, entrepreneurial aptitude, communication skills, self esteem, and
assertiveness.
IV.

STUDENT INVOLVEMENT EXERCISE

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Have your students take the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire found in Figure
7.1. (Note the 7-point scale found at the bottom of the 15 questions.) If they are not
currently employed, have them fill it out in relation to the last job they held. These could
be summer jobs or part time jobs of any kind. Have them score the questionnaire noting
the reverse scored items as indicated. Then divide the class into groups of 3-5 members
to discuss their scores. Have them identify specific reasons (causes) for those who were
relatively committed to their jobs and those who were relatively noncommitted. Have
them be prepared to give a written and/or oral report.
V.

HINTS FOR CASE DISCUSSION

Real Case: Its All a Matter of Personality

1.

Why do employees at firms such as Apple Computer work so hard and put in such long
hours?
One reason they work so hard it that they are deriving a great deal of satisfaction from
their jobs. Consider the fact that they are developing new programs -- creating things that
never before existed. Additionally, they are working as a team, thus appealing to their
team loyalty and commitment. Again, this is resulting in high esprit de corps. So rather
than looking on their jobs as work, many of them undoubtedly see these tasks as fun and
part of their social life.

2.

How would you describe Wayne Huizenga in terms of the self-concept, specifically selfesteem?
Self-esteem relates to a persons self-perceived competence and self-image. Selfefficiency is concerned with beliefs of how well one can cope with situations as they
arise. Based on the information in the case, Huizenga has a very strong, positive selfconcept. The various business ventures he has undertaken in the past including the
garbage collection business and the video rental are both viewed as risky, even by the
Wall Street analysts. Because of his self esteem and high self efficacy, Huizenga is
supremely confident of his ability and is able to accept and effectively manage such risky
or uncertain situations. His new ventures that are now on the planning table fit into this
category. He believes he will again be successful because of his personality dispositions.

3.

Why is job satisfaction and organizational commitment so high at Mirage Resorts? How
does Steve Wynn manage to keep his employees so happy?
There are a number of reasons why job satisfaction is high and employee turnover is low
at Wynns operations. One is because of the way he treats his people. He recognizes and
rewards good performance and they like it. He also insists that they treat the
customers well, and this undoubtedly makes their jobs easier because customers are more
pleased with the service they are receiving. As a result, the employees like their jobs and
they stay, as is clearly seen by the extremely low employee turnover at Mirage Resorts.

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Organizational Behavior Case: Ken Leaves the Company

1.

Do you think that Kens self-esteem had anything to do with his leaving the firm?
According to the chapter, a persons self-esteem has to do with a self-perceived
competence and self-image concept. From the case it appears that Ken has high selfesteem. He wants to show what he can do; therefore, he feels quite confident in his
general abilities. As Argyris pointed out, Kens needs as a mature individual were not
being met by the organization.

2.

What do you think Kens satisfaction and commitment were to the job and firm he is
leaving? How does this relate to the research on the determinants and outcomes of
satisfaction and commitment?
It seems clear that Ken was not satisfied nor committed to his job he is leaving the
organization. As an experienced underwriter, Ken had much to offer to his work. The
work itself is a major source of job satisfaction, and in Kens case, it failed to provide
him with opportunities of autonomy, challenge, and participation. Because Ken become
dissatisfied with his job, this led to his turnover with the company. The research on the
relationship between job satisfaction and turnover is supported in this case.

3.

What lesson can this company learn from the case of Ken? What can and should it now
do?
The company lost a good employee. The lesson to be learned here is that the firm must
satisfy the self-esteem needs of outstanding employees. They could do this through an
empowerment strategy, participative decision making, better career planning, and training
and developing managers to recognize the worth and dignity of their human resources.

Organizational Behavior Case: Doing His Share

1.

What was Ralphs attitude toward the union when he first became a supervisor? What
barriers were there that initially prevented him from changing his attitude regarding the
union?
Ralph had a very positive attitude toward the union. The case points out that he went
through two strikes over the previous five years. Certainly this helped cement a
behavioral bond between him and the union. In a manner of speaking, he had a prior
commitment to the union. Another barrier preventing him from changing his attitude was
that he had insufficient information about management and its relationship with the
union.

2.

Why did Ralphs attitude change? What factors accounted for this?
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Ralphs attitude change can be traced to a number of factors. One is new information.
Ralph learned more about management's point of view. A second is the discrepancy
between behavior and attitude. His behavior toward the union began to change and his
attitude followed thereafter.
3.

Are workers who are recruited for supervisory positions likely to go through the same
attitude changes as Ralph?
It is highly likely that these workers will go through the same process as Ralph did. As
they begin to work directly with the union they will become aware of the antimanagement sentiment and will, over time, begin to change their attitude toward the
union.

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