AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT 2

BUSINESS AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
PRAVEEN.K
RAM GANESH.T
VIGNESH.K
VISWANATHAN.A
VIVEK.R

96409101047
96409101054
96409101073
96409101075
96409101076

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
PSN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

NOVEMBER 2012
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that the project report DESIGN PROJECT ON BUSINESS JET

FIGHTER AIRCRAFT, is the bonafide work of PRAVEEN.K, RAM
GANESH.T,VISWANATHAN.A,VIGNESH.K,VIVEK.R, who carried out the
project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

SUPERVISOR

Asst. prof. Mr.Suresh Kumar.M.E.,

Asst. prof. Ms.D.Shruthi.M.E.,

Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering

Dept. of Aeronautical engineering

PSN COLLEGE OF ENGG&TECH

PSN COLLEGE OF ENGG&TECH

Tirunelveli.

Tirunelveli.

Submitted for the B.E project work Viva Voce held at PSN College of
Engineering and Technology, Tirunelveli, on ..

INTERNAL EXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our deep and sincere thanks to chairman of our college
Dr.P. Suyambu, for giving us the inspiration and for making all the facilities
during the identification of this project.
our college for having provided the necessary infrastructure for the successful
completion of the project.
We are much greatful to Asst.Prof. Mr.Suresh Kumar, Head of the Aeronautical
Department for this encouraging decision, valuable comments and many
innovative ideas in this project. Without his help, it would have been impossible
for us to complete the report.
We acknowledge in no less terms the qualified and excellent assistance rendered by
Asst. Prof. Ms. Shruthi, Department of Aeronautical Engineering. We owe a debt
of gratitude for his valuable suggestion, kind inspiration and encouragement.
We most sincerely thank our staff members, for their constant inspiration and
suggestions.

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the project is to make the detailed design of the

BUSINESS AIRCRAFT which is preliminarily designed in Aircraft Design
Project-1.This aircraft will possess a low wing attachment, cylindrical fuselage
with cabin, tricycle landing gear arrangement and a T-tail arrangement. In
this project a detailed study of load and structural analysis of wing is made
including the Flight Envelope curves for Maneuver and Gust Loads. Layout
of fuselage along with cabin design is also designed. Design of landing gear
is made along with the amount of load that can be taken by the landing
gear. Critical loading performance analysis of the aircraft is studied and then
Shear Force & Bending Moment for the aircraft is calculated respectively and
diagrams are drawn. Finally a three view diagram of our aircraft is drafted using
Auto-Cad software with exact dimensions.

Thisproject is centered towards a design of efficient and safe business

jetaircraft.The objectiveof this project is to provide a new
manipulating the previous designs of various aircrafts.

better design by

INTRODUCTION
Design is a process of use age of creativity with the knowledge of science where
we try to get the best things available and to overcome the pitfalls the previous
design has. It is an iterative process to idealism towards which everyone is
marching still.
Design of any is system is successfully application of fundamental physics .Thus
the airplane design incorporates the fundamentals of aerodynamics,structures,
performance and stability & control and basic physics .These are based on certain
degree of judgment and experience . Every designer has the same technical details
but each design retains its own individuality and the mode of the designer.
Here the preliminary design has been done of an executive transport aircraft. The
basic requirements are the safe, comfortable and economic transport mode with
reasonable timeperiod of flight. Here comfort and safety are given primary
importance.
Here the most possible considerations have been taken .The flight parameters
limitations are studied. The modern day calls for the need of latest aircraft for the
use of passenger transport which aims mainly at improving the aerodynamic
characteristics as well as the passenger comfort. This design project also looks at
the above aspects in a lot more closer way. Also the design project has been
classified into different stages for easier approach and achieving better
performance. The different stages in our design will be as follows.
1 .Introduction to V-n diagram.
2 .V-n diagrams for our design study.
3. Gust and maneuverability envelops.
4 .Critical loading performance and final V-n graph calculation.
5. Structural design study.
6. Load estimate of fuselage.
7. Load estimation of wings.
8. Balancing and maneuvering loads and tail plane, aileron and rudder loads.
9. Details structures layouts.
10. Design of some components of wings and fuselage.
11. Preparation of a detailed design report with drawings.

TABLE OFCONTENTS
CHAPTER

TITLE

PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

iii

ABSTRACT

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF SYMBOLS
1.

STUDY OF V-n DIAGRAM

1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 LIMIT LOAD FACTOR
1.3 ULTIMATE LOAD FACTOR
1.4 VELOCITY LOAD FACTOR DIAGRAM
2.
GUST AND MANEUVER ENVELOPES
2.1 DETRMINATION OF +1g STALL SPEED
2.2 DESIGN CRUISE SPEED
2.3 DESIGN DIVING SPEED
2.4 DESIGN MANEUVERING SPEED
2.5 FOR GUST DIAGRAM
2.6 FOR GUST LINE MARK(VC)
2.7 FOR GUST LINE MARK(VD)
2.8 FOR GUST LINE MARK(VB)
3. AIRCRAFT LOADS
3.1 AIR LOADS
3.2 LANDING
3.3 INERTIA LOADS
3.4 POWER PLANT
3.5 TAKE OFF

xi

3.6 TAXI
3.7 MANEUVERING LOADS
3.8 GUST LOADS
3.9 AIR LOADS ON WING
4. LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS
4.1 CHORD LENGTH
4.2 AIR LOADS
4.3 TO FIND THE VALUE OF K
4.4 TO FIND LIFT LOAD INTENSITY
4.5 TO FIND THE STRUCTURAL LOAD
4.6 TO FIND THE RESULTANT LOAD
4.7 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM
4.8 BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
5.
WING STRUTURAL LAYOUT
5.1 SPECIFIC ROLES OF WING STRUCTURE
5.2 BASI FUNCTIONS OF WING STRUCTURAL
MEMBERS

5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6

6.

5.2.1 SPARS
5.2.2 SKIN
5.2.3 STRINGERS
5.2.4 RIBS
WING BOX CONFIGURATION
TYPES OF SPARS
RIBS
RIBS CONSTRUCTION AND

CONFIGURATION
5.7 RIB ALLIGNMENT POSSIBILITIES
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF WING
6.1 SPAR CALCULATIONS
6.2 SPAR LOCATIONS
6.3 BENDING MOMENT CALCULATIONS
6.4 BENDING MOMENT DISTRIBUION
6.5 TO DIMENSIONS FOR EACH SPAR
6.5.1 FRONT SPAR
6.5.2 MID SPAR
6.5.3 REAR SPAR
6.6 CALCULATION OF BENDING STRESS
6.7 SHEAR FLOW ANALYSIS ON WINGS

7.

BALANCING AND MANEUVERING LOADS ON

TAIL PLANE, AILERON AND RUDDER

7.1 HIGH LIFT SYSTEMS
7.2 FLAPS
7.3 SLOTS AND SLATS
7.4 DEFLECTED SLIPSTREAM AND JET WASH
7.5 LEADING EDGE DEVICES
7.6 WING TIPS
8.
FUSELAGE LAYOUT ANALYSIS
8.1 CALCULATION OF WEIGHT OF FUSELAGE
8.2

SPECIFICATION OF OUR FIGHTER

AIRCRAFT
9.

8.3SEAT DIMENSIONS
DESIGN OF SOME OF COMPONENTS IN
AIRCRAFT( LANDING GEAR)
9.1 DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR SELECTION
9.2 TYPES OF LANDING GEAR
9.3 ARRANGEMENTS OF LANDING GEAR
9.4 TYRE SIZING
9.5 PERFORMANCE PARAMETER
9.6 GEAR RETRACTION GEOMETRY
9.7 LANDING GEAR WEIGHT
9.8 LANDING GEAR DIMENSIONS
9.9 TO LOCATE THE LANDING GEAR
9.10 TO FIND THE CENTER OF GRAVITY
9.11 TO FIND THE LOAD ACTING ON THE

10.

LANDING GEAR
9.12 STICK DIAGRAM
CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE
10.1 FITTING AND CONNECTIONS
10.2 BOLTS AND RIVETS
10.3 SECONDARY IN FITTING DESIGN
10.4 GENERAL RULES
10.5 JOGGLED MEMBERS
10.6 PROTRUDING HEAD
10.7 FLUSH HEAD

10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
11.

LIST OF SYMBOLS

SHEAR CLIPS
AIRCRAFT NUTS
FAILURE BY INTER RIVET BUCKLING
RIVET WRINKLING
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS
TO DETERMINE THE WEIGHT OF THE WING
DETERMINATION OF SHEAR FORCE AND

BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

THREE VIEW DIAGRAM OF AN AIRCRAFT

Load Factor

IAS

Indicated Air Speed

Density

Free Stream Velocity

Surface Area of the Wing

CL

Co-efficient of Lift

Weight of the Aircraft

CLmax

Maximum Co-efficient of Lift

CNmax

Maximum Yawing Co-efficient

Mach Number

VS

+1g Stall Speed

VA

Design Maneuvering Speed

VC

Design Cruise Speed

VD

Design Diving Speed

WFDWG

Flight Design Gross Weight

Load Factor

CLmax

Maximum Lift Co-efficient

Kg

Gust Elevation

Altitude of an Aircraft

AOA

Angle Of Attack

Acceleration due to gravity

Span of the wing

WS,W

Structural Weight of the wing

y0

Root Chord

Cx

Chord at each Point

Lift Load Intensity

Lift

Weight

FOS

Factor Of Safety

Bending Moment

Area

Moment Of Inertia

x ,y

Centroid

Shear Flow

ds

Sectional Length

QS-O

Corrected Shear Flow

LF

Length of the Fuselage

DF

Diameter of the Fuselage

LFC

Length of the Fuselage Cone

FC

Angle of the Fuselage Cone

25% Mean Aerodynamic Chord Swept angle

SF

Wetted Surface Area of the Fuselage

WF

Weight of the Fuselage

WW

Weight of the Landing Gear

WTO

Take-Off Weight

C.G

Center of Gravity

Load

lm,ln

Length of Landing Gear distance

Reaction Force

Shear Force

CHAPTER-1
STUDY OF V-n DIAGRAM

1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Airplanes may be subjected to a variety of loading conditions in flight.The
structural design of the aircraft involves the estimation of the various loads on the
aircraft structure and designing the airframe to carry all these loads,providing
enough safety factors, considering the fact that the aircraft under design is a fighter
aircraft.It is obviously impossible to investigate every loading condition that the
aircraft may encounter, it becomes necessary to select a few conditions such that
each one of these conditions will be critical for some structural member of the
airplane.
Using the V-n diagram to important load factor values can be plotted which
are

1.2 LIMIT LOAD FACTOR:

Value of load factor corresponding to which there is permanent structural
deformation.

1.3 ULTIMATE LOAD FACTOR:

Value of load factor corresponding to which there is out right structural
damage/failure.

1.4 VELOCITY - LOAD FACTOR (V-n) DIAGRAM:

The various external loads on the airplane are usually represented on a graphof the
limited load factor and plotted against the indicated air speed (IAS).

FIGURE-1
This diagram is known better as the V-n diagram. The indicated air speed
used since all air loads are proportional to q. The value of q is the same density for
air and actual air speed at altitude, as it is for the standard sea level density and
IAS.
Then V-n diagram is therefore the same for all altitudes of indicated air
speeds are used. However in this design case, corrections involving compressibility
have to be taken in to consideration while calculating the time true air speeds from
indicated air speeds. Therefore calculations involving high speeds have been
performed with respect to sea level conditions only
n = V2SCL/ W

The load factor is basically the ratio of wing lift produced to the weight of
the aircraft and Hence, represents the amount of acceleration produced along Z
axis of the plane for fighter aircraft. The ultimate positive load factor ranges from
3.1 to 4.4 and negative load factor between -1.25 and -2.3. The positive and
negative load factors are arbitrarily chosen as 3.1 and -1.25 respectively.
For level flight an unit load factor the value of V corresponding to
CL

max

would be the stability speed of the airplane. In accelerated flight the

maximum lift coefficient can be achieved at higher speeds. The wing is usually
analyzed for a coefficient of 1.25 C L maxand various values of n are obtained by
varying the velocity, until the ultimate positive load factor is reached. It can be
made out from this boundary that it is impossible to maneuver at speeds and load
factors corresponding to points above or to the left of line because this would
represent positive high angle of attack (+HAA). This load factor is usually arrived
at by considering both aerodynamics and structural design capabilities.
In a similar manner, the maneuver boundary can be carried to the negative
load factor region which is indicative of inverted flight. The negative maneuver
boundary is seldom made use of in transport aircraft. However the gust load in the
negative region are indispensable and can be more severe than the maneuver load
factor itself.
Thus, In order to establish the safe flight envelope of the aircraft we have
plotted as per FAR-25 norms

RESULT:
Thus the V-n diagram has been studied successfully.

CHAPTER 2
CALCULATION OF V-n DIAGRAM FOR THE DESIGNED AIRCRAFT
2.1DESCRIPTION
The V-n diagram is very much useful for determining the structural and load
limitations of an aircraft. It is used to find at what velocity the aircraft can travel
without any structural damage. It also tells the maximum loading of aircraft which
it can withstand without any damage. It also tells us about the maximum possible
lift without any failure or damage.
2.2FORMULAS
For positive load factor [n (+)],
Velocity (V) = 2n (w/s)/CL
For negative load factor [n (-)],
Velocity (V) = 2n (w/s)/CL*0.75
2.3CALCULATION
Wing loading = W/S N/m2
Wing loading (W/s) = 258.9 N/m2
= 1.225kg/m2
CL = 0.434
V = 2 (3.8)*258.9/1.225*0.434 = 60.83 m/s
V = 2 (3)*258.9/1.225*0.434 =54.25 m/s
V = 2 (2)*258.9/1.225*0.434 = 44.13 m/s
V = 2 (1)*258.9/1.225*0.434 = 31.20 m/s
V = 2 (0)*258.9/1.225*0.434 = 0 m/s
V = -2 (1)*258.9/1.225*0.434 = -4.335 m/s
V = -2 (1.5)*258.9/1.225*0.434 =- 3.75 m/s

2.4TABULATION:
N

V
m/s

+3.8

60.83

+3

54.25

+2

44.13

+1

31.20

-1

4.335

-1.5

3.75

RESULT
Thus the Vn diagram is drawn for our designed aircraft.

CHAPTER 3
GUST AND MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPE
DESCRRIPTION:
In aerodynamics, the flight envelope, service envelope, or performance
envelope of an aircraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms
of airspeed and load factor or altitude. The term is somewhat loosely applied, and
can also refer to other measurements such as maneuverability. When a plane is
pushed, for instance by diving it at high speeds, it is said to be flown "outside the
envelope", something considered rather dangerous.
FORMULAS:
Positive stall velocity
VS (+) =2 (W/S)/CL max
Negative stall velocity
VS (-) =2 (W/S)/CL max*0.75
Critical Velocity
VCR = Vs (+) +100
Dive Velocity
VD=1.5Vcr
Gust velocity with constant
Ude (stall) =20xVs
Ude (critical) =15xVcr
Ude (D) =7.5xVD
Velocity of gust
U=Kde
Where,
K- Gust effectiveness
-mass ratio

n=VCLU/2(W/S)
Where,
n-change in load factor
U-velocity of gust
TABULATION:
Sl.No.

V (m/s)

Ude

U(m/s)=
K Ude

1+n

1-n

Vs=31.2
0

624

517.116

11.51

12.51

-10.51

Vcr=131.
20

1968

1630.88

152.71

153.71

-151.71

VD=196.
8

1476

1223.16

171.80

172.80

-170.80

RESULT
Thus the gust and maneuvering envelope for Vn diagram is drawn.

CHAPTER 4
CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE
4.1 FITTING AND CONNECTIONS:
Shock absorber analysis
Fuselage bending stress analysis
Various failures
Airworthiness requirements

4.2 BOLTS AND RIVETS:

The connection involves primary and secondary connection such as
fittings, bolts, rivets, welding etc. No tough that main or primary fitting involves
more weight and costs than any other aerospace structure.

4.3 SECONDARY IN FITTING DESIGN:

In a wing structure fitting involving in main load carrying structure is
move costly to design as well as to manufacture for economy at fabrication the
structural designed should have a fabrication the structural designed should have a
good knowledge of shop processes and operations .

4.4 GENERAL RULES:

4.4.1USAGE OF BOLTS
Bolts thread should not be placed in or shear the length of the bolts
should be such that not more than one thread external fitting surface which can be
done by washer.
Bolts less than 3/8 inch dia should not be used in major fittings.
For steel bolts 3/10 inch should be small size to be used.

Bolts connecting parts having relative motion or stress reversal should have
closed tolerance to decrease shock loads.

Protruding head level of rivet.

The flush type rivet.

For many years round head rivet was, all sections but wind tunnel
experiment. It was that these produce more drag so rivet head are changed to flush
type which produce lesser drag.

4.5 JOGGLED MEMBERS:

A joggle is an offset formed in a member it usually involves one or more
flanges of a member of open cross section type joggles are quite common in
typical airplane structured they are used most often when it is desired to fasten to
gather two intersecting members without using an extra part at joint there will be
slight loss in stiffness of joggled member.

4.6 PROTRUDING HEAD:

FIGURE-17

4.7 FLUSH HEAD:

4.8 SHEAR CLIPS:

There are hundreds of these in a typical military airplane they are used
for joining together both primary and secondary structural components such as
equipments mounting brackets etc. The function of shear clip is to transfer shear
load from one part to another .It is not intended to transfer axial load or bending or
twist.
Fillers are used to fill up a void when they become a part of the structural
path that they held particular attention quite common in complicated metal
structure.

4.9 AIRCRAFT NUTS:

Three standard steel nuts shown in figure nut material is more ductile than bolt
material, thus when the nut is tightened the threads will deflect to seat on the bold
thread. The nut is probably the most common aircraft nut.

FIGURE-19
The shear nut is one half as thick the cast head nut and has threads only
enough to develop one half bolds tensile stress.

4.10 FAILURE BY INTERRIVET BUCKLING:

The effective sheet area is considered to act monolithically with
stiffness. However if the rivets are spot welded that fasten the rivet to the stiffener
are spaced to far apart sheet will buckle before the crippling stress of the stringers
is placed. In order to prevent this sort of buckling rivet spacing has to be selected
on the upper surface of the wing. Rivet spacing is closer than on the lower surface
because the compressive loads act on the top of the wing.

4.11RIVET WRINKLING:
The rivet spacing is relatively large the sheet will start buckling belt rivets this
buckling belt rivets this buckling does not deform in flange to which the sheet is
attached. The rivet spacing is such that prevent the inter-rivet buckling then the
failure of the sheets occurs by wrinkling. It is also known as forced wrinkling it is
also known as forced wrinkling of the riveted pads.

4.12 AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS:

Airworthiness of an aircraft is concerned with the standards of safety incorporated
in all aspects of its construction. These range from structural strength to the
provision of certain guards in the event of crash landing and include design
requirements related to aerodynamics, performance and electrical hydraulic
systems. The selection of minimum standards of safety is largely the concern of air
worthiness authorities who prepare handbooks of official requirements. In UK the
relevant publications are AVP970 for military aircraft and British civil air
worthiness requirements of civil aircraft. The handbooks include operation
requirements, minimum safety requirements recommended practices and design
data.
Clearly airworthiness implies a certain level of safety like saying that
the ship is sea worthy and it takes little fore thought to release that there must be
some yardstick against which air worthiness can be assessed. We might start with a
general, all embracing design requirements. An airplane shall be designed and built
to fly safely. Unfortunately we cannot then dust our hands and get on with the job,

believing that in one swipe we have got rid of government and other official
interference and struck below for freedom.
To be awarded a certificate of air worthiness an aircraft must be
demonstrated to be air worthy. Air worthiness can be defined as the contribution
made by the aircraft itself to be safety of the flight when the pilot has been
removed from the man machine loop. It is concerned with those aspects of design,
construction maintenance and the provision of all related limitations and essential
information which together determine fitness for flight, thus aircraft of
Airworthiness is awarded to an aircraft and its equipment, although under certain

circumstances the award may also be conditional upon the aircraft being operated
under the control of certain named persons or perhaps just one individual.

RESULT
Thus the critical loading performance has been studied successfully.

CHAPTER 5
STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY
5.1 WING DESIGN
The front of the airfoil is defined by a leading-edge radius that is tangent to the
upper and lower surfaces. an airfoil designed to operate in supersonic will have a
sharp or nearly- sharp leading edge to prevent a drag producing bow shock.
the chord of the airfoil is the straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
it is very difficult to build a perfectly sharp trailing edge, so most airfoils have a
blunt trailing edge with some small finite thickness.
camber refers to the curvature characteristic of most airfoils. the mean camber
line is the line equidistant from the upper and lower surface. total airfoil camber is
defined as the maximum distance of the mean camber line from the chord line,
expressed as a percent of the chord.
the thickness distribution of the airfoil is the distance form the upper surface to the
lower surface, measured perpendicular to the mean camber line, and is function of
the distance from the leading edge. the airfoil thickness ratio refers to the
maximum thickness of the airfoil divided by its chord.
5.2 FUSELAGE:
once the takeoff gross weight has been estimated, the fuselage, the wing. and tail
can be sized. many methods exist to initially estimate the required fuselage size.
for certain types of aircraft, the fuselage size is determined strictly by real world
constraints. for example, a large passenger aircraft devotes most of its length to

the passenger compartment. once the number of passengers is known and the
number of seats across is selected, the fuselage length and diameter are essentially
determined.
5.3 WING:
actual wing size can now be determined simply as the take off weight divided by
takeoff wing loading. remember that this the reference area of the 35

THEORETICAL, TRAPEZOIDAL WING, AND INCLUDES THE AREA

EXTENDING INTO THE AIRCRAFT CENTER LINE.
5.4 TAIL VOLUME CO-EFFICIENT:
For the initial layout, the historical approach is used for the estimation of the
tail size. The effectiveness of a tail in generating a moment about the centre of
gravity is proportional to the force produced by the tail and to the tail moment arm.
The primary purpose of the tail is to counter the moments produced by the wing

5.5ENGINE SELECTION
t/w directly affects the performance of the aircraft. an aircraft with a higher t/w will
accelerate more quickly, climb more rapidly, reach higher maximum speed, and
sustain higher turn rates. on the other hand, the larger engines will consume more
fuel throughout mission, which will drive up the aircrafts take-off gross weight to
perform the design mission.
t/w is not a constant. the weight of the aircraft varies during flight as fuel is burned.
also, the engines thrust varies with altitude and velocity (as does the horsepower
and propeller efficiency).
t/wto ratio for jet transport aircraft is 0.4
overall weight of aircraft wto = 8125 kg
5.6 THRUST CALCULATION OF T/W RATIO
(T/WTO) = 0.4
where
(t/w)to = thrust to weight ratio at take off
t = 0.4 * wto
t = 0.4 * 8125
t = 3250 kg = 31.87 kn
since the thrust produced by the aircraft engine decreases with altitude due to
decreasing air density, thus:- 41

tcruise = 0.25 tto

thrust required = 31.87 k n for entire aircraft.
hence the thrust per engine is = 31.87/2
= 15.93 kn
from the literature survey the nearest value of the thrust of an aircraft is Learjet 35a
the characteristics of the selected engine of the aircraft is,
thrust per engine=16 KN
number of engine = 2
type of engine = Garrett tfe731-2-2b turbofan engine
total thrust = 32 KN
Therefore, the engines selected are two Garrett tfe731-2-2b turbofan engines which
is nearer to the required thrust per engine.
5.7 LOCATION OF ENGINE:
All civilian aircraft are required by law to possess multiple engines so that in case
of failure of any one engine the aircraft can continue to fly on the other engine. The
position to locate the engines for Business Jet Aircraft is on the rear fuselage to
reduce noise and due to low wing configuration. The mounting of the engines on
the rear fuselage leads to the fuselage requiring to be strengthened.

RESULT
Thus the structural design study of our aircraft has been studied.

CHAPTER 6
LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE
6.1 CALCULATION OF WEIGHT OF FUSELAGE:
FOR OUR FIGHTER AIRCRAFT,
Length of the fuselage
LF=AWOC
Constant values are,
A=0.286
C=0.43
LF=0.286(8125)0.43
LF=13.77m

For
our
aircraft,
LF/DF=9
DF=2m
LFC/DF=6.885
LFC=7m

FC

=11o

For business aircraft, There will be 2 inches breadth thickness frames.

The view of the pilot will be 15o from the pilot seat.
The Head Up display will displayed on 45otop of the pilot seat.
WFUSELAGE=0.328 KDOOR KLG[WOn2]0.5 LF0.5SF0.302[1+KWS]0.5[L/D]0.01
For business aircraft,
KDOOR=1.08
KLG=1
KWS=0.96[Wingspan * 3.28] tan ^/2
^ =55.23o
n2=1.5*nlimpos
^ = 25% meanaerodynamic chord swept angle.
W0=Overall weight
SF=Fuselage wetted surface
Sub all this values in the WF&Kws
KWS= 5.21275
WFUSELAGE=883 kg

HUD DISPLAY(Angle= 450)

PILOT VIEW (Angle= 150)

FIGURE-11

6.2 SPECIFICATION OF OUR FIGHTER AIRCRAFT:

The seat dimensions and locations can be designed.

The
The aircraft pilot should have the front view at the 15
The aircraft have the HUD at the 45 above the top view.
The fuselage will have the sharp edge at the leading edge of the

fuselage to produce or move with high speeds.

The fuselage will have the low fuselage cone angle because of shirter
length compared to the transport aircraft.
The seat will be fixed with some fitted angle to eject seat at the
dangerous condition.
The fuselage will have buried engine.
The fuselage will have the canopy above the pilot seat.

6.3 SEAT DIMENSIONS:

FIGURE-12

RESULT:
Thus the Fuselage Layout analysis have been done successfully

CHAPTER-7
LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS

7.1 CHORD LENGTH:

aB/4 =Planform area/2
a=Span of wing/2
a=14.995/2
a=7.45 m
Sub this value in the above equation
*7.45*B/4=14.995/2
B=1.281 m
x2/a2+y2/b2=1
y=b2(1 x2/a2)
Span=14.9 m is divided in to 20 equal parts.
For the taper wing for the business aircraft
Root chord=2.87 m
Tip chord=1.14 m
Varying the x value and find the value of chord length y where,
a=7.45 m
b=1.281 m
Structural weight of our one Wing ,WS,W= WTO/2=8125/2
WS,W=4062.5 kg.
Air load at Root=WS/2*y0/Area of Schrenks curve
Area of Schrenks curve= 20 Strip Area
Area of the Rectangle=bh
Area=11.175 m2
Air load at Root={(8125/2)*2.87}/11.175
Air load at Root=1043.34 kg
Air load at nth Point= Load at Root*yn/y0

Air load at nth Point=363.53*y

TABLE-1

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

GRAPH-3

7.2 AIR LOADS:

At Point 1

at x=0 m

Air load=6938.7 kg

At Point 2

at x=0.375 m

Air load=6927.75 kg

At Point 3

at x=0.75m

Air load=6900.786 kg

At Point 4

at x= 1.125 m

Air load=6857.42 kg

At Point 5

at x= 1.226 m

Air load=6792.46 kg

At Point 6

at x= 1.875 m

Air load=6711.109 kg

At Point 7

at x= 2.25 m

Air load=6613.66 kg

At Point 8

at x= 2.625 m

Air load=6489.09 kg

At Point 9

at x= 3 m

Air load=6348.29 kg

At Point 10 at x= 3.375 m

Air load=6191.09 kg

At Point 11 at x= 3.75m

Air load=5996.07 kg

At Point 12 at x=4.125 m

Air load=5774.04 kg

At Point 13 at x=4.5 m

Air load=5537.04 kg

At Point 14 at x= 4.875 m

Air load=5243.31 kg

At Point 15 at x=5.25 m

Air load=4923.705kg

At Point 16 at x= 5.25 m

Air load=4544.5 kg

At Point 17 at x=6 m

Air load=4111.208 kg

At Point 18 at x= 6.375 m

Air load=3591.19 kg

At Point 19 at x= 6.75m

Air load=2935.74 kg

At Point 20 at x=7.125 m

Air load=0 kg

7.3 TO FIND THE VALUE OF K:

WS,W=k CX2 dx
k - Constant
CX - Chord at each point
CX =a+bx
At x=0

CX =a= CR =2.87 m

At x=7.45

CX = CT

Substitute this value in equation

0=7.45+bx
WS,W=0.1*WTO/2
WS,W= 406.25kg for one side of the Wing.
406.25=kCX2 dx
Integrating this equation,
406.25=k CX2 b
The values of b and CX are known. CX vary with different points.
The value of b is 7.45 m
k=406.25/CX2b
k = 12.83

TABLE-2

7.4 TO FIND LIFT LOAD INTENSITY:

Lift on each element=Air load at grid point*Distance between grid point

7.5 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM:

900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0

10

12

GRAPH-7
SHEAR FORCE = WX2/2L

= (267.47 * 14.9^2)/(2*14.9)
= 1992.65 N

7.6 BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM:

BENDING MOMENT = WX3/6L

= 9896.83 N/m
RESULT:
Thus the load estimation on wings have been done successfully.

CHAPTER-8
BALANCING AND MANEUVERING LOADS ON TAIL PLANE,
AILERON AND RUDDER
8.1 HIGH LIFT SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION:
A wing designed for efficient high-speed flight is often quite different from
onedesigned solely for take-off and landing. Take-off and landing distances are
strongly influencedby aircraft stalling speed, with lower stall speeds requiring
lower acceleration or deceleration andcorrespondingly shorter field lengths. It is
always possible to reduce stall speed by increasingwing area, but it is not desirable
to cruise with hundreds of square feet of extra wing area (andthe associated weight
and drag), area that is only needed for a few minutes. Since the stallingspeed is
related to wing parameters. It is also possible to reduce stalling speed by
reducingweight, increasing air density, or increasing wing C Lmax . The latter
parameter is the mostinteresting. One can design a wing airfoil that compromises
cruise efficiency to obtain a goodC Lmax, but it is usually more efficient to include
movable leading and/or trailing edges so thatone may obtain good high speed
performance while achieving a high CLmax at take-off andlanding. The primary goal
of a high lift system is a high CLmax. However, it may also bedesirable to maintain
low drag at take-off, or high drag on approach. It is also necessary to dothis with a
system that has low weight and high reliability.This is generally achieved
byincorporating some form of trailing edge flap and perhaps a leading edge device
such as a slat.

8.2 FLAPS:
Wing flaps can be found on virtually every modern airplane. The effect of
adding flapsto the trailing edge of the wing is equivalent to increasing the camber
of the wing. Some flapdesigns also increase the chord length of the wing. This
increases the area of the wing so thatmore air is diverted, thus reducing the angle
of attack needed for lift. There are many types offlaps. In the 1930s and 1940s the
split flap, shown in Figure was introduced and was one of thefirst types of flap to
appear in production airplanes. Splitting the last 20 percent or so of the wingforms
this type of flap. The top surface of the wing does not move while the bottom
surfacelowers. The split flap is effective in improving the lift, but it creates a great
deal of form drag, asshown in the figure. The split flap was used on the DC-3. It
was also used on WWII-era divebombers. Because it helped increase lift at low
speeds and slowed the airplane during the dive.
Multi slotted flaps are seen on many modern passenger jets, while large
airplanes usesingle-slotted flaps. Until the 1990s airplane performance was the
key design criterion. Airplanecompanies were proud of sophisticated triple-slotted
flap systems. During the 1990s a shifttoward reducing cost as a key design
criterion has pushed airplane companies to maximize theperformance of singleslotted flaps. One technique that is used is to place vortex generators onthe leading
edge of the single slotted flap. When the flap is retracted, the vortex generators on
theflap are hidden in the wing. Thus, the vortex generators do not penalize the
airplane in cruise butare available for takeoff and landing. The next times you fly a
commercial airplane ask for awindow seat behind the wing. During the approach
and landing phase of the flight, watch thewing unfold. It is truly remarkable how
the wing evolves into a high-lift wing from its normalcruise configuration.

FIGURE-6

8.3 SLOTS AND SLATS:

Leading edge devices like flaps, are sometimes used to increase the
camber of thewing and increase the stall angle of attack. But the details are
somewhat different. Other times,The purpose of the leading edge devices is much
like that of the slot in a slotted flap. Thesedevices allow the high-energy air from
below the wing to flow to the upper surface of the wing.This energizes the
boundary layer. Thus, the wing stalls at a higher angle of attack and themaximum
lift is increased. The simplest leading edge device is the fixed slot shown in
Figure.This is a permanent slot near the leading edge of the wing.

FIGURE-7

8.4 DEFLECTED SLIPSTREAM AND JET WASH:

One way to increase lift at slow flight speeds is to divert the propellers
slipstream or thejet engines exhaust down. To achieve a substantial lift increase
with a slipstream, the plane musthave engines mounted on the wings with large
propellers that generate a slipstream over asubstantial portion of the wing. The
wing must also have a multislotted flap system to deflect theslipstream effectively.
This technique has not found significant commercial applications. Theexhaust of a
turbofan-powered airplane can be diverted down to produce additional lift at
lowspeeds. One way to produce the diversion is to have the flaps extend down into
the exhaust whenfully extended. One problem with this technique is that the flap
extension into the jet exhaustexposed it to very high temperatures, creating a
significant design challenge. Another way todivert the jet exhaust is to mount the
engines on the top of the wing with the engine exhaustcrossing the top of the wing
as in Figure. Flaps behind the engines use the Coanda effect todivert the exhaust
down when extended. This gives a substantial increase in lift for takeoff
andlanding.

Modern
high lift systems are often quite complex with many elements and multibarlinkages. Here is a double-slotted flap system as used on a DC-8. For some time
Douglas resistedthe temptation to use tracks and resorted to such elaborate 4-bar
linkages. The idea was that thesewould be more reliable. In practice, it seems both
schemes are very reliable. Current practice hasbeen to simplify the flap system and
double (or even single) slotted systems are often preferred.
Slats operate rather differently from flaps in that they have little effect on the
lift at a given angleof attack. Rather, they extend the range of angles over which
the flow remains attached. This isshown in fig

8.5 LEADING EDGE DEVICES:

Leading edge devices such as nose flaps, Kruger flaps, and slats reduce the
pressurepeak near the nose by changing the nose camber. Slots and slats permit a
new boundary layer tostart on the main wing portion, eliminating the detrimental
effect of the initial adverse gradient.

8.6 WING TIPS:

Wing tips shape has two effects upon subsonic aerodynamic performance.
The tipshape affects the aircraft wetted area, but only to a small extent. A far more
important effect isthe influence the tip shape has upon the lateral spacing of the tip
vortices. This is largelydetermined by the ease with which the higher-pressure air
on the bottom of the wing can escape around the tip to the bottom of the wing. A
smoothly-rounded tip easily permits the air to flow around the tip. A tip with
asharp edge makes it more difficult, thus reducing the induced drag. Most of the
new low-dragwing tips use some form of sharp edge. In fact, even a simple cut-off

tip offers less drag than arounded-off tip, due to the sharp edges where the upper
and lower surfaces end.
The mostly widely used low-drag wing tip is the Hoerner wingtip. This is a
sharpedgedwing tip with a upper surface continuing the upper surface of the wing.
The lower surfaces undercut and canted approximately 30 deg to the horizontal.
The lower surface may also beunder cambered
The drooped and upswept wing tips are similar to the Hoerner wingtip
except thatthe tip is curved upward or downward to increase the effective span
without increasing the actualspan.

RESULT:
Thus the balancing and maneuvering loads on tail plane, aileron and
rudder was studied.

CHAPTER-9
STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
9.1 SPECIFIC ROLES OF WING (MAIN PLANE) STRUCTURE:
The Specified Structural roles of the wing or main plane are,
To transmit the wing lift to the root via the main span wise
beam.
Inertial loads from the power plants undercarriage etc to the
main beam.

 Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surface

and the flaps to the main beam.
To React against,
Landing loads at the attachment points.
Loads from pylons/stores.
Wing drag and trust loads.
To provide
Fuel tankage space.
Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero elastic
requirements.
To fulfill these specific roles of wing layout will conventionally

compromise.
Span wise members (known as spars or booms).
Chord wise members (ribs).
Covering skin.
Stringers.

9.2 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF WING STRUCTURAL MEMBERS:

The structural functions of each of these types of members may
be considered independently as

FIGUR
E-4

9.2.1 SPARS:

Form the main span wise beam.

Transmit bending and torsional loads.
Provide a closed cell structure.
Provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads.

In particular,
Webs-resist shear and torsional loads helps to stabilize the skin.
Flanges-resist the compressive loads caused by wing loading.

9.2.2 SKIN:

9.2.3 STRINGERS:

To form impermeable aerodynamic surface.

Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs and stringers.
Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
React axial bending loads (with stringers).

 Increase skin panel buckling strength by diving in to the

smaller length section.
React axial bending loads.

9.2.4 RIBS:
Maintain the aerodynamic shape.
Act along with the skin to resist the distributed
aerodynamic pressure loads.
Distribute concentrated loads in to the structure and
redistribute stress around any discontinuities.
Increase the column buckling strength by the stringers
through the skin.
Increase the skin panel buckling strength by the stringers
through the skin.

9.3 WING BOX CONFIGURATION:

Several basic configurations are in use nowadays
Mass beam concept.
Box beam (distributed flange) concept built up or integral
construction.
Multi spar.
Single spar D-nose wing layout.

FIGURE-5

9.3.1 MASS BEAM LAYOUT:

In this design, all of the span wise bending loads are reacted
against by substantial booms or flanges reacted against by unsingle spar D-nose
configuration is sometimes used on very lightly loaded structures. The outer skin
only react against the shear loads. They form a closed cell structure between the
spars. These skins need to be stabilized against buckling due to the applied shear
loads. This is done using ribs and a small number of span wise stringers.

9.3.2 BOX BEAM OR DISTRIBUTED FLANGE LAYOUT:

This method is more suitable for aircraft wings with medium to

high load intensities and differs from the mass boom concept in that the upper and
lower skins also contribute to the span wise bending resistance.
Another difference is that the concept incorporates span wise
stringers (usually Z section) to support highly stressed skin panel area. The
resultant use of a large number of end load carrying members improves the over aii
structural damage tolerance.
Design difficulties include,
Inter reaction between the ribs and stringers. So that the each
rib either has to pass below the stringers or the load path must be broken. Some
examples of common design solutions are shown in figure.
Many joints are present leading to high structural weight,
assembly times, complexity, costs and stress concentration areas.
The concept desired above is commonly known as built up
construction method. This was initially developed for metal wings to overcome the
inherent drawbacks of separately assembled skin-stringer built up construction and
is very popular now a day. The concept is simple in the skin stringer panel are
manufactured singly from large billets of metal.
9.4ADVANTAGES OF THE INTEGRAL CONSTRUCTION METHOD
OVER TRADITIONAL BUILT UP METHOD INCLUDE
Simpler construction and assembly.
Reduce overall assembly time/costs.
Improved possibilities to use optimized panel tapering.
Disadvantages include
Reduce damage tolerance, so that planks are used.
Difficult to use on large aircraft panels.

9.5 TYPES OF SPARS:

In the case of two or three spar box beam layout, the front spar
should be located as far forward as possible to maximize the wing box size.
Adequate wing depth for reacting vertical shear loads.
Adequate nose space for LE device deicing equipment
etc
This generally results in the front spar being located at 12% to
18% of the chord length. For a single spar D-nose layout the spar will usually
located at the maximum thickness position of the airfoil section. For the standard
beam layout the rear spar will be located as for as possible.
This is usually in a location between about 55% and 70% of the
chord length. If any intermediate spars are used they would tend to be spaced
uniformly. Unless there are specific pick up point requirements.

9.6 RIBS:
For a typical two spar layout, the ribs are usually forms in three
parts from sheet metal by the use of presses and dies. Flanges are incorporated
around the edges, so that they can be riveted to the skin and the spar webs cut outs
are necessary around the edges to allow for the stringers to pass through the
lightening holes are usually out in to the rib bodies to reduce the rib weight and
also allow the passage for control runs fuel election act.

9.7 RIB CONSTRUCTION AND CONFIGURATION:

The rib should be ideally spaced to ensure adequate overall
buckling support to spar flanges. In reality however their positioning is also

influenced by facilitating attachment points for control surfaces, flaps, slats, spoiler
hinges, power plants, stores, undercarriage attachment etc
Positions of fuel tank ends, requiring closing ribs.
A structural need to avoid local shear or compressive
buckling.

9.8 RIB ALIGNMENT POSSIBILITIES:

There are several different possibilities regarding to
alignment of the ribs on swept wing aircraft.
It is a hybrid design n which one or more inner ribs are
aligned with bthe main axis while the remainder is
aligned perpendicularly to the rear spar.
It is usually the preferred option but presents several
structural problems in the root design.
Gives good torsional stiffened characteristics but results
in heavy ribs and complex connection.

RESULT:
Thus the study of using structural layout have been done successfully.

CHAPTER-10
DESIGN OF SOME OF COMPONENTS IN AIRCRAFT
10.1 TYRE SIZING:

Nearly 90% of the load is carried by the main landing gear.

Only of 10% of aircraft is carried by nose wheel. But it experience
dynamic loads.
Nose wheel size could be 60-100% of size of main wheel.
But in the bicycle and quarter cycle configuration the size is same.

10.2 PERFORMANCE PARAMETER:

 Operating a tyre at the lower internal pressure will greatly improve the tyre
life.
Largest tyre cause drag, weights the space occupied etc.

10.3 GEAR RETRACTION GEOMETRY:

In The Wing
Wing-Podded
In The Fuselage
Fuselage Podded
Wing/Fuselage Junction
In The Nacelle

FIGURE-14

10.4 LANDING GEAR WEIGHT:

WTO=8125 kg.
WWm=0.8*WTO/ns
WWn=0.2* WTO
Sub this value in the WWm&WWnFormula,
WWm= 3250 kg.
WWn=1625 kg.

10.5 LANDING GEAR DIMENSIONS:

Diameter = AWWB
Width = AWWB
The constant values for MAIN LANDING GEAR,
A=1.63
B=0.315
The constant values for NOSE LANDING GEAR,
A=0.1043
B=0.480
Sub this values in the Diameter & Width Formula,
The constant values for MAIN LANDING GEAR,
Diameter = 20.81 cm
Width = 5.058 cm

The constant values for NOSE LANDING GEAR,

Diameter = 16.73cm
Width= 3.62cm

10.6 TO LOCATE THE LANDING GEAR:

There are two methods followed to locate the landing gear system,
TIP OVER CRITERIA
Longitudinal Tip Over Criteria
Lateral Tip Over Criteria
GROUND CLEARANCE CRITERIA
Longitudinal Ground Clearance Criteria
Lateral Ground Clearance Criteria
The Landing Gear arrangement is Tricycle Landing Gear.

10.7 TO FIND THE CENTER OF GRAVITY:

FIGURE-15
C.G= 0.45*17
C.G=7.65 m
Fwd C.G=0.2*17

Fwd C.G=3.4 m
Aft C.G=0.45*17
Aft C.G=11.9 m
Height of the aircraft= 3.45 m

10.8 TO FIND THE LOAD ACTING ON THE LANDING GEAR:

lm=3.45 tan15o
lm=0.92m
Pm=WTO*ln/ns(lm+ln)
Pm=WTO*lm/(lm+ln)
WTO=18500 kg
Sub this values in the Pm&PnFormula
Pm=4625 kg
Pn=9250 kg

10.9 STICK DIAGRAM:

FIGURE-16
The Nose landing gear retracted in Front direction.
The Main landing gear retracted in Rear direction.

RESULT
Thus the design of some component in aircrafts have been done successfully
THREE VIEW DIAGRAM