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ability to create works of art that express something deep about the meaning of life
(Stevenson 2003, 238).
In light of this unwieldiness, recent attempts at taxonomy have tended to eschew
comprehensiveness, focusing instead on identifying and classifying selected aspects of the
phenomenon. Kendall Walton (1990), for instance, distinguishes
between spontaneous anddeliberate imagining (acts of imagination that occur with or
without the subject's conscious direction), between occurrent and nonoccurrent
imaginings (acts of imagination that do or do not occupy the subject's explicit attention), and
between social and solitary imaginings (episodes of imagining that occur with or without the
joint participation of several subjects.)
Other taxonomies concentrate on carving out a particular aspect of the topic for further
discussion. Gregory Currie and Ian Ravenscroft (2002) begin their book-length work on
imagination by distinguishing among creative imagination (combining ideas in unexpected
and unconventional ways); sensory imagination (perception-like experiences in the absence
of appropriate stimuli); and what they call recreative imagination (an ability to experience or
think about the world from a perspective different from the one that experience presents),
focusing the remainder of their discussion largely on the third (recreative) sense, and setting
aside the first (creative) sense almost entirely. (Cf. also Strawson 1970, 31.) [Recent work on
the creative imagination has taken place largely within the context of empirical psychology
(see Boden 2003; Csikszentmihalyi 1997; Sternberg 1998), though there has been some
philosophical attention to the issue in recent years (see Carruthers 2007; Gaut & Livingston
2003).]
Yet other taxonomies classify varieties of imagination in terms of their structure and content.
Many philosophers distinguish between propositional imagination (imagining that P)
and non-propositional imagination, dividing the latter into objectual imagining (imagining
E) (Yablo 1993) and active imagining (imagining X-ing) (Walton 1990). (For a related
distinction, see the discussion of Thomas Nagel's (1974) distinction between sympathetic
imagining (imagining oneself undergoing a certain experience) and perceptual
imagining (imagining oneself perceiving a certain event or state of affairs) in section 4.5
below.) These notions are often spelled out by means of examples.
When a subject imagines propositionally, she represents to herself that something is the case.
So, for example, Juliet might imagine that Romeo is by her side. To imagine in this sense is
to stand in some mental relation to a particular proposition. (See propositional attitude
reports.)
When a subject imagines objectually, she represents to herself a real or make-believe entity
or situation. So, for example, Prospero might imagine an acorn or a nymph or the city of
Naples or a wedding feast. To imagine in this sense is to stand in some mental relation to a
representation of an (imaginary or real) entity or state of affairs. (Yablo 1993; see also Martin
2002; Noordhof 2002; O'Shaughnessy 2000.)
When a subject imagines X-ing, she simulatively represents to herself some sort of activity or
experience. So, for example, Ophelia might imagine seeing Hamlet or getting herself to a
nunnery. To imagine in this sense is to stand in a first-personal mental relation to some
(imaginary or real) behavior or perception.
A final way of thinking about imagination treats imagined as a decoupling or facsimile
or counterpart operator (cf. Leslie 1987; Goldman 2000; Budd 1989) that can, in principle,
be attached to any (mental) state. So, for example, one might speak of imagined perception
(or perception-like imagining), imagined belief (or belief-like imagining), imagined desire
(or desire-like imagining), imagined action (or action-like imagining), and so on. On this sort
of account, a taxonomy of imaginative attitudes would share whatever shape governs
experience more generally.
No particular taxonomy has gained general currency in recent discussions.
believe that Pis to take P to hold of the actual world, and since which world is the actual
world is (in the relevant sense) not up to us, belief's task is to conform to some pre-ordained
structureits direction of fit is mind-to-world. (For related discussion of direction of fit, see
the entry on speech acts.) By contrast, since to imagine P is to take P to hold of some
particular (set of) non-actual world(s), and since which worlds are imagined is (in the
relevant sense) up to us, imagining's task need not be to conform to some pre-ordained
structure. (A possible exception is guided imagination of the sort generated by stories and
works of art; for discussion of these issues, see section 5.1 below.)
This distinction is sometimes expressed by saying that whereas believing some content
involves taking the content to be true in the actual world, imagining that content involves
taking that content to be true-in-fiction, or make-believe-true, or pretend-true. (Discussion of
the relation between truthsimpliciter and truth-in-fiction goes beyond the scope of this entry.
For further discussion of some of these issues, see the Stanford Encyclopedia entries
on truth and fictionalism and Zalta 1992.)
On the basis of these sorts of considerations, a number of theorists have proposed cognitive
models on which belief and imagination (or pretense) involve distinct but structurally-similar
psychological mechanisms that act on similar sorts of representational content. The most
prominent of these is Nichols and Stich's (2000, 2003) cognitive theory of pretense,
according to which belief and imagination are psychological attitudes that operate on
propositional content stored in different mental boxesa Belief Box in the case of
beliefs, and a Possible World Box in the case of imaginingseach governed by
characteristic set of rules that regulate its relation to behavior and to other mental states.
For general discussions of the relation between imagination and belief, see Currie and
Ravenscroft 2002; Nichols and Stich 2000; Walton 1990; and Velleman 2000 as well as
essays collected in Lopes and Kieren eds. 2003 and Nichols ed. 2006.
waythat it were or will be the case that P hold (in some fictional or make-believe or
pretend world.)
The notion of desire-like imagination (Currie 1990, 2002; Velleman 2000) or idesire (Doggett and Egan 2007) has been invoked to explain two phenomena: the generation
of behaviors in imaginary contexts, and the apparent existence of desires evoked by fictions.
According to such accounts, if I'm pretending to be Cleopatra, it is my desire-like imagining
that I be with Antony, in conjunction with my belief-like imagining that you are Antony, that
leads me to take actions such as embracing you. Relatedly, on such accounts, just as I may
imagine that Romeo and Juliet both die (and thus imagine something about them in a belieflike way), I may also want them to go on living (and thus imagine something about them in
a desire-like way.)
Objections to such accounts contend that the notion of desire-like imagination (or i-desire) is
unnecessary to explain the phenomena for which it is intended to account. On such views,
rather than desiring-in-imagination that Romeo and Juliet live, what I desire(-in-actuality) is
that in the fiction Romeo and Juliet live.
For further discussion of desire-in-imagination/i-desire, see (defenders) Currie 1990, ch.5;
Currie 2002; Currie and Ravenscroft 2002; Doggett and Egan 2007; Velleman 2000;
(dissenters) Carruthers 2003; Nichols and Stich 2000, 2003; Funkhouser and Spaulding 2009
of imaginative resistance, see section 5.2 below.) Gregory Currie and Ian Ravenscroft (2002)
contend that this difference arises because supposition involves belief-like imagining in the
absence of desire-like imagining, whereas engaged imagining involves both, Similarly, Tyler
Doggett and Andy Egan (2007) point out that vividly imagining tends to motivate actions in
the context of pretense, while merely supposing tends not to.
For additional discussion of the relation between supposition and vivid imagination, see
Currie & Ravenscroft 2002, Doggett and Egan 2007, Gendler 2000, Moran 1994, Nichols
2006, Weinberg & Meskin 2006.
lose ourselves and thereby form (admittedly atypical) beliefs. (For related discussion, see
5.3 below.)
For an overview of the range of philosophical issues raised by dreamingincluding a
number that relate directly to the issue of imaginationsee Sutton 2009, as well as the booklength treatment in Flanagan 2000. For an overview of recent empirical discussions of
dreaming see the anthologies edited by Barrett and McNamara eds. (2009), Ellman and
Antrobus eds. (1991), and Pace-Schott et al eds. (2003), or the book-length treatments by
Domhoff (2003) and Hobson (1988, 2002). For a review of recent empirical work on the
nature of daydreaming, see Klinger 2009.
Mirroring is manifest to the extent that features of the imaginary situation that have not been
explicitly stipulated are derivable via features of their real-world analogues, or, more
generally, to the extent that imaginative content is taken to be governed by the same sorts of
restrictions that govern believed content. For example, in a widely-discussed experiment
conducted by Alan Leslie (1994), children are asked to engage in an imaginary tea party.
When an experimenter tips and spills one of the (empty) teacups, children consider the nontipped cup to be full (in the context of the pretense) and the tipped cup to be empty (both
within and outside of the context of the pretense). More generally, it appears that both games
of make-believe and more complicated engagements with fiction, cinema, and visual art are
governed by principles of generation, according to which particular prompts or props
generate or render make-believe particular fictional truths and that those principles tend to
be, for the most part, reality-oriented. (Walton 1990). (For further discussion, see Currie
2002; Gendler 2003; Harris 2000; Harris and Kavanaugh 1993; Leslie 1994; Lewis 1983b;
Nichols and Stich 2000. Related issues are discussed below in section 3.3 below.)
Quarantining, is manifest to the extent that events within the imagined or pretended episode
are taken to have effects only within a relevantly circumscribed domain. So, for example, the
child engaging in the make-believe tea party does not expect that spilling (imaginary) tea
will result in the table really being wet, nor does a person who imagines winning the lottery
expect that when she visits the ATM, her bank account will contain a million dollars. More
generally, quarantining is manifest to the extent that proto-beliefs and proto-attitudes
concerning the imagined state of affairs are not treated as beliefs and attitudes relevant to
guiding action in the actual world. (The failure to quarantine imaginary attitudes in certain
contexts is often taken to be a mark of mental illness; see section 6.3 below.)
Some (Nichols and Stich 2000, 2003; cf. Leslie 1987) have suggest that mirroring and
quarantining fall out naturally from the architecture of the imagination: mirroring is a
consequence of the ways in which imagination and belief share a single code and
quarantining is a consequence of the way in which imagination takes place off-line
(Nichols 2004; 2006.)
Quarantining gives way to contagion when imagined content ends up playing a direct role in
actual attitudes and behavior. This is common in cases of affective transmission, where an
emotional response generated by an imagined situation may constrain subsequent behavior.
For example, imagining something fearful (such as a tiger in the kitchen) may give rise to
actual hesitation (such as reluctance to enter the room; cf. Harris et al 1991.) And it also
occurs in cases of cognitive transmission, where imagined content is thereby primed and
rendered more accessible in ways that go on to shape subsequent perception and experience.
For example, imagining some object (such as a sheep) may make one more likely to
perceive such objects in one's environment (such as mistaking a rock for a ram.) (For an
overview of such cases, cf. Gendler 2003; 2006.)
Much of the contemporary discussion of imagination has centered around particular roles
that imagination is purported to play in various domains of human understanding and
activity. Five of the most widely-discussed are the role of imagination in the understanding
of other minds (Section 4.1), in the cultivation of moral understanding and sensibility
(Section 4.2), in the reconfiguration of responses (Section 4.3), in planning and
counterfactual reasoning (Section 4.4), and in providing knowledge of possibility (Section
4.5).
processes off-line that are directly analogous to those being run on-line by the target
(e.g. Goldman 1989). Recent empirical work in psychology has explored the accuracy of
such projections (Markman et al eds. 2009, section V; Saxe 2005, 2006, 2009.)
Though classic simulationist accounts have tended to assume that the simulation process is at
least in-principle accessible to consciousness, a number of recent simulation-style accounts
appeal to neuroscientific evidence suggesting that at least some simulative processes take
place completely unconsciously. On such accounts of mindreading, no special role is played
by conscious imagination. (For discussion, see Goldman 2009; Saxe 2009.)
Many contemporary views of mindreading are hybrid theory views according to which both
theorizing and simulation play a role in the understanding of others' mental states. Goldman
(2006), for example, argues that while mindreading is primarily the product of simulation,
theorizing plays a role in certain cases as well. Many recent discussions have endorsed
hybrid views of this sort, with more or less weight given to each of the components in
particular cases. (Cf. Carruthers 2003; Nichols and Stich 2003.)
A number of philosophers have suggested that the mechanisms underlying subjects' capacity
to engage in mindreading are those that enable engagement in pretense behavior (Currie and
Ravenscroft 2002; Goldman 2006; Nichols and Stich 2003; for an overview of recent
discussions, see Carruthers 2009.) According to such accounts, engaging in pretense involves
imaginatively taking up perspectives other than one's own, and the ability to do so skillfully
may rely onand contribute toone's ability to understand those alternate perspectives.
Partly in light of these considerations, the relative lack of spontaneous pretense in children
with autistic spectrum disorders is taken as evidence for a link between the skills of pretense
and empathy (see section 6.2.)
that he entertains. Clearly, such contemplation gives access to a suitably circumscribed set of
worlds only if the imaginative exercise is somehow constrained with respect to what is held
constant.
The role of imagination in counterfactual thinkingand, in particular, the question of what
tends to be held constant when subjects contemplate counterfactual scenarioshas been
explored in detail in recent empirical psychological work. In her monograph-length
discussion of the role of imagination in counterfactual reasoning, Ruth Byrne (2005) presents
evidence showing that, when people reason using counterfactuals, what is imagined tends to
fall into certain typical categories. For example, people tend not to imagine worlds with
different natural laws, and they tend to imagine alternatives to more recent as opposed to
earlier events, alternatives to actions as opposed to inactions, and alternatives to events that
were within their control as opposed to events outside of it. (Additional influential work on
this topic can found in Byrne 2005; Johnson-Laird 1983, 2006; Markman et al. 2009, sect.
III; Roese and Olson 1995. )
Such issues may bear on other philosophical work that makes appeal to counterfactual
reasoning, for example, theories of causation, counterfactual conditionals and modality.
context of mind-body dualism (for details, see relevant sections in the SEP entries
on zombies and dualism.)
Descartes famously offered one such modal argument in the Sixth Meditation (CSM II, 54),
reasoning from the fact that he could clearly and distinctly conceive of his mind and body as
distinct to the real distinctness between them. Contemporary advocates of related arguments
details of which can be found in relevant sections in the SEP entries
on zombies and dualisminclude Saul Kripke (1972/80), W.D. Hart (1988), and David
Chalmers (1996, 2002). One form of such argument takes as a premise something implying
or implied by the following:
Zombie-conceivability: It is conceivable that there could be an exact physical duplicate of me
who lacked consciousness.
And, relying on some suitably strong C-P-style principle, concludes from this that:
Zombie-possibility: It is possible that there could be an exact physical duplicate of me who
lacked consciousness.
Both defenders and critics of such modal arguments have suggested that appeal to the notion
ofimaginingas distinct from mere conceivingmay play a role in such arguments'
soundness.
On the defenders' side, David Chalmers has argued that even those who hold that there are
propositions that are not epistemically accessible on the basis of a complete qualitative
description of the world should still accept that what he calls ideal primary positive
conceivability entails what he calls primary possibility. Primary (as opposed
to secondary) possibility concerns the question of whether there is some world W that
makes P true when W is considered as actual. (For a discussion of the relation between this
notion and the notion of metaphysical possibility, see Chalmers 2002.) Ideal (as opposed to
mere prima facie) conceivability concerns the question of whether P is conceivable on ideal
rational reflection. And positive (as opposed to negative) conceivability concerns the
question of whether P is imaginable: to positively conceive of a situation is to in some sense
imagine a specific configuration of objects and properties (Chalmers 2002). According to
Chalmers, then, a certain sort of C-P thesis holds for states of affairs that are conceivable on
reflection in the positive sensethat is, for states of affairs that are, on reflection,
imaginable. (For discussion, see Byrne 2007; Levin 2008; Stoljar 2007; Stalnaker 2002;
Yablo 2002.)
On the critical side, Christopher Hill (Hill 1997; Hill & McLaughlin 1999), following a
suggestion of Thomas Nagel (Nagel 1974, footnote 11), has argued that if we distinguish
properly betweensympathetic imaginingwherein one imagines oneself undergoing a certain
experienceandperceptual imaginingwherein one imagines oneself perceiving a certain
event or state of affairs, then Descartes/Kripke/Chalmers-style modal arguments fail. He
contends that in the Zombie argument, the exact physical duplicate is imagined in one way,
whereas the lacking consciousness is imagined in another: the conceiving that goes on with
respect to the relevant physical features involves perceptual imagination, whereas the
conceiving that goes on with respect to the relevant phenomenal features
involves sympathetic imagination. As a result, the relation between the physical and
phenomenal features will appear contingent even if it is necessary, because of the
independence of the disparate types of imagination (Nagel 1974, footnote 11). So the
argument cannot get off the ground. (Chalmers' response can be found in Chalmers 1999.)
For a comprehensive discussion of the major philosophical positions concerning the relations
among imagination, conceivability and possibility, see the entry on the epistemology of
modality; for related discussion, see relevant sections in the entries on zombies and dualism.
A detailed introduction to the issues in question can be found in Gendler & Hawthorne 2002b
or Evnine 2008; recent papers on this topic can be found at PhilPapers Conceivability,
Imagination and Possibility. See especially Byrne 2007 and Stoljar 2007.
that what I'm saying is what Viola says; what is important is that it isprescribed, by the
conventions of our production, to be imagined that what I say is what Viola says.
On Currie's account, which is similar to Walton's, what is fictional is defined as that which
the author (or actor, or creator) intends the audience to make-believe or imagine. Related
discussion in the context of literature can be found in Lamarque and Olson (1996).
The intimate relationship between imagination and fictionality is illustrated by the puzzle of
imaginative resistance (see Section 5.2). When we resist imagining something, we also tend
to resist accepting it as fictional. And conversely, what we imagine is often (particularly in
the context of art and games of make-believe) what we take to be fictional.
For related considerations in the context of film, see the entry on film. For empirical work in
this area, see the writings of Ed Tan passim (under Other Internet Resources).
Brann 1991. Discussion in this section is indebted to the thorough review found in Neill
2005, as well as in Levinson 1997 and Schneider 2006.
may nevertheless be valuable because of the richness of experience that it provides (Smuts
2007).
A view that can be understood either as an anti-avoidance view or an anti-negative emotion
view is the control theory explanation (Morreall 1985.) Advocates of such views argue what
explains our relative desire to engage with fictional tragedies is that we have more control
over our experience of fictionswe can get up and leave any time we wantthan we do
over real life. (For criticism, see Yanal 1999.)
For a comprehensive recent overview of responses to the paradox of tragedy, see Smuts
2009.
iteration. To imagine about imaginings is to have a representation in one's pretence box that
attributes imagining (Nichols 2003).
or a house, or a mountain, but that is all. And this is far from proving, that I can conceive
them existing out of the minds of all spirits. (First Dialogue between Hylas and Philonous)
The notion of conception assumed here seems tied closely to mental imagery: it appears that
what Hylas sets out to do is to visually imagine an unperceived tree; in so doing, he
constructs a visual image of a tree, thereby rendering it conceived. A number of philosophers,
including Bernard Williams (1973), have dismissed the argument as incapable of achieving
its stated goal on the grounds that it fails to distinguish between conceiving of something and
visually imagining it. John Campbell points out that one can, for example, describe in writing
an unseen tree (Campbell 2002, 128; contra Williams, Campbell argues that there is
something importantly correct in Berkeley's challenge with respect to conceivability).
According to Williams, the more interesting challenge raised by Berkeley's puzzle concerns
whether one can visualize the unseen. It might seem that, almost trivially, one cannot
visualize an unseen object, in virtue of the apparent fact that to visualize, say, a tree is to
think of oneself as seeing a tree, and I can hardly think of myself as seeing a tree that is
unseen. Against this view Williams argues that even if to visualize a tree is to think of myself
as seeing a tree, nevertheless I need not include my seeing in what is visualized. In cinema
and theater, it need not be true in the fiction that the camera or audience sees what the scene
contains, so too, Williams argues, even though I can visualize my seeing a tree such that my
seeing is part of what is visualized, I can also visualize a tree without doing so, and therefore
can visualize an unseen tree (Williams 1973).
Against Williams' arguments, Christopher Peacocke has defended the view that one cannot
visually imagine the unperceived, on the grounds that the content of what one imagines may
contain more than what is depicted in the image (Peacocke 1985). To make this point
Peacocke introduces the notion of S-imagination, with the S standing for supposition
(25). S-imagined content is supposed to account for the difference between visually
imagining, say, a briefcase, and visually imagining a cat that is wholly obscured by a
briefcase; though they share imagistic content, they differ in S-imagined content. Peacocke
acknowledges that in visually imagining a tree it may not be part of what is visualized that it
is being seen, but, he argues, that the tree is seen will inescapably be part of what is Simagined. (Note that Peacocke's use of the term S-imagine differs from Goldman's notion
of the same name (see Section 2.4 above.))
For additional discussions of Berkeley's puzzle, see Walton 1990, 2379; cf. also Szab
2005. Further discussion of Berkeley's master argument and its role in his philosophical
program can be found in the entry on Berkeley (sect. 2.2.1).
These capacities are accompanied by a parallel conscious capacity to keep track of what is
pretend, and what is not. Even children as young as 15 months show few signs of what Alan
Leslie has termed representational abuse, that is, there is little indication that the child
comes overtly to believe that actual-world objects have or will come to have features of the
pretend objects that they serve to represent (Leslie 1987). By the age of 3, children are able
to articulate explicitly a number of the differences between real and pretendnoting, for
instance, that a child with a real dog will be able to see and pet the dog, whereas a child with
a pretend dog will not (Estes, Wellman and Wooley 1989; Harris 2000, chapters 2 and 4;
Wellman and Estes 1986; see also Bouldin and Pratt 2001 and references therein).
In recent years, there has been intense debate among psychologists concerning exactly what
this capacity for pretense amounts to, in light of the fact that children of this age are (a)
generally incapable of solving standard (Smarties-box) false-belief tasks (though see
Onishi and Baillargeon 2005); (b) fairly limited in their capacity to distinguish apparent from
real identity in the case of visually deceptive objects; and (c) generally willing to attribute the
behavior pretending to be an X to an individual unaware of the existence of Xs. For further
discussion, see Harris 2000, chapter 3 and the papers collected in Goswami ed. 2002; Lewis
and Mitchell ed. 1994; Mitchell ed. 2003.
While the degree to which theory of mind enlists imaginative faculties is a matter of
considerable debate, as is the matter of what autistic spectrum disorders can tell us about that
debate, some have suggested that autism's characteristic deficits might provide evidence for
the simulation theory of mind reading (e.g. Goldman 2006; for dissent see Carruthers 2009
and discussion therein.) More radically, Currie and Ravenscroft (2002) have suggested that
autism is itself a disorder of the imagination, arguing that an inability to engage in
imaginative activities could uniformly explain the constellation of Wing's deficits.
Carruthers 2009; Gallagher 2004; Langdon, Davies and Coltheart 2002; Zahavi ed. 2000). It
has been suggested by Currie (2000) and Currie and Ravenscroft (2002, 170) that
schizophrenia and its attendant hallucinations might be understood as fundamentally
involving a deficit in the subject's ability to distinguish between what is real and what is
merely imagined.
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