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Abstract
Rheology represents the properties of both solid and liquid foods, where texture is the rheology related to solid foods, and
viscosity is the rheology of fluid foods. Three categories of tests measure textural characteristics of solids foods, empirical (ball
compressor, penetrometer, curd tension meter), imitative (texturometer, texture profile analysis [TPA]), and fundamental tests (small
amplitude oscillatory shear analysis [SAOSA], torsion analysis [TA]). Regardless of animal species, milk casein gels are mainly
responsible for the rheological properties of cheese and other dairy products. In normal fluid milk, the viscosity is affected by the
state and concentrations of fat, protein, temperature, pH, and age of the milk. Average milk viscosity has been determined for goats
at 2.12 cPas, sheep 2.48 cPas, camels 2.8 cPas, buffaloes 2.2 cPas, and cows 1.7 cPas. Heating decreases the dynamic viscosity,
but it increases at the point of coagulation. Sheep and goat milk have the same proteins as cow milk, but their proportions and
genetic polymorphs differ widely, which explains different rennetabilities and considerable rheological variations in cheesemaking.
Casein micelle structure is similar in goat, sheep, and cow milk, but differs in composition, size and hydration. Sheep milk has
caseins richer in calcium than cow caseins, it is also very sensitive to rennet, because of higher /s -casein ratio, and coagulation
proceeds faster than in cow milk. Rheological studies with Monterey Jack cheese from goat milk found knitting with progressing
aging time, less hardness, less shear stress values, and more rubberiness. High correlations were noted between SAOSA scores
and proteolysis in cheeses. Terrincho sheep cheese showed increased hardness, fracturability, gumminess, chewiness, yelloweness,
decreased adhesiveness, resilience, and cohesiveness during ripening. Frozen storage of soft goat cheeses had minimal effects on
textural qualities, which has valuable market implications. Feta cheeses showed increased compactness and porosity, when goat milk
had been added to sheep milk. Yogurt studies, including Labneh from the Middle East, found highest viscosity for sheep followed
by goats, cows, and camels, and viscosity increased with solids contents. Three different transient viscosity stages were described
mathematically, and camel milk varied least in viscosity during yogurt gelation. Viscosity decreased with increasing angular velocity
of the inner cylinder, suggesting that yogurt behaved as a shear-thinning non-Newtonian fluid. Rheological properties are important
monitors of quality control in dairy processing and in scientific research.
2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Goat milk; Sheep milk; Rheology; Texture; Viscosity; Texture profile analysis
1. Introduction
Rheology is defined as the study of material deformation and flow (Scott-Blair, 1969), and includes what is
This paper is part of the special issue entitled Goat and Sheep
Milk Guest edited by George Haenlein, Young Park, Ketsia RaynalLjutovac and Antonio Pirisi.
Tel.: +1 478 827 3089; fax: +1 478 825 6376.
E-mail address: parky@fvsu.edu.
0921-4488/$ see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2006.09.015
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texture is the rheology related to solid foods, while viscosity is the rheology related to fluid foods (Tunick,
2000). Rheology of fluid milk can be measured with
viscometers, while that of solid dairy foods is usually
evaluated with texturometer, Instron Testing machine
and torsion gelometry, etc.
Caprine milk differs from cow milk in several
physico-chemical characteristics, which explain major
differences in the technological behavior of the two
milks (Remeuf, 1992). The poorer cheesemaking ability
of goat milk is largely attributable to the lower casein
content, and to specific properties of casein micelles
in caprine milk such as their composition, size and
hydration (Remeuf, 1992). Goat milk also has different
proportions of the four major caseins (s1, s2, , )
compared to cow counterparts, and there are great variations, especially between s1-casein and s2-casein
contents between individuals and breeds of goats and
sheep, because of the occurrence of genetic polymorphisms for all milk proteins, which influence greatly their
cheesemaking properties (Remeuf, 1992). Sheep milk
has higher specific gravity, viscosity, refractive index,
titratable acidity, but lower freezing point than average
cow milk (Haenlein and Wendorff, 2006).
Regardless of milk of any dairy species (i.e., cow,
goats and sheep), casein gels are responsible for most
of the various rheological/textural properties of cheese
and other dairy products that gel, stretch and fracture
(Tunick, 2000). Rheological properties are examined as
a quality control method in dairy processing plants and
as a scientific technique for food scientists and rheologists to perform research on the structure/texture of food
products.
Although rheological characteristics of cow milk and
its dairy products have been extensively studied, the documentations on rheological properties of goat and sheep
milk products, especially their fluid milks have been
scarce. This review focuses on goat and sheep milk products, but due to the paucity of reports on fluid milk of
goats and sheep, this paper covers more research on fermented goat and sheep milk products.
2. Rheology of goat milk and sheep milk
Rheology of fluid milk is largely influenced by its viscosity. The dynamic viscosity is a parameter related to
the inner friction of a liquid (Spreer, 1998). The viscosity of milk is twice as high as that of water due to the
friction of fat in milk (emulsified in milk) (Spreer, 1998).
In normal fluid milk, viscosity is affected by state and
concentrations of fat and protein, temperature, pH and
age of the milk (Jenness and Patton, 1976). Viscosity is
the serum proteins (Walstra et al., 1999). Heat stability of goat milk is considerably lower than of bovine
milk (Remeuf, 1992), which may be attributed to the
high ionic calcium content and low micellular solvation
in caprine milk which would contribute to its heat instability.
The effect of different species milks on viscosityincubation time was studied by Jumah et al. (2001).
They found that sheep milk reached the highest viscosity value, followed by caprine and bovine milk (Fig. 1).
The differences in viscosity between species appeared
to be due to the differences in total solids contents of the
milks, which caused a significant effect on the firmness
of yogurt curd (Tamine and Robinson, 1985; Jumah et
al., 2001). The higher viscosity may also be attributable
to an increased water-binding capacity in the milk proteins (Labropoulos et al., 1984). On the other hand, camel
milk did not show any elevation in viscosity during the
gelation process which might be accounted for by the
lower protein content (Jumah et al., 2001).
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centrations, average size of casein micelles, and s /casein ratio (Remeuf et al., 1989). The difference of
strength between bovine and caprine coagulum is essentially accounted for by the differences between casein
micellular size and hydration of the two milks (Remeuf
et al., 1989).
Goat milk contains the same four casein fractions as
bovine milk such as s1 , s2 , , and caseins. s1 Casein has very large individual quantitative variations
due to the occurrence of genetic polymorphisms (Addeo
et al., 1987; Grosclaude et al., 1987). This polymorphism
makes great variations in milk s1 -casein levels from
approximately 25% in certain milks to total lack in others. Reports have shown that s1 -casein polymorphism
has a significant influence on cheesemaking properties
of goat milk (Remeuf, 1992), which would in turn have
a significant impact on cheese textural quality.
In a study of cheese production potential of milk of
Dahlem Cashmere (DC) goat in relation to rheological aspects, Dimassi et al. (2005) reported that cheese
production efficiency was directly proportional to aggregation rate and coagulation time. The DC breed had
significantly higher curd firmness and faster aggregation rate, because the DC goats had much higher protein
and casein content than the German Fawn breed. During
coagulation, destabilized casein micelles and calciumphosphate bonds form a network which entraps fat and
other solids. The casein network is formed faster with
higher proteins mainly casein content, which results in
higher aggregation rate and the development of firmer
curd.
Grosclaude et al. (1987) reported that high type variants A, B, and C were associated with higher amounts
of s1 -casein (about 3.6 g/l), intermediate type variant E was associated with intermediate amounts (about
1.6 g/l), and low type variants D and F were associated with low amounts (about 0.6 g/l) of s1 -casein in
goat milk. Clark and Sherbon (2000b) reported that s1 casein genetic variants were not highly correlated with
coagulation properties, and they found that Nubian breed
milk was more likely to contain a high type genetic variant than Alpine breed milk. Clark and Sherbon (2000a)
also showed that Nubian and Nubian Alpine crosses
contained a higher amount of s1 -casein and other milk
components, and exhibited higher coagulation rate and
curd firmness than milk from Toggenburgs and Saanen Alpine crosses. These differences in s1 -casein
contents between different breeds and crosses were
accountable for the variations in texture and rheology
of their corresponding goat milk cheese products.
Sheep milk is higher in fat, protein and total solids
than cow or goat milk (Haenlein and Wendorff, 2006).
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Fig. 3. Texture profile analysis curve for cow milk Mozzarella cheese
(Tunick, 2000).
Nolan, 1992). Tunick (2000) postulated that in the simplest fundamental test, uniaxial compression, a stress
(force per unit area) is applied downward to a sample,
and the resulting deformation is measured as Couchy
or engineering strain (ratio of height change to original
height). An example diagram is shown in Fig. 4, which
is a forcestrain curve for Mozzarella obtained by a universal testing machine. Tunick (2000) further delineated
that an inflection point appears if the structure begins to
break down, and the cheese sample is to be fractured at
60% compression as the breakage of the internal bonds
occur.
3.3.1. Small amplitude oscillatory shear analysis
(SAOSA)
It is a fundamental test for rheological properties,
which uses specific specimen geometries and instru-
Table 1
Definitions and calculations of texture terms (Szczesniak, 1963; Bourne, 1968; Tunick, 2000)
Term
Definition
Obtained from
Calculation (and
units) using Fig. 3
Fracturability
Height of F (N)
Hardness
Adhesiveness
Cohesiveness
Springiness
Gumminess
Chewiness
Height of H (N)
Area of A (J)
Ratio of A2 area to
A1 area (none)
Length of S (mm)
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which measures the energy stored or the elastic properties of the cheeses, increased significantly from 13.8 kPa
to 35.1 kPa over the first 8 weeks. The G , which measures the energy lost or the flow properties of the cheeses,
increased significantly from 4.17 kPa to 12.7 kPa over the
first 4 weeks. The * , which measures the phase relationships (G /G ), increased significantly from 1.44 kPa s
to 3.91 kPa s over the first 8 weeks. There was a high
correlation between the SAOSA and proteolysis data
(Table 2) as the elastic (G ) and complex viscosity (* )
properties of the cheese increased. The concentration
of peptides in the 2218 kDa range also increased with
r values of 0.92 and 0.90, respectively. This correlation was expected as proteolysis of caseins disrupts
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Table 2
Summary of correlation factors (P < 0.05) among proteins and peptide concentrations and rheological properties of Monterey Jack goat cheese
Rheological properties
Proteins
Peptides (kDa)
Protein:peptide
s2 -CN
-CN
2218
1815
SAOSA
Elastic modulus, G
Viscous modulus, G
Complex viscosity, *
0.84
0.68
0.81
0.81
0.65
0.78
0.92
0.82
0.90
0.01
0.14
0.02
0.29
0.09
0.25
0.95
0.86
0.93
TPA
Hardness
Springiness
Cohesiveness
0.99
0.79
0.83
0.97
0.91
0.80
0.96
0.70
0.85
0.26
0.62
0.14
0.59
0.71
0.33
0.96
0.90
0.83
TA
Shear stress
Shear strain
Shear rigidity
0.89
0.67
0.87
0.92
0.64
0.88
0.86
0.83
0.90
0.31
0.17
0.17
0.60
0.01
0.42
0.95
0.84
0.98
<14
Van Hekken et al. (2004); SAOSA: small amplitude oscillatory shear analysis; TPA: texture profile analysis; TA: torsion analysis.
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Fig. 7. Torsion analysis properties [(a) shear stress, (b) shear strain,
and (c) shear rigidity at point of fracture] of goat milk Monterey Jack
cheese (Van Hekken et al., 2004).
of the sensory scores in the cheeses among the storage treatment groups at the initial stages (0 day refrigeration aging after thaw) were not significant. However, prolonged refrigerated storage at 4 C, regardless of frozen-storage treatment, caused some (P < 0.05)
changes in most flavor scores including cooked/milky,
diacetyl, milkfat flavors, brothy, waxy, sweetness, sourness, saltiness, freshness, yeasty, and oxidized flavors
across all treatment groups. The rheological properties
of the frozen goat cheeses had significantly lower values
compared to the fresh control cheese (Van Hekken et al.,
2005).
4.1.2. Rheology of sheep milk cheeses
Terrincho sheep cheese is a typical product of the
north-eastern region of Portugal and is manufactured
Fig. 9. Changes in acidity and pH during 60 days of ripening in Terrincho sheep milk cheese (Pinho et al., 2004).
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milk (Kalantzopoulos, 1993). Several factors can influence the final feta cheese texture, such as fat, protein and
moisture content as well as salt content during brining. It
has been shown that high acidity, protein, and total solids
contents generally make the cheese harder and less easily deformed (Creamer and Olson, 1982; Kehagias et al.,
1995).
Fig. 10. Categorical principal component biplot showing the relationship between mean values from texture profile analysis and color
parameters and mean sensory scores from four texture attributes and
color intensity of sheep milk cheeses from B, V, R, T, and M dairy
plants (Pinho et al., 2004).
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Table 3
Multiple linear regression coefficients of textural properties on composition and pH (Chen et al., 1979)
Protein
Water
Fat
NaCl
pH
Constant
Correlation coefficient
Hardness
Cohesiveness
Gumminess
Chewiness
Adhesiveness
Elasticity
0.216
0.056
0.005
1.00
0.665
3.25
0.923
0.017
0.023
0.009
0.017
0.311
3.01
0.886
0.116
0.023
0.007
0.259
0.439
5.3
0.977
0.065
0.019
0.010
0.240
0.261
3.23
0.965
0.963
0.272
0.090
2.67
3.47
44.0
0.953
0.002
0.011
0.004
0.051
0.045
0.103
0.873
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Fig. 14. Effect of milk source (bovine, ovine and caprine) on flow
curves of yogurt curds (Jumah et al., 2001).
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