Golden Liberty

election.
The monarchs power was limited, in favor of the sizable noble class. Each new king had to subscribe to King
Henrys Articles, which were the basis of Polands political system (and included almost unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance). Over time, King Henrys
Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specic
pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point, the
king was eectively a partner with the noble class and was
constantly supervised by a group of senators.
The foundation of the Commonwealths political system,
the Golden Liberty (Polish: Zota Wolno, a term used
from 1573), included:

The Republic at the Zenith of Its Power. Golden Liberty. The

Royal Election of 1573, by Jan Matejko

the election of the king by all nobles wishing to participate, known as wolna elekcja (free election);

Golden Liberty (Latin: Aurea Libertas; Polish: Zota Wolno, Lithuanian:

Auksin laisv), sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles Democracy or Nobles Commonwealth (Polish: Rzeczpospolita
Szlachecka or Zota wolno szlachecka, Latin: urea libertas) was a unique political system in the Kingdom
of Poland and, after the Union of Lublin (1569), in
the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. Under that system, all nobles (szlachta), regardless of rank or economic
status, were considered to have equal legal status and
enjoyed extensive legal rights and privileges. The nobility controlled the legislature (the Sejm the Polish
parliament) and the Commonwealths elected king.

Sejm, the Commonwealth parliament which the

king was required to hold every two years;
pacta conventa (Latin), agreed-to agreements negotiated with the king-elect, including a bill of
rights, binding on the king, derived from the earlier
King Henrys Articles;
rokosz (insurrection), the right of szlachta to form
a legal rebellion against a king who violated their
guaranteed freedoms;
religious freedom guaranteed by Warsaw Confederation Act 1573,[1]

Development

liberum veto (Latin), the right of an individual land

envoy to oppose a decision by the majority in a Sejm
session; the voicing of such a free veto nullied all
the legislation that had been passed at that session;
during the crisis of the second half of the 17th century, Polish nobles could also use the liberum veto
in provincial sejmiks;

This political system, unique in Europe, stemmed from

the consolidation of power by the szlachta (noble class)
over other social classes and over the monarchical
political system. In time, the szlachta accumulated
enough privileges (established by the Nihil novi Act
(1505), King Henrys Articles (1573), and various Pacta
conventa) that no monarch could hope to break the
szlachta's grip on power.

konfederacja (from the Latin confederatio), the right

to form an organization to force through a common
political aim.

The political doctrine of the Commonwealth of the Two

Nations was: our state is a republic under the presidency
of the King. Chancellor Jan Zamoyski summed up this
doctrine when he said that Rex regnat et non gubernat The Commonwealths political system is dicult to t
(The King reigns but [literally 'and'] does not govern). into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described
The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a mixture of:
as a Senat and an elected king. The king was obliged to
confederation and federation, with regard to the
respect citizens rights specied in King Henrys Articles
as well as in pacta conventa negotiated at the time of his
broad autonomy of its regions. It is however dicult
1

3 SIMILAR SYSTEMS

to decisively call the Commonwealth either confed- Perhaps the closest parallels to Polands 'Noble Democeration or federation, as it had some qualities of both racy' can be found outside Europe altogether in Amerof them;
ica among the slave-owning aristocracy of The South,
where slave-owning democrats and founding fathers of
oligarchy,[2] as only the male szlachtaaround 15% the USA such as Thomas Jeerson or George Washingof the populationhad political rights;
ton had many values in common with the reformist noblemen of the Commonwealth.[11]
democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights
Others however criticize the Golden Liberty, pointing out
and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on
it was limited only to the nobility, excluding peasants or
important matters, including legislation (the adoptownsfolk[12] and gave no legal system to grant freedom
tion of new laws), foreign aairs, declaration of war,
and liberty to the majority of the population, failing them
and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levyby failing to protect them from the excesses of the noing of new ones). Also, the 10% of Commonwealth
bility, resulting in the slow development of cities and
population who enjoyed those political rights (the
the second serfdom among the peasants.[13] The Comszlachta) was a substantially larger percentage than
monwealth was called Nobles Paradise, sometimes
in any other European country, and the nobles exthe Jewish Paradise, but also Purgatory for the Townstended from powerful princes to poor knights poorer
folk (Burghers) and Hell for the Peasants.[14] And even
than many peasants; note that in 1831 in France only
among the nobility (szlachta), the Golden Liberty beabout 1% of the population had the right to vote, and
came abused and twisted by the most powerful of them
in 1832 in the United Kingdom, only about 14% of
(magnates).[12][15] However, one should note that this the
Male adults;
Jewish Paradise, but also Purgatory for the Townsfolk and
elective monarchy, since the monarch, elected by the Hell for the Peasants was retrospectively coined in the
20th century by Jewish-German novelist Alfred Dblin,
szlachta, was Head of State;
not by the people of that time, and it should be evaluated
constitutional monarchy, since the monarch was whether this really reects the fact of the age. In fact it
bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and the is also true that a number of Russian peasants ed from
[16]
szlachta could disobey any kings decrees they their far more brutal lords to settle in liberal Poland,
which might stand out as example of counterevidence to
deemed illegal.
the Hell for the Peasants claim. But it might be seen as
hell for non prosperous native Polish peasants stuck in its
gutter for centuries.

Assessment

In its extreme the Golden Liberty has been criticized as

being responsible for civil wars and invasions, national
weakness, irresolution, and poverty of spirit.[17] Failing to evolve into the "modern" system of an absolutist
and national monarchy, the Commonwealth suered a
gradual decline down to the brink of anarchy, through
liberum veto[15] and other abuses of the system. With
the majority of the szlachta believing that they lived in
the perfect state, too few questioned the Golden Liberty
and the Sarmatism philosophy, until it was too late.[18]
With the szlachta refusing to pay taxes for a larger and
modern army, and magnates bribed by foreign powers
paralyzing the Commonwealth political system,[19][20] the
Commonwealth was unable to keep up with its increasingly militarized and ecient (through bureaucratization)
neighbors,[21] becoming a tempting target for foreign aggression. It was eventually partitioned and annexed by
stronger absolutist neighboring countries in the late-18thcentury partitions of Poland.[8][22]

The Golden Liberty was a unique and controversial feature of Polands political system. It was an exception,
characterized by a strong aristocracy and a feeble king, in
an age when absolutism was developing in the principal
countries of Europe an exception, however, characterized by a striking similarity to certain modern values.[3]
At a time when most European countries were headed toward centralization, absolute monarchy and religious and
dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with
decentralization,[2] confederation and federation, democracy, religious tolerance and even pacism. Since the
Sejm usually vetoed a monarchs plans for war, this constitutes a notable argument for the democratic peace theory.[4] This system was a precursor of the modern concepts of broader democracy[5] and constitutional monarchy[6][7][8] as well as federation.[2] The szlachta citizens
of the Commonwealth praised the right of resistance, the
social contract, the liberty of the individual, the principle of government by consent, the value of self-reliance
all widespread concepts found in the modern, liberal democracies.[3] Just as liberal democrats of the 19th 3 Similar systems
and 20th century, the Polish noblemen were concerned
about the power of the state.[9] The Polish noblemen were Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its
strongly opposed to the very concept of the authoritarian time, although somewhat similar political systems exstate.[10]
isted in other contemporary states, like the Republic

3
of Venice.[23] (interestingly both states were styled the
Most Serene Republic.[24] )
A similar fate was averted by Italy; rst due to a secular inability of the kings of France and Spain, and the
Papacy, to come to terms on how to divide the country,
then through the reaction against Habsburg domination
which, as late as 1861, nally aligned most of the countrys states in support of a national monarchy under King
Victor Emmanuel II of the House of Savoy, hitherto king
of Sardinia.

[5] Maciej Janowski, Polish Liberal Thought, Central European University Press, 2001, ISBN 963-9241-18-0,
Google Print: p3, p12
[6] Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics 17631848, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 019-820654-2, Google print p84
[7] Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region
of Former Soviet Dominance, Duke University Press,
1997, ISBN 0-8223-1802-4, Google Print, p34

Notably, neither the Republic of Venice nor Italy had a

liberum veto among their institutions.

[8] George Sanford, Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989, Palgrave, 2002, ISBN 0333-77475-2, Google print p. 11 constitutional monarchy, p.3 anarchy

[9] Norman Davies, Gods Playground: A History of Poland

in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN
0-19-925339-0, Google Print, p.283

Proverb

The rights and privileges of the Polish(-Lithuanian) nobility became proverbial. A popular Polish saying avers:
Szlachcic na zagrodzie rwny wojewodzie
literally,
The noble on his estate is equal to the
voivode"

[10] Jerzy Szacki, Liberalism After Communism, Central European University, 1995, ISBN 1-85866-016-5, Press
Google Print, p. 46
[11] Norman Davies, Gods Playground: A History of Poland
in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN
0-19-925339-0, p.282
[12] Helmut Georg Koenigsberger, Monarchies, States Generals and Parliaments, Cambridge University Press, 2001,
ISBN 0-521-80330-6, Google Print, p.336

In Poland to these days it means that there is no man that [13] The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis, discussion and full online text of Evsey Domar (1970) The
a freeman (a better, philosophical meaning of szlachcic)
Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis, Economic
would think of as a superior.
History Review 30:1 (March), pp1832

See also
Executionist movement
History of democracy

6
[1]

References
(a) Norman Davies, Gods Playground. A History of
Poland, Vol. 1: The Origins to 1795, Vol. 2: 1795
to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-925339-0 / ISBN 0-19-925340-4

[2] Aleksander Gella, Development of Class Structure in Eastern Europe: Poland and Her Southern Neighbors, SUNY
Press, 1998, ISBN 0-88706-833-2, Google Print, p13
[3] Norman Davies, Gods Playground: A History of Poland
in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN
0-19-925339-0, p.262
[4] Frost, Robert I. The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in northeastern Europe, 15581721. Harlow, England;
New York: Longmans. 2000. Especially pp911, 114,
181, 323.

[14] Norman Davies, Gods Playground: A History of Poland

in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN
0-19-925339-0, Google Print, p.160
[15] Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki, A Concise History of
Poland, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-52185332-X, Google Print, p.88
[16] Nicholas Valentine Riasanovsky (2000). A History of
Russia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512179-1.
Google
[17] Philip Pajakowski, in Micha Bobrzyski (1849-1935),
Peter Brock, John D. Stanley, Piotr Wrbel (ed.), Nation
And History: Polish Historians from the Enlightenment to
the Second World War, University of Toronto Press, 2006,
ISBN 0-8020-9036-2, Google Print, p.150
[18] Norman Davies, Gods Playground: A History of Poland
in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN
0-19-925339-0, p.279]
[19] William Bullitt, The Great Globe Itself: A Preface to
World Aairs, Transaction Publishers, 2005, ISBN 14128-0490-6, Google Print, pp4243
[20] John Adams, The Political Writings of John Adams, Regnery Gateway, 2001, ISBN 0-89526-292-4, Google Print,
p.242

[21] Brian M. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political

Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early
Modern Europe, Princeton University Press, 1992, ISBN
0-691-02475-8, Google Print, p.144
[22] Martin Van Gelderen, Quentin Skinner, Republicanism: A
Shared European Heritage, Cambridge University Press,
2002, ISBN 0-521-80756-5 Google Print: p54
[23] Joanna Olkiewicz, Najaniejsza Republika Wenecka (Most
Serene Republic of Venice), Ksika i Wiedza, 1972,
Warszawa
[24] Joseph Conrad, Notes on Life and Letters: Notes on Life
and Letters, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0521-56163-9, Google Print, p422 (notes)

External links
Golden Freedom 16321648
Excerpts from the book The Polish Way by Adam
Zamojski
Monarchy becomes the First Republic: Kings
Elected for Life
The Inexorable Political Rise of the szlachta

EXTERNAL LINKS

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

Golden Liberty Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Liberty?oldid=671690563 Contributors: Leandrod, Michael Hardy, Gabbe,

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8.2

Images

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commons/7/75/Potega_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu_Zlota_wolnosc_Elekcja_1573.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Ewa
Suchodolska, Marek Wrede (1998). Jana Matejki Dzieje cywilizacji w Polsce. Zamek Krlewski w Warszawie. ISBN 83-7022-093-2
Original artist: Jan Matejko

8.3

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