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Understanding the Transmission of Nerve

Impulses
Nerve impulses have a domino effect. Each neuron receives an impulse and must pass it
on to the next neuron and make sure the correct impulse continues on its path. Through a
chain of chemical events, the dendrites (part of a neuron) pick up an impulse that's
shuttled through the axon and transmitted to the next neuron. The entire impulse passes
through a neuron in about seven milliseconds faster than a lightning strike. Here's
what happens in just six easy steps:
1. Polarization of the neuron's membrane: Sodium is on the outside, and potassium
is on the inside.
Cell membranes surround neurons just as any other cell in the body has a
membrane. When a neuron is not stimulated it's just sitting with no impulse to
carry or transmit its membrane is polarized. Not paralyzed. Polarized. Being
polarized means that the electrical charge on the outside of the membrane is
positive while the electrical charge on the inside of the membrane is negative. The
outside of the cell contains excess sodium ions (Na+); the inside of the cell
contains excess potassium ions (K+). (Ions are atoms of an element with a positive

or negative charge.)
You're probably wondering: How can the charge inside the cell be negative if the
cell contains positive ions? Good question. The answer is that in addition to the
K+, negatively charged protein and nucleic acid molecules also inhabit the cell;
therefore, the inside is negative as compared to the outside.
Then, if cell membranes allow ions to cross, how does the Na+ stay outside and
the K+ stay inside? If this thought crossed your mind, you deserve a huge gold
star! The answer is that the Na+ and K+ do, in fact, move back and forth across
the membrane. However, Mother Nature thought of everything. There are Na+/K+
pumps on the membrane that pump the Na+ back outside and the K+ back inside.
The charge of an ion inhibits membrane permeability (that is, makes it difficult for
other things to cross the membrane).
2. Resting potential gives the neuron a break.
When the neuron is inactive and polarized, it's said to be at its resting potential. It
remains this way until a stimulus comes along.
3. Action potential: Sodium ions move inside the membrane.
When a stimulus reaches a resting neuron, the gated ion channels on the resting
neuron's membrane open suddenly and allow the Na+ that was on the outside of
the membrane to go rushing into the cell. As this happens, the neuron goes from
being polarized to being depolarized.
Remember that when the neuron was polarized, the outside of the membrane was
positive, and the inside of the membrane was negative. Well, after more positive
ions go charging inside the membrane, the inside becomes positive, as well;
polarization is removed and the threshold is reached.
Each neuron has a threshold level the point at which there's no holding back.
After the stimulus goes above the threshold level, more gated ion channels open
and allow more Na+ inside the cell. This causes complete depolarization of the
neuron and an action potential is created. In this state, the neuron continues to
open Na+ channels all along the membrane. When this occurs, it's an all-or-none
phenomenon. "All-or-none" means that if a stimulus doesn't exceed the threshold
level and cause all the gates to open, no action potential results; however, after the
threshold is crossed, there's no turning back: Complete depolarization occurs and
the stimulus will be transmitted.
When an impulse travels down an axon covered by a myelin sheath, the impulse
must move between the uninsulated gaps called nodes of Ranvier that exist

between each Schwann cell.

4. Repolarization: Potassium ions move outside, and sodium ions stay inside the
membrane.
After the inside of the cell becomes flooded with Na+, the gated ion channels on
the inside of the membrane open to allow the K+ to move to the outside of the
membrane. With K+ moving to the outside, the membrane's repolarization restores
electrical balance, although it's opposite of the initial polarized membrane that had
Na+ on the outside and K+ on the inside. Just after the K+ gates open, the Na+
gates close; otherwise, the membrane couldn't repolarize.
5. Hyperpolarization: More potassium ions are on the outside than there are
sodium ions on the inside.
When the K+ gates finally close, the neuron has slightly more K+ on the outside
than it has Na+ on the inside. This causes the membrane potential to drop slightly
lower than the resting potential, and the membrane is said to be hyperpolarized
because it has a greater potential. (Because the membrane's potential is lower, it
has more room to "grow."). This period doesn't last long, though (well, none of
these steps take long!). After the impulse has traveled through the neuron, the
action potential is over, and the cell membrane returns to normal (that is, the
resting potential).
6. Refractory period puts everything back to normal: Potassium returns inside,
sodium returns outside.
The refractory period is when the Na+ and K+ are returned to their original sides:
Na+ on the outside and K+ on the inside. While the neuron is busy returning
everything to normal, it doesn't respond to any incoming stimuli. It's kind of like
letting your answering machine pick up the phone call that makes your phone ring
just as you walk in the door with your hands full. After the Na+/K+ pumps return
the ions to their rightful side of the neuron's cell membrane, the neuron is back to
its normal polarized state and stays in the resting potential until another impulse
comes along.
Figure 1 shows the transmission of an impulse.

Figure 1: Transmission of a nerve impulse: Resting potential and action potential.

Like the gaps between the Schwann cells on an insulated axon, a gap called a
synapse or synaptic cleft separates the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of the
next neuron. Neurons don't touch. The signal must traverse the synapse to
continue on its path through the nervous system. Electrical conduction carries an
impulse across synapses in the brain, but in other parts of the body, impulses are
carried across synapses as the following chemical changes occur:
1. Calcium gates open.
At the end of the axon from which the impulse is coming, the membrane
depolarizes, gated ion channels open, and calcium ions (Ca2+) are allowed
to enter the cell.
2. Releasing a neurotransmitter.
When the calcium ions rush in, a chemical called a neurotransmitter is
released into the synapse.
3. The neurotransmitter binds with receptors on the neuron.
The chemical that serves as the neurotransmitter moves across the synapse
and binds to proteins on the neuron membrane that's about to receive the
impulse. The proteins serve as the receptors, and different proteins serve as

receptors for different neurotransmitters that is, neurotransmitters have

specific receptors.
4. Excitation or inhibition of the membrane occurs.
Whether excitation or inhibition occurs depends on what chemical served
as the neurotransmitter and the result that it had. For example, if the
neurotransmitter causes the Na+ channels to open, the neuron membrane
becomes depolarized, and the impulse is carried through that neuron. If the
K+ channels open, the neuron membrane becomes hyperpolarized, and
inhibition occurs. The impulse is stopped dead if an action potential cannot
be generated.
If you're wondering what happens to the neurotransmitter after it binds to
the receptor, you're really getting good at this anatomy and physiology
stuff. Here's the story: After the neurotransmitter produces its effect,
whether it's excitation or inhibition, the receptor releases it and the
neurotransmitter goes back into the synapse. In the synapse, the cell
"recycles" the degraded neurotransmitter. The chemicals go back into the
membrane so that during the next impulse, when the synaptic vesicles bind
to the membrane, the complete neurotransmitter can again be released.

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Comments (21)
1.

Posted by RnS DECEMBER 29, 2008 | 06:59PM

Very well written article. It helped me a lot in my project.
(Report comment)

2.

Posted by Cgw JANUARY 12, 2009 | 03:49PM

wow, thanks so much. Defintly helps, and is very descriptive :D
(Report comment)

3.

Posted by angel JANUARY 21, 2009 | 00:42PM

this helped me out tremendously to study for my test.
(Report comment)

4.

Posted by Sunset R FEBRUARY 05, 2009 | 01:53PM

This was so much help, it was simple yet provided all the necessary
info i needed, not ot mention aesily understood. I have a better
grasp of this area in nervous coordination after i read this :D
thankies so much
(Report comment)

5.

Posted by Paul Connett FEBRUARY 09, 2009 | 09:51AM

Paul Connett George C. Marshall High School I like lots of things
rates vary from person to person I have History from 1:30 to 2:00 in
a room upstairs.

(Report comment)
6.

Posted by Denise FEBRUARY 22, 2009 | 09:38AM

can you come and teach my class? you did a better job than my
instructor
(Report comment)

7.

Posted by Hannah xx MARCH 19, 2009 | 03:43PM

Very helpful! ^^ Helpful to me - as im a dummy, lol!:D
(Report comment)

8.

Posted by Conor MARCH 20, 2009 | 09:18AM

Thanks a million. Very well written. If only my college lecturers
were like you!!!
(Report comment)

9.

Posted by sabita MARCH 22, 2009 | 01:08PM

very good.very helpful.not just for dummies!!!
(Report comment)

10.

Posted by tasha MARCH 26, 2009 | 08:43PM

wow i understand alot more than i thought i would thanks to this
(Report comment)

11.

Posted by Alex APRIL 14, 2009 | 03:50AM

Awesome, thanks. Senior A.P. Biology student here and this helped
summarize everything.
(Report comment)

12.

Posted by Liz APRIL 19, 2009 | 11:00AM

Very helpful and easy to understand, thanks a lot!!

(Report comment)
13.

Posted by mona APRIL 24, 2009 | 08:54PM

nice job! you did a great job explaining the nerve impulses. thank
you very much... now i understand it better :)
(Report comment)

14.

Posted by mai APRIL 29, 2009 | 07:23PM

yeah i am dum
(Report comment)

15.

Posted by Felicia MAY 08, 2009 | 11:54AM

very easy to understand, thanks so much
(Report comment)

16.

Posted by Susanna MAY 14, 2009 | 10:19PM

This is great. I have a test in my General Physiology 4000-level
class tomorrow and this was a tremendous help in understanding the
big picture. Now I can work on the more minute, sticky details!
(Report comment)

17.

Posted by lisha MAY 31, 2009 | 08:59PM

im a dummy but i still didnt get it. thanks anyway :)
(Report comment)

18.

Posted by Bailey JUNE 03, 2009 | 10:35AM

i really didnt understand this, but it helped me on a science project,
thanks!
(Report comment)

19.

Posted by einshaari JULY 28, 2009 | 10:44AM

nice..but i hope it can have explanation in illustration to help the

dummies,..
(Report comment)
20.

Posted by Jaco JULY 29, 2009 | 02:51PM

Thankyou SO much; although other websites do provide animations
the way this article is written creates such a vivid image in you
mind that animations seem irrellevant. For all of you still looking
for a more visual explaination try this animation:
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter14/animation__th
e_nerve_impulse.html
(Report comment)

21.

Posted by shivangi AUGUST 11, 2009 | 11:14AM

thnx...helpd me lots fr mie bio seminar:)
(Report comment)

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Related

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