Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants Sec-6

Section 6
Section 6:
6.1
Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants
6 -1
Introduction
In the design of many sewage treatment plants, the hydraulics have frequently
been given scant regard. This often leads to severe operational difficulties such
as component units overflowing under peak conditions and component units
not coping if some are out of service for maintenance purposes.
The efficient operation of sewage treatment plants requires an understanding
of the hydraulic aspects of the various flow processes occurring.
Treatment plants utilise unit operations and unit processes to achieve the
desired degree of purification. In unit operations, the treatment or removal of
contaminants is brought about by physical forces. On the other hand, in unit
processes, the treatment occurs through chemical and biological reactions.
This chapter does not provide full details on the design and operation of a
sewage treatment plant. Such details may be found in other texts.
This chapter is concerned with the hydraulic design of sewage treatment
plants. Although this is often seen as a challenging exercise, the hydraulic
principles involved in individual units are normally reasonably basic. The
challenge lies in understanding how individual units interact hydraulically
with each other.
Broadly, the aims of this chapter are two-fold:
1) To identify the hydraulic principles associated with various unit operations
and processes.
2) To understand how knowledge of the hydraulics leads to improved system
design.
The following section presents a discussion of the hydraulic aspects in broad
outline. In later sections, the hydraulics of individual unit operations and
processes are studied and the interaction among the various units is studied.
Finally, the concept of the complete hydraulic profile is considered in some
detail.
6.2
Broad Concepts
For each unit process and unit operation, the hydraulic calculations will
require the application of one or more of the fundamental concepts, developed
in Chapter 1 of this Manual. A typical example is shown in Figure 6.1 which
shows the unit process hydraulics for a clarifier.
Calculation of the water surface elevation difference between the effluent
manhole and the clarifier would require the use of the following principles:
Pressure flow equation and pipe fitting equation for determining the head
loss in the pipe between the manhole and the clarifier.
2000 Assoc.Prof R.J.Keller
Manual of Practice
Hydraulics of Sewerage Systems
Section 6
6 -2
Side overflow weir equation for calculating the highest water surface
elevation in the effluent launder of the clarifier.
V-notch weir equation for calculating the head on the weir crest.
Moving further upstream from the clarifier, the engineer may need to consider
the head loss across the influent ports into the clarifier, and the head loss in the
influent pipe.
Figure 6.1:
Schematic of Hydraulics for a Typical Clarifier
For each unit process, the designer must understand how the sewage flows
through and what water depths are required for the process. Within each
process, various means are used to distribute flow, maintain a certain water
depth, and control the flow. Such means include weir gates, valves, weirs,
baffles, orifices, launders and under-drains. Each of these imposes a head loss
on the system and must be considered in the hydraulic calculations.
Each unit process, its respective flow devices, and interconnecting piping must
be carefully analysed. As a consequence, the water surface elevations can be
calculated and the structure elevations and pumping needs can be established.
This information can be summarised and presented in the form of the
hydraulic profile through the entire sewage treatment plant.
In carrying out the unit process hydraulic calculations, the designer should
consider the need to control and equally distribute the flow into multiple tanks
or within a single tank. Wherever possible, static devices - such as distribution
boxes, channels, weirs, and header pipes - are better suited than dynamic
devices. The latter include modulating ports, gates, and valves. Each requires a
control system which has inherent disadvantages of potential failure and high
maintenance.
Each unit process has particular hydraulic characteristics that should be
addressed. In the following sections, some of the major issues for
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -3
consideration in the unit processes of sewage treatment plants are discussed.

The final section deals with the development of the hydraulic profile.
6.3
Principles of Sedimentation
6.3.1
Preliminary
Sedimentation is the separation of suspended particles, heavier than the

wastewater, by gravity. It is one of the most widely used unit operations in
sewage treatment plants.
In primary treatment, sedimentation is the main unit process and is used for
grit removal and removal of other particulate matter. It is responsible for
removing 50-70% of suspended solids. The removed suspended solids contain
between 25 and 40% of the BOD.
Following biological (secondary) treatment, sedimentation is used to remove
the biological floc in the activated sludge settling basin and for solids
concentration in sludge thickeners.
In most cases, the purpose of secondary sedimentation is to produce a clarified
effluent which may be directly discjarged into inland waterways. Where it is
used for solids concentration, the aim is to produce a sludge which can be
easily handled and treated.
An understanding of the principles of sedimentation is necessary for the
effective design of sedimentation tanks. Within such tanks, three processes
may take place as follows:
Sedimentation, defined as the removal of particles by settling under gravity.
Clarification, which is similar to sedimentation but refers specifically to the
removal of suspended matter to give a clarified effluent.
Thickening, in which settled impurities are concentrated and compacted on the
floor of the tank and in the sludge collecting hoppers.
In this section, the different classes of sedimentation are identified. The
hydraulics involved in each is then discussed and outline analyses presented.
In later sections of this chapter, the use of these concepts in design is
discussed.
6.3.2
Classes of Sedimentation
Sedimentation is classified according to the nature of the particles to be

removed and their concentration. Individual particles may be discrete, such as
sand and grit; or flocculent, such as organic materials and biological solids.
Particle concentrations may vary from very low, through moderate, to high
concentrations in which adjacent particles are in contact. Commonly, four
classes are identified and these are summarised in Table 6.1.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -4
Sedimentation Class
Description
Class 1
Sedimentation of
particles in suspension of
low solids concentration.
Particles settle
individually without
interaction with
neighboring particles.
Removal of grit and

sand particles from
sewage.
Dilute suspension of
particles which flocculate
during the sedimentation
operation. Flocculation
causes the particles to
increase in mass and
settle at a faster rate.
Removes some
suspended solids in
primary settling units
and in upper parts of
secondary units.
Removes chemical
flocculent in settling
tanks.
In suspensions of
intermediate
concentration, interparticle forces hinder the
settling of neighboring
particles. The mass of
particles tends to settle as
a unit with individual
particles remaining in
fixed positions with
respect to each other. A
solids-liquid interface
develops at the top of the
settling mass.
Process often occurs in

secondary settling units
used in conjunction
with biological
treatment facilities
The concentration of
particles is so high that a
structure is formed.
Further sedimentation can
only occur through
compaction of the
structure. Compaction
takes place through the
weight of the particles
which is continuously
increased by
sedimentation from the
over-lying liquid.
Usually occurs within

the lower layers of a
sludge mass. It occurs
at the bottom of deep
secondary settling units.
It is particularly
important in activatedsludge final settling
tanks where the
activated sludge must
be thickened for
recycling to the aeration
tanks.
(Discrete particle
settling)
Class 2
(Flocculent settling)
Class 3
(Hindered settling and
zone settling)
Class 4
(Compression
Settling)
Table 6.1:
Application
Classes of Sedimentation Phenomena
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6.3.3
6 -5
Class 1 Sedimentation
Because the particles are considered to settle independently of neighboring

particles, Class 1 sedimentation can be analysed with reference to a single
particle.
The terminal velocity of a discrete particle settling in a fluid is reached when
the drag force, associated with the motion of the particle, is equal to the
submerged weight of the particle.
For a particle of diameter d, density , falling at a terminal velocity vp, in a
fluid of density f, the submerged weight, W, is given by:
W = f g
d 3
6
(6.1)
The drag force on the particle is given by:

FD = CD
d 2 1 2
v p
4 2
(6.2)
The equilibrium condition is reached when W is equal to FD ie:
d 3
d 2 1 2
( f ) g 6 = CD 4 2 vp
(6.3)
Re-arrangement of Equation (6.3) yields:

vp =
4 gd f
3 CD
(6.4)
The drag coefficient, CD, is not constant but varies with Reynolds Number and
particle shape. Furthermore, the particle diameter and density are usually not
known and the particles are irregular in shape. This means that Equation (6.4)
cannot normally be used in practice.
Despite this, Equation (6.4) does show that the terminal velocity, vp, is
dependent on particle and fluid properties and this is of value in understanding
sedimentation behaviour. Furthermore, it is known that the terminal velocity in
practice is reached very quickly. Consequently, for non-flocculent particles
and uniform fluid flow, the settling velocity is effectively constant throughout
the settling time.
In the following, this concept is applied to settling in an ideal sedimentation
tank. It is shown that this leads to identification of an important design
parameter, the surface loading rate.
Three common types of sedimentation tank are shown schematically in Figure
6.2. These are classified as (a) Rectangular Horizontal Flow Tanks, (b)
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -6
Circular Radial Flow Tanks, and (c) Upflow Tanks. In each, four zones may
be identified as follows:
Inlet Zone:
In which momentum is dissipated.
Settling Zone: In which quiescent settling occurs as the water flows towards
the outlet.
Outlet Zone: In which the flow converges upwards to the decanting weirs or
launders.
Sludge Zone: In which settled material collects and is removed by sludge
hoppers.
Figure 6.2:
Schematics of Different Types of Settling Tank
Considering first the rectangular horizontal flow tank of Figure 6.2, it is

evident that the critical particle for design purposes is that which enters the
tank at point A and settles at the end of the tank at point B. This particle
moves through the tank with a horizontal velocity component of Vh and a
vertical component of Vp (the terminal velocity).
Noting that the effective length and height of the tank are respectively L and
H, the time required for the particle to settle is given by:
t=
H
L
=
Vp Vh
(6.5)
Q
, where B is the width of the tank. Substitution into Equation
BH
(6.5) yields:
Now, Vh =
Vp =
Q
BL
It is clear that BL is equal to the tank surface area, A, so that:
Manual of Practice
(6.6)
Section 6
Vp =
Q
A
6 -7
(6.7)
Equation (6.7) states that the slowest moving particles which could be
expected to be completely removed in an ideal sedimentation tank would have
a settling velocity of Q/A. This parameter is called the surface loading rate or
overflow rate and is a fundamental parameter governing sedimentation tank
performance.
A similar analysis may be developed for the circular radial flow tank as
follows:
With reference to Figure 6.2, the detention time is given by:
t=
Now, Vr =
H
=
Vp
R2
R1
dr
Vr
(6.8)
Q
and substitution into Equation (6.8) yields:
2rH
t=
2H
Q
R2
rdr
(6.9)
( R22 R12 )H
(6.10)
R1
Evaluation of the integral leads to:
t=
Now, R22 R12
is equal to the surface area, A. Substituting into Equation
(6.10), and noting that t =
H
from Equation (6.8):
Vp
Vp =
Q
A
(6.11)
which is identical to Equation (6.7).

Considering now the upflow tank of Figure 6.2, it is clear that the minimum
upflow velocity, Vu, is equal to Q/A. The limiting case for particle removal
occurs when Vu=Vp, from which:
Vp =
Q
A
(6.12)
which is identical to Equations (6.7) and (6.12).

Ideally then, all particles with a settling velocity greater than Q/A will be
completely removed from the fluid. Additionally, however, it is evident that
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -8
for tanks type (a) and (b), particles with lower settling velocities of vp/n will be
removed in the proportion 1/n. It should be noted, however, that in an upflow
tank of type (c), no particles with settling velocities less than Q/A can be
removed.
6.3.4
Under quiescent conditions, suspended particles exhibit a natural tendency to

flocculate. The settling characteristics of flocculating sediments are different
from those of Class 1 sediments because the various sized particles settle at
different rates. As larger, faster-settling particles overtake slower settling
particles, they may collide and flocculate, forming larger aggregates with an
increased settling velocity. Thus, the typical path followed by such flocculant
particles is curved. The situation is shown schematically in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3:
Effect of Tank Depth on Removal of Class 1 and Class 2

Particles
It is an important requirement of sedimentation tanks for flocculent

suspensions that sufficient depth is available to provide the opportunity for
particle aggregation to occur. This becomes clear through an examination of
Figure 6.3, which compares the behaviour of Class 1 and Class 2
sedimentation if the tank depth is reduced.
For the tank shown with a depth of H, path ACB represents the settling path
for a critical Class 1 sediment, and path ADB that for a flocculent particle. For
the latter, the instantaneous settling velocity is the tangent to the curve.
Now, consider the effect of reducing the depth of the tank to H/2. The forward
velocity will be doubled and the total time of travel through the tank will be
halved. The settling path followed by the critical Class 1 sediment will now be
AX1, while that of the Class 2 sediment will be AY1.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -9
Thus, it can be seen that the critical Class 1 sediment will stil just reach the
bottom of the settling zone. The Class 2 sediment, however, will not have
reached the tank floor and will be drawn off in the tank effluent.
It is evident that the minimum average settling velocity for particles to be
removed is the surface loading rate. However, by comparison with Class 1
sedimentation, removal of Class 2 sediments depends on the depth or
detention time provided, in addition to the surface loading rate.
Now, the detention time, t, is given by:
t=
Tank volume
Q
(6.13)
BLH
H
=
Q
Q
A
(6.14)
Then, for a rectangular tank:

t=
Equation (6.14) demonstrates that if any two of the three parameters detention
time, depth, and surface loading rate are given, the third is fixed.
Ideally, the effects of depth and detention time on solids concentration is
obtained by examining representative samples obtained at various depths.
These are not usually available, especially for new schemes, and use is made
of standard values.
Class 2 sedimentation removes a portion of the suspended solids in untreated
sewage in primary clarifiers, suspended solids in the upper portions of
secondary clarifiers, and the chemical floc in settling tanks.
6.3.5
Class 3 sedimentation is associated with an increased concentration of

particles in the suspension. A condition is eventually reached where the
particles are so close together that the velocity fields of the fluid displaced by
adjacent particles overlap. Additionally, there is a net upward flow of liquid
displaced by the settling particles, resulting in a reduced particle settling
velocity. For this reason, Class 3 sedimentation is frequently called hindered
settling.
Most commonly, hindered settling occurs in the extreme case where the very
high particle concentration causes the whole suspension to settle as a blanket.
Under these conditions, several distinct zones may be observed, separated by
concentration discontinuities, and this leads to the descriptive term of zone
settling.
Figure 6.4 shows a typical batch settling column test on an activated sludge.
The slope of the settling curve represents the settling velocity of the interface
between the suspension and the clarified liquid.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -10
Class 3 sedimentation frequently occurs in secondary settling clarifiers used in

conjunction with biological treatment facilities. In designing such clarifiers,
the major design parameter is the surface loading parameter because, if the
surface loading parameter is greater than the zone settling velocity, solids will
be carried out by the effluent.
Design applications for clarifiers where Class 3 sedimentation may occur are
considered in a later section.
Figure 6.4:
6.3.6
Suspension Exhibiting Hindered Settling Behaviour
Class 4 sedimentation is characterised by particle concentrations which are so

high that adjacent particles are actually in contact with each other.
Consequently, a structure is formed and further settling can only occur through
compression of the structure.
Compression takes place through a continuous increase in the weight of
overlying particles. These are constantly added to the structure by
sedimentation from the supernatant liquid. Under the increased load, the void
spaces in the structure are gradually diminished and water is squeezed out of
the matrix.
Class 4 sedimentation usually occurs in the lower layers of a deep sludge
mass, for example in the bottom of deep secondary settling facilities, and in
sludge thickening facilities. It is particularly important in activated sludge final
settling tanks where the activated sludge must be thickened for recycling to the
aeration tanks.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6.4
6 -11
Hydraulics of Screens
6.4.1
Preliminary
Screening of sewage is one of the oldest treatment processes. The purpose of

screens is to remove gross pollutants from the sewage stream to protect
downstream operations and equipment from damage. For this reason, it is
normally the first unit operation used at sewage treatment plants.
Screens are classified as primary screens, secondary screens, and
microstrainers. In this section, each type of screen is defined and its role
discussed. The hydraulic aspects are then presented. Hydraulic design
equations are then developed and their use in practice illustrated by examples.
6.4.2
Primary Screens
Primary screens are typically located at the inlet to sewage treatment plants
and also at the inlet to pumping stations. They are designed to remove coarse
debris such as rags, solids, and sticks which could cause damage by fouling
pump impellers or interfering with downstream performance in sewage
treatment plants.
Primary screens are normally classified as coarse with openings of 50-150 mm
or medium with openings 20-50 mm. Fine screens are typically secondary
screens and are considered later.
There are several factors that need to be taken into account in screen design.
These include the strength of the screen material and its resistance to
corrosion, the clear screen area, the maximum flow velocity through the screen
to prevent dislodging of screenings, the minimum velocity in the approach
channel to prevent sedimentation of suspended matter, and the head loss
through the screen.
The analysis of a primary screen involves the determination of the head loss
across it. The head loss is primarily a function of the flow velocity and the
screen openings, but may also be dependent on bar size, bar spacing, and the
angle of the screen from the vertical. Several equations have been developed,
but only those most widely used are considered herein.
Figure 6.5:
Schematic of Sloping Bar Screen
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -12
Figure 6.5 shows a schematic of a sloping bar screen. Application of

Bernoullis equation yields:
v12
vsc2
h1 +
= h2 +
+ losses
2g
2g
where h1
(6.15)
is the upstream depth of flow
h2
is the downstream depth of flow
is the acceleration due to gravity
v1
is the upstream velocity
vsc
is the velocity through the screen
For a clean or partially blocked screen, the losses are usually incorporated into
a coefficient and Equation (6.15) is expressed as:
losses = h = h1 h2 =
where Cd
1
vsc2 v12
2
2 gCd
(6.16)
is a discharge coefficient with a typical value of 0.84.
Alternatively, an orifice equation may be applied in the form:

1
v2
Q
h = sc 2 =
2 gCd
2 g Cd A
where Q
(6.17)
is the flow rate

is the effective open area of the submerged screen
It should be noted that the discharge coefficient in Equation (6.17) is different

from that in Equation (6.16). In the latter equation, the value of Cd is
dependent on screen design parameters and is supplied by the screen
manufacturer or by experimentation.
If the screens are to be manually cleaned, the effective open area should be
taken as 50 % of the actual open area, representing the half-clogged condition.
The head loss should be estimated under conditions of maximum flow.
If the bar screen is clean, Kirschmers equation may be used for estimating the
head loss as follows:
h =
where
1.33
hv sin
is a bar shape factor, as given in Table 6.2
Manual of Practice
(6.18)
Section 6
is the total transverse width of the screen
is the total transverse clear spacing between bars
hv
is the upstream velocity head =
is the angle of the bars to the horizontal
6 -13
v12
2g
Bar Type
Sharp-edged rectangular
2.42
Rectangular with semicircular upstream face
1.83
Circular
1.79
Rectangular with
downstream face
semicircular
upstream
Tear shape
and
1.67
0.76
Table 6.2:
Bar Shape Factor for Kirshmers Equation
It should be noted that Kirshmers equation is a general form of the standard

head loss equation:
h = K
where v
K
v2
2g
(6.19)
is identified as v1
W
is given by K =
b
1.33
sin
It should be noted that the expressions developed above are of use in

determining the minimum energy losses through screens , but are of little
value in determining the energy loss once material begins to accumulate
behind the screen.
Design should take into account the maximum increase in head loss likely to
occur under the conditions of maximum flow rate and minimum cleaning
frequency. It is especially important with manually raked screens that
sufficient freeboard is provided in the upstream channel to avoid the danger of
overtopping at high flows.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -14
Example 6.1
A mechanically cleaned wastewater bar screen is constructed using 6.5 mm

wide bars with a clear spacing of 5.0 cm. The wastewater flow velocity in the
channel immediately upstream of the screen will vary from 0.4 m/sec to 0.9
m/sec.
Determine the design head loss for the screen at the two extremes of flow.
(Assume that the discharge coefficient has a value of 0.84.)
Solution:
Head Loss =
1
vsc2 v12
2 gCd2
If v1 is given, vsc can be calculated, knowing the screen geometry.

Continuity:
v1h1w1 = vsc h1wsc ( clear )
w1
wsc ( clear )
bar spacing + bar width

bar spacing
50 + 6.5
50
= 1.13
vsc = 1.13v1
h =
1
2x9.81x( 0.84)
x 113
. 2 v12 v12
= 0.02v12
v1 = 0.4 m/sec
h = 3.2 mm
v1 = 0.9 m/sec
h = 16.2 mm
Primary screens may be manually cleaned or mechanically raked. Manually

cleaned screens are only fitted in small treatment plants, typically servicing a
population equivalent (PE) of less than 5,000. Mechanically raked screens are
recommended for all plants servicing a PE greater than 2,000.
Figure 6.6 shows a schematic of a manually raked screen. The maximum clear
spacing between bars is typically set at 25 mm, although American practice
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -15
permits spacings up to 50 mm. To facilitate cleaning, the bars are normally set
at 30 450 from the vertical.
The screenings are manually raked on to a perforated plate where they drain,
prior to removal. Cleaning must be frequent to avoid clogging. Infrequent
cleaning may result in significant upstream backwater caused by he buildup of
solids. When cleaning is carried out, the sudden release of the ponded water
leads to flow surges.
Figure 6.6:
Schematic of Manually Raked Screen
A schematic of a mechanically raked bar screen is shown in Figure 6.7.

Typically, the maximum clear spacing between bars is 25 mm, although
American practice permits spacings up to 38 mm. A spacing of 18 mm is
considered satisfactory for the protection of downstream equipment.
Figure 6.7:
Schematic of Mechanically Raked Bar Screen
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -16
Mechanically raked screens are normally set at between 0 and 450 from the
vertical. The use of such screens leads to reduced labour costs, improved flow
conditions, and improved capture of screenings. A large number of proprietary
screens with mechanical rakes are available. Manufacturers will normally
provide design charts to facilitate selection of the correct screen size for a
particular service.
Figure 6.8 shows a schematic of another type of screen a drum screen.
Screenings naturally fall from the screen as it rotates above the hopper. A
water spray assists in removing screenings.
Figure 6.8:
Schematic of Drum Screen
The velocity in the approach channel is normally kept between about 0.3
m/sec and 1 m/sec. The lower limit is designed to prevent the settling of coarse
matter while the upper limit is designed to prevent the screens being carried
away by the flow.
An example illustrating the design technique for a screen and screen chamber
is presented in Example 6.2.
Example 6.2
Design a screen and screen chamber and determine its hydraulic

characteristics for a loading of 10,000 PE. All material larger than 12 mm is to
be screened out. The screen is a bar screen with rectangular bars of 5 mm
transverse dimension.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -17
Note: At the peak design flow, the velocity through the screen should be 0.9
m/sec
The water level downstream of the screen is controlled by a
downstream long-throated flume which gives a depth of 400 mm at the peak
design flow and 175 mm at ADWF.
In particular, a.)
Determine head loss across screen
b.)
Determine screen chamber width
c.)
Check velocities
d.)
If the screen is 50 % blocked, calculate the head loss

across it.
Solution:
Estimate loads
ADWF = 225l/day/PE
Peak flow factor = 4.7 (PE)-0.11
(PE in thousands)
Load = 10,000 PE
SDWF
= 2.25Ml/day
= 26l/sec
= 4.7 10-0.11
Peak flow factor
= 3.65
Peak flow
= 3.65 26
= 95l/sec
Bar spacing
= 12mm (will screen out all larger material)
Bar thickness = 5mm
Manual of Practice
Section 6
If screen velocity is 0.9m/sec for peak flow, calculate v1

v 1 = v sc
= 0.9
bar spacing
bar spacing bar width
12
17
= 0.64m/sec
a.)
Determine head loss
h2 =
1
2
2
2 ( v sc v1 )
2 gCd
1
( 0.9 2 0.64 2 )
2 9.81 0.84 2
= 0.029m
Depth upstream of screen
= 400(mm) + 0.029(m)
= 429mm
b.)
Determine screen chamber width.
From continuity, required clear screen width ( Wsc ( clear ) ) is

Q = h1 Wsc ( clear ) v sc
Wsc ( clear ) =
0.095
0.429 0.9
= 0.246m
Required screen chamber width
= 0.246
17
12
= 0.349m or 350mm
(CHECK against approach velocity)

Manual of Practice
6 -18
Section 6
v1 =
6 -19
Q
0.095
=
W h1 0.349 0.429
=0.64m/sec
c.)
Check velocities
ADWF = 0.026m3/sec
Associated h2=175mm
v2 =
0.026
0175
. 0.349
= 0.426m / sec
Now, because the flow is lower, we would expect a reduced head loss as well.
The upstream depth will be less than 0.175 + 0.029 < 0.204m
v1 >
0.026
= 0.365m / sec
0.204 0.349
>0.3m/sec
O.K.
Note: We could calculate v1 exactly, but the above argument removes the
need to do so.
d.)
Head loss with screen half blocked
Energy equation:
h1 +
v2
v12
= h2 + 2 + hL
2g
2g
For peak flow Q = 0.095m3/sec

h2 = 0.4m
hL =
v1 =
1
2
2 9.81 ( 0.84)
(v
2
sc
v12 )
Q
0.095
0.766
=
=
h1 0.35 h1 0124
h1
.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -20
Substitute for v1 , h2 , v 2 , v sc in energy equation

h1 +
( 0.271) 2
19.6h12
h1 +
= 0.4 +
( 0.679) 2
19.6
1
0.766 2 0.2712
19.6 0.84 2
h12
h12
0.00375
0.4235 = 0
h12
Solve by trial
h1 = 0.539 m
Head loss
= 539 400
= 139mm
v sc =
Q
0.095
=
0124
. h1 0124
.
0.539
=1.42m/sec
v1 =
6.4.3
0.271 0.271
=
= 0.503m / sec
0.539
h1
Secondary Screens
Secondary screens have smaller openings than primary screens and are
installed following pumping and ahead of the grit chamber. Their purpose is to
remove material such as paper, plastic, cloth, and other particles which may
affect the treatment process downstream; and to minimise blockages in sludge
handling and treatment facilities.
Secondary screens are analysed in the same way as primary screens. The only
difference is in the maximum clear spacing of bars. This is typically around 12
mm, although openings as small as 6 mm have been used in practice.
6.4.4
Microstrainers
Microstrainers have been used to further reduce suspended solids in effluent

from secondary clarifiers following biological treatment. They typically
comprise very fine fabric or screen wound around a drum. They are typically
about 75 % submerged and rotate with wastewater flowing from inside to
outside.
Microstrainer openings are typically from 20 60 m. They are successful at
removing suspended solids, but not bacteria.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -21
The main hydraulic aspect is the determination of the head loss, which is
analysed semi-empirically. It is observed that the head loss is directly
proportional to flow rate, degree of clogging, and time; and inversely
proportional to the surface area of the strainer. These observations lead to:
dh
Q
=k h
dt
A
where k
(6.20)
is a characteristic loss coefficient.
Integration of Equation (6.20) leads to:

h = h0 e
Q
t
A
(6.21)
is the head loss across the clean strainer.
where h0
The United States Environmental Protection Agency surveyed a number of

microstrainers treating secondary effluent with solids concentrations in the
range of 6 65 mg/L and found average removals of between 43 and 85 %.
Typical design parameters are presented in Table 6.3.
Property
Typical Value
Screen Mesh
20 25 m
Submergence
75 % of height
Hydraulic Loading
12 24 m3/m2/h
Head Loss
7.5 15 cm
Maximum Head Loss
30 45 cm
Peripheral Drum Speed
4.5 m/min at head loss of 7.5 cm

40 45 m/min at head loss of 15 cm
Typical Drum Diameter
Table 6.3:
6.5
3m
Typical Microstrainer Design Parameters
Hydraulics of Grit Chambers

6.5.1
Preliminary
Within sewage treatment plants, grit - comprising sand, egg shells, coffee
grounds and other non-putrescible material may cause severe problems in
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -22
pumps, sludge digestion facilities, and de-watering facilities. In addition, it

may settle out in downstream pipes and processes.
The grit removal process is carried out at an early stage of treatment because
the grit particles cannot be broken down by biological processes and the
particles are abrasive and wear down the equipment. Because the grit material
is non-putrescible, it requires no further treatment following removal from the
sewage treatment process and ultimate disposal.
It should be noted, however, that the location of grit chambers upstream of the
sewage pumps at the entrance to the sewage treatment plant, would normally
involve placing them at a considerable depth involving substantial expense. It
is, therefor, usually more economical to pump the sewage, including the grit,
to grit chambers located at a convenient position upstream of the treatment
plant units. It is recognised that the pumps may require greater maintenance as
a result.
Grit chambers are designed to remove inorganic solids of size greater than
about 2 mm. Removal is commonly effected using settlement, separation using
a vortex, or settlement in the presence of aeration. (In the latter process,
aeration keeps the lighter organic particles in suspension.) There are important
hydraulic principles associated with each of these three processes.
In this section, the choice of grit removal process is first discussed. The three
main types of grit chamber are then described and the hydraulic aspects of the
operation of each are described qualitatively and, where appropriate,
quantitatively. Design aspects are also discussed.
6.5.2
Choice of Grit Removal Process
The choice of grit removal process depends largely on the size of the sewage
treatment plant. For a PE less than 5,000, a horizontal flow (constant velocity)
settling chamber is commonly used.
For medium-sized treatment plants, handling a PE of between 5,000 and
10,000, a vortex type grit chamber is commonly used. For plants handling a
PE greater than 10,000, the aerated grit chamber is often specified, although
the vortex type chamber may also be used.
Whichever type is used, it is vital that the unit must operate effectively over
the full range of expected flows.
Other non-hydraulic considerations include grit removal from the unit, which
may be manual or mechanical; handling, storage, and disposal of grit; and the
provision of standby or bypass facilities.
6.5.3
Horizontal Constant Velocity Grit Chamber
The horizontal flow grit chamber is basically an open channel with a detention
time sufficient to allow design particles to settle. Additionally, the velocity
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -23
must be sufficiently high that organic materials are scoured so that they pass
through the grit chamber for subsequent biological treatment.
The Camp-Shields equation is commonly used to estimate the scour velocity
required to re-suspend settled organic material. This equation is expressed as:
vs =
8kgd p
(6.22)
where vs
is the velocity of scour
is the particle diameter
is an empirical constant (typically 0.04 0.06)
is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (typically 0.02)
is the particle density
is the fluid density
Typically, this equation yields a required horizontal flow velocity of 0.15 0.3
m/sec. This compares well with the Malaysian design standard of 0.2 m/sec.
The primary hydraulic design issue for the horizontal flow grit chamber is the
maintenance of the constant velocity in the channel, despite large variations in
the flow rate, based on a typical diurnal flow pattern.
The problem is illustrated in the following.
Consider a rectangular channel with the flow passing over a rectangular weir.
The discharge relationship for the weir is:
Q = Cd B 2 gH
where Cd
(6.23)
is a discharge coefficient
is the channel width
is the channel depth
The derivation of Equation 6.23 is presented in Chapter 4.

Now, the horizontal velocity, vh, is related to the flow rate, Q, and channel
geometry by:
C B 2g H
Q
vh =
= d
BH
BH
Substituting for H
= Cd 2 g H
from Equation (6.23) yields:

Manual of Practice
(6.24)
Section 6
2g
Cd 2gB
vh = Cd
vh( max )
vh( min )
Q
= max
Qmin
6 -24
(6.25)
(6.26)
Now, a typical value for the ratio of maximum to minimum flow rates is about
5. Substitution of this ratio into Equation (6.26) yields a corresponding value
1
for the ratio of maximum to minimum velocities of 5 3 = 1.71. If 0.2 m/sec is

chosen for the value of vh(min), the corresponding value for vh(max) would be
0.342 m/sec, which would be unacceptably large. Accordingly, the shape of
either the channel or the weir must be modified to maintain a satisfactory
horizontal velocity.
Modification of Channel Shape:
The issue to be resolved is whether or not it is possible to develop a channel

shape such that the horizontal velocity remains constant for all flow rates. It is
assumed that the channel discharges into a rectangular control section, such as
a long-throated or Parshall flume. Such a device acts as a water level control
and a flow measurement device.
The analysis that follows is generally applicable to any rectangular crosssection. The analysis specifically makes use of the properties of a longthroated flume because it is widely used in practice and the analysis of the
flume has been previously presented in Chapter 4.
As shown by Equation (4.39), the flow through a long-throated flume may be
expressed in the form:
3
2 2
Q = g bc H1 2
3 3
where bc
H1
(6.27)
is the throat width

is the upstream head
Differentiation of Equation (6.27) yields:

dQ =
1
2
gbc H1 2 dH1
3
(6.28)
Now, within the channel, the horizontal velocity, vh, is given by:
vh =
Q
wH1
Manual of Practice
(6.29)
Section 6
6 -25
or:
Q = vh wH1
where w
(6.30)
is the channel width
Differentiation of Equation (6.30) yields the flow through an elemental

horizontal strip of width w in the channel in the form:
dQ = vh wdH1
(6.31)
Equating the right hand sides of Equations (6.28) and (6.31) yields:
1
2
gbc H1 2 dH1 = vh wdH1
3
(6.32)
Solution of Equation (6.32) for w yields:

w=
2 bc 12
g H1
3 vh
(6.33)
or, noting that vh is constant:

1
w = constant x H1 2
(6.34)
Equation (6.34) describes a parabola, indicating that a parabolic shape for the
channel cross-section will ensure a constant value of vh, regardless of flow
rate.
Design Aspects:
To reduce construction costs, the parabolic shape is normally approximated

with a trapezoid.
As a minimum, one channel and a bypass should be installed. When the
number of channels is determined, the maximum, average, and minimum
flows in an individual channel can be determined.
The system should be designed such that, when one channel is out of service,
its flow is diverted to the other channels. The resulting emergency flow for
each channel is based on the maximum flow into the set of grit chambers with
one out of service.
The four flows, Qemerg., Qmax, Qave., and Qmin., are used to design the shape and
length of the grit channel.
Other practical aspects are associated with the turbulence which occurs in the
inlet and outlet zones of the chamber. These zones are illustrated
schematically in Figure 6.9.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -26
Turbulence occurs in the inlet zone as the flow is established. A similar

phenomenon occurs in the outlet zone as the flow streamlines turn upwards.
To allow for this disturbance, a 25 50 % increase in the calculated settling
length is applied.
Typical design criteria for a channel-modified horizontal grit chamber are
presented in Table 6.4.
A schematic of a typical channel-modified horizontal grit chamber is
presented in Figure 6.10.
Design Parameter
Typical Values
Comments
Water depth (m)
0.6 1.5
Dependent on channel
area and flow rate
Length (m)
3 25
Function of channel
depth and grit settling
velocity
Extra for
outlet
inlet
and 25 50 %
Based
length
on
theoretical
Detention time at peak 15 90

flow (seconds)
Function of velocity
and channel length
Horizontal
(m/sec.)
0.2 m/sec is Malaysian

Standard
Table 6.4:
velocity 0.15 0.4
Typical Design Criteria for Channel-Modified Grit

Chamber
The design procedure for a channel-modified grit chamber is illustrated in

Example 6.3.
Example 6.3
Design a horizontal/constant velocity grit chamber for a hydraulic load of

2,000 PE. Consider only the ADWF and the peak flow.
Note: The water level within the chamber is controlled by a downstream
long-throated flume which gives a depth of 205 mm at the peak design flow
and 80 mm at ADWF.
Maximum horizontal velocity is 0.2 m/sec
Channel length > 18 x maximum water depth
Grit quantity is estimated as 0.03 m3/ML of wastewater
Grit collection channel to be cleaned out twice per week
Manual of Practice
Section 6
Figure 6.9:
Schematic of Settling Process in Grit Chamber
Solution
Average dry weather flow

= 225 2,000
= 0.45 ML/day
= 5.2l/sec
Peak flow factor
= 4.7 2 0.11
= 4.35
Peak flow
= 4.35 5.2
= 23 l/sec
Flow control gives depth of 205mm at peak flow

80mm at ADWF
(Consistent with long-throated flume of throat width 133mm)
Manual of Practice
6 -27
Section 6
6 -28
Calculate cross-sectional areas
ADWF:
Area =
0.0052
0.2
= 0.026m 2
Peak:
Area =
0.023
0.2
= 0115
. m2
Surface widths at each flow are now calculated
Refer to Equations (6.27) and (6.33).
2
Q=
3
gwt y
& w=
2 wt 12
y
g
3 vh
Transposing Eq. (6.33)

wv h
1
2
gy 2
3
wt =
Substitute in Eq. (6.27)

Q=
2
wyv h
3
Cross-sectional area
=
2
wy
3
At average dry weather flow

Surface width = A
3
2y
0.026 3
2 0.08
= 0.49 m
Manual of Practice
(6.27)
(6.33)
Section 6
At Peak Flow
Surface width =
0115
.
3
2 0.205
=0.84m
Length of chamber:
> 18 max. depth
> 18 0.205
Use 3.7m
Grit quantity:
Based on average DWF
Grit quantity = 0.45 0.03
= 0.014m3/day
At twice weekly cleanout, grit accumulation
= 0.014 ~ 4
= 0.056m 3
Required cross-sectional area of grit collection channel
=
0.056
3.7
= 0.015m 2
Use grit collection channel 150mm wide 110mm deep
(gives some margin)
Allow for freeboard (say, 200mm)
Parabolic section to be approximated by trapezoid
Manual of Practice
6 -29
Section 6
6 -30
Figure 6.10: Schematic of Channel-modified Horizontal Constant Velocity

Grit Chamber
Modification of Downstream Control Weir:
For a rectangular grit chamber, the flow rate is given by:

Q = vh By
where B
y
(6.35)
is the chamber width

is the flow depth in the chamber
The form of Equation (6.35) indicates that for vh to be constant, regardless of

flow rate, the flow rate should be linearly proportional to the depth, y. This
may be assured by using a downstream control weir characterised by a linear
relationship between flow rate and head on the weir crest.
Such a weir is the Sutro weir which is described and analysed in Chapter 4 of
this Manual. For details and a worked example, refer to Section 4.4.4 and
Example 4.5.
6.5.4
Vortex Grit Chamber
A schematic of a typical vortex grit chamber is shown in Figure 6.11.

With reference to this figure, grit-laden flow enters the unit tangentially at the
top. The resulting spiral flow pattern tends to lift the lighter organic particles
while the mechanically induced vortex captures grit at the centre. The grit is
then removed by air-lift or through a hopper. It should be noted that the grit
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -31
sump has a tendency to become compacted and clog. Sometimes provision is

made for the use of high-pressure agitation water or air to clear the sump.
Figure 6.11: Schematic of Typical Vortex Grit Chambers (a) PISTA

Unit (b) Teacup Unit
The adjustable rotating paddles maintain the proper circulation within the unit
for all flows. However, attention should be paid to the tendency for these
paddles to collect rags.
Vortex grit chambers are highly energy-efficient. The head loss across the unit
is minimal when operating correctly and unclogged. American practice
indicates a value of 6 mm, although an allowance of 100 mm is recommended.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -32
Vortex grit chambers have the great advantage that they are very compact.
Their design is usually proprietary so that manufacturers will usually produce
a suitable unit to accommodate stated performance specifications.
Manufacturers specifications will provide information on the maximum water
depth within the chamber.
6.5.5
Aerated Grit Chamber
Aerated grit chambers are commonly used in medium to large sewage

treatment plants. The introduction of air through a diffuser, located on one side
of the tank, induces a spiral flow pattern in the sewage as it moves through the
tank, as shown in Figure 6.12. Correct positioning of the tank inlet and outlet
directs the flow perpendicular to the spiral roll pattern. Inlet and outlet baffles
are normally installed to dissipate energy and minimise short-circuiting. Head
loss across the chamber is minimal.
Figure 6.12: Helicoidal Flow Pattern in an Aerated Grit Chamber
The roll velocity is set so that it is sufficient to maintain lighter organic

particles in suspension while allowing heavier grit particles to settle. Because
conditions change with flow rate, the air supply is adjustable to provide the
optimum roll velocity.
A further advantage of the introduction of air is that the sewage is freshened,
leading to a notable reduction in odour. If desired, the chamber can be used for
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -33
chemical addition, mixing, and/or flocculation ahead of primary treatment.

Grease removal may be achieved with a skimmer.
If correctly designed, an aerated grit chamber with a minimum hydraulic
detention time of 3 minutes will capture about 95% of grit larger than 0.2 mm
when operating at its peak flow. The usual range of design specifications is
given in Table 6.5.
The design of an aerated grit chamber is illustrated in Example 6.4.
Example 6.4
Design an aerated grit chamber for a hydraulic load of 20,000 PE.

Note: The minimum detention time at peak flow is 3 minutes
The width to depth ratio is 2:1
The length to width ratio is 2:1
Grit quantity is estimated as 0.03 m3/ML of wastewater
The aeration requirement is 10 litres/sec/m length of tank
Design Parameter
Range of Values
Depth
25m
Length
8 20 m
Width
2.5 7 m
Width:Depth Ratio
1:1 5:1
Length:Width Ratio
3:1 5:1
Minimum Detention
Time
2 5 minutes
Air Supply
0.25 0.75 m3/min/m
Diffuser Distance
from Bottom
0.6 1.0 m
Transverse Roll
Velocity
0.6 0.75 m/sec
Table 6.5:
Comments
Varies widely
2:1 typical
3 minutes typical
0.45 m3/min/m typical
Typical Design Specifications for an Aerated Grit Chamber
Manual of Practice
Section 6
Solution
Average DWF = 20,000 225l/day

= 4.500m3/day
=52l/sec
Peaking factor = 4.7 20-0.11
= 3.38
Peak flow
= 52 3.38
= 176l/sec
Grit chamber volume:

Minimum detention time at peak flow = 3minutes
= 3 60 = 180seconds
Required volume
= 0.176 180
= 31.7 = 32m3
W
= 2,
D
L
=2
W
Volume = D W L = 32
W = 2D,
L = 2W = 4D
D 2D 4D = 32
Dimensions
D = 1.6m
W = 3.2m
L = 6.4m
Aeration requirement
10l/sec/m length
= 10 6.4 = 64l/sec
Grit quantity
Based on average flow rate,

= 4.5ML/day 0.03m3/ML
= 135l/day
Note: Means should be provided to vary the air flow rate to control grit
removal rate and grit cleanliness.
Manual of Practice
6 -34
Section 6
6.6
6 -35
Hydraulics of Clarifiers
6.6.1
Preliminary
Clarifiers are essentially sedimentation tanks and are used as a part of both
primary treatment and secondary treatment processes. They may be
rectangular, square, or circular in shape.
A schematic of a typical circular clarifier has been presented in Figure 6.1.
The flow enters at the centre of the tank and settlement takes place as the flow
moves outwards and rises. The effluent is collected in a channel or launder,
which then conveys the flow to an exit channel or pipe.
This section emphasises the hydraulic aspects of the design of clarifiers.
Design guidelines are first presented and the basic design procedure is
reviewed. The important procedure for the design of the launder is then
discussed. Finally, a design example is presented to aid understanding.
6.6.2
Design Guidelines
Design guidelines for primary and secondary clarifiers vary significantly from
country to country. Typical guidelines from American practice are presented
in Table 6.6.
Parameter
Value
Primary Clarifiers
Surface loading rate

For average dry weather flow
For peak flow conditions
32 - 49 m3/m2/day
49 - 122 m3/m2/day
Sidewater depth
2.1 5 m
Weir loading rate
125 500 m3/m/day

Secondary Clarifiers

For average dry weather flow
For peak flow conditions
16 29 m3/m2/day
41 - 65 m3/m2/day
Sidewater depth
3.0 5.5 m
Floor slope
Nearly flat to 1:12
Maximum diameter
46 m
Table 6.6:
Typical Design Guidelines for Circular Clarifiers

Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -36
Primary clarifiers are designed more conservatively if sedimentation is the

only treatment and if activated sludge is being returned to the primary clarifier.
Rectangular clarifiers are generally designed under the same criteria as
circular clarifiers. Typical length to width ratios for rectangular primary
clarifiers range from 3:1 to 5:1, although many existing tanks are characterised
by ratios of between 1.5:1 and 15:1.
A well designed and operated primary clarifier should be capable of removing
between 50 and 65% of the influent total suspended solids.
6.6.3
General Design Principles
Clarifiers are designed to remove the maximum amount of settleable solids

quickly and economically. The design objective is to provide sufficient time
under quiescent conditions for maximum settling.
If all solids were discrete particles of uniform size, density, and shape the
removal efficiency of the tank would be dependent on the surface loading rate
only as discussed in Section 6.3. It was also shown in Section 6.3 that the
depth of the tank would have little influence on the removal efficiency
provided horizontal velocities were maintained below the scouring velocity.
However, the solids are not of a regular character and the conditions under
which they are present range from total dispersion to complete flocculation. In
practice, the bulk of the finely divided solids reaching primary sedimentation
tanks are incompletely flocculated and are susceptible to further flocculation.
Flocculation is aided by the eddying motion of the fluid within the clarifier. It
proceeds through the coalescence of fine particles at a rate that is a function of
their concentration and of their natural ability to coalesce upon collision. Thus,
the longer the process continues, the more complete the coalescence becomes.
For this reason, the detention time within the clarifier is a consideration in the
design process.
It should be noted, however, that the mechanics of flocculation are such that,
as the time of sedimentation incless and less coalescence of the remaining
particles occurs. Accordingly, from the point of view of settling, there is a
practical limit on the effective detention time of the sewage.
Primary and secondary clarifiers are normally designed to provide a detention
time of between 1.5 and 2.5 hours, based on the average flow rate. It is noted
that the design criteria for Malaysian systems incorporate a time of 2 hours
based on the peak flow rate.
Recalling the discussion of Section 6.3.4, the detention time is given by the
equation:
t=
H
Q
A
where Q/A is the surface loading rate.

Manual of Practice
(6.14)
Section 6
6 -37
Schematics of rectangular (horizontal flow), circular (radial flow), and square

(upflow) clarifiers are presented in Figures 6.13, 6.14, and 6.15.
Figure 6.13: Schematic of Rectangular Sedimentation Tank
Figure 6.14: Schematic of Circular Clarifier
Rectangular tanks are commonly used for primary sedimentation. They

occupy less space than circular tanks and can be economically built side by
side with common walls.
Circular tanks require careful design of the inlet stilling well to achieve a
stable radial flow pattern without causing excessive turbulence in the vicinity
of the central sludge hopper. Inlet design is considered in subsequent
paragraphs.
Upflow tanks typically have deep hopper bottoms and are common in small
treatment plants. Their primary advantage is that sludge removal is carried out
entirely by gravity. The steeply sloping sides typically 600 concentrate the
sludge at the bottom of the hopper. A significant disadvantage is that hydraulic
overloading may cause major problems because any particles with a settling
velocity less than the surface loading rate will not be removed, instead
escaping with the effluent.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -38
Figure 6.15: Schematic of Upflow Clarifier
The primary design parameters are the surface loading rate and the detention
time, both of which are normally specified in local design criteria. Following
the specification of these parameters, the dimensioning of the tank then
proceeds as follows:
Tank Surface Area, A =
Q
Q
A
Tank length or Diameter, L or D = A
where =
L
4
for rectangular tanks
for circular tanks
(6.36)
(6.37)
The forward velocity is also an important aspect of the design of rectangular

tanks. If this is excessive, scouring and re-suspension of the sludge will result.
The forward velocity is given by:
vh =
Q
WH
(6.38)
Incorporating Equation (6.14) for the detention time,

vh =
L
t
Manual of Practice
(6.39)
Section 6
6 -39
It is evident from Equations (6.38) and (6.39) that the forward velocity
influences the choice of length to width ratio. The maximum forward velocity
to avoid the risk of scouring settled sludge is 10 to 15 mm/sec, indicating that
the ratio of length to width should preferably be about 3:1.
Values of L/W in practice range between 3 and 6. The Malaysian Draft
Guidelines specify a value of 3.
Design curves to aid in the determination of the tank geometry have been
presented by Barnes (1981) and should be consulted for further information.
Weir Loading Rate
The weir loading rate is defined as Q/Lw where Lw is the length of the outlet
weir. If this value is too high, the approach current generated by the weir will
extend upstream into the settling zone, creating a potential disruption of the
flow pattern. A weir loading rate of between 100 and 200 m3/m/day is
typically specified.
Achieving this value is a particular problem for rectangular tanks which is
usually overcome by utilising multiple suspended weir troughs.
In circular tanks, the weir loading rate associated with a perimeter weir is
normally satisfactory at high flows. At low flows, however, difficulties may
arise from a weir loading rate which is too small because the consequent very
small flow depths over the weir make the tank flow pattern very sensitive to
errors in weir levelling. This problem may be overcome by constructing the
perimeter weir as a saw-tooth weir or multiple V-notch to increase the
flow depth.
The issues of surface loading rate, detention time, and weir loading rate are
illustrated by Examples 6.5 and 6.6.
Example 6.5
Two primary clarifiers are 26 m in diameter with a 2.1 m side water depth.
Single effluent weirs are located on the peripheries of the tanks. For a
wastewater flow of 26,000 m3/day, calculate:
a.)
The surface loading rate
b.)
The detention time
c.)
The weir loading rate
Solution
D 2 26 2
Surface area of each clarifier =
=
4
4
= 530m 2
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -40
Total surface area = 530 2

= 1,060m2
Total volume
= 1,060 2.1
= 2,230m3
a.)
Q
A
26,000
1,060
= 24.5m 3 / m 2 / day
b.)
Detention time =
=
Volume
Flow rate
2,230
24
26,000
= 2.06 hours
c.)
Weir loading rate
flow rate
weir length
26,000
2 D
26,000
2 26
= 159m 3 / m / day
Example 6.6
Determine the size of two identical circular final clarifiers for an activated
sludge system with a design flow of 20,000 m3/day, and a peak hourly flow of
32,000 m3/day.
Note: The maximum surface loading rate is 33 m3/m2/day at design flow and
66 m3/m2/day at peak flow.
Minimum detention time at design flow is 2 hours
Maximum weir loading rate at design flow is 125 m3/m/day
Manual of Practice
Section 6
Solution
At design flow, surface area required for each tank

20,000m 3 / day
=
= 303m 2
2 33m 3 / m 2 / day
Check peak overflow rate
=
32,000
2 303
= 53m 3 / m 2 / day
< 66m 3 / m 2 / day
(OK)
Tank diameter
D 2
= 303
4
303 4
D =
= 19.6 m
Detention time =
Tank volume
Flow rate
Area Depth
> 2 hours
Flow rate
Depth >
2 10,000
303 24
> 2.75m
Make depth 3.5m

(Recommended for tank diameter > 15m, depth should be 3.4m).
This will also give a reasonable detention time at peak flow rate.
Weir loading rate
=
flow rate
weir length
For single sided weir, weir loading rate/tank

Manual of Practice
6 -41
Section 6
6 -42
10,000
19.6
= 162m 3 / m / day
> 125m 3 / m / day
(No good)
Use an inboard weir channel with entry on both sides.

Set weir channel at a diameter of 18m.
Weir loading rate
=
10,000
2 18
= 88m 3 / m / day
< 125m 3 / m / day
(OK)
Two tanks,
Diameter
19.6m
Depth
3.5m
(20m?)
Inboard weir set on diameter of 18m.

Tank Inlets
Sedimentation tank inlets must be designed to distribute the flow as uniformly

as possible so that the best possible flow pattern is maintained. The influent jet
has a high amount of kinetic energy that must be dissipated.
For rectangular tanks, various baffled inlet arrangements have been used
which are effective for energy dissipation and flow distribution. Typical
arrangements are shown schematically in Figure 6.16.
With circular tanks, the radial flow from the inlet is inherently less stable than
the horizontal flow in a rectangular basin. Careful design is needed to achieve
a stable radial flow pattern. Typical arrangements are shown in Figure 6.17 for
(a) side feed, (b) vertical pipe feed, and (c) slotted vertical pipe feed. In all
cases, the primary design principles are that energy must be dissipated and the
flow distribution must be uniform.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -43
Figure 6.16: Schematics of Typical Sedimentation Tank Inlets
Figure 6.17: Centre-feed Inlets for Circular Clarifiers: (a) Side Feed, (b)
Vertical Pipe Feed, (c) Slotted Vertical Pipe Feed
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -44
Effluent Launder Design
Rising wastewater in a clarifier flows over a weir into a channel or launder

which, in turn, conveys the collected effluent to the exit channel. Flow in the
launder is classified as spatially varied because the flow rate increases with
distance along the launder. This characteristic requires the use of the
momentum equation for its analysis, rather than the energy equation.
The basic flow condition is illustrated schematically in Figure 6.18 which
shows the flow spilling over the multiple V-notch weir into the launder. A full
momentum analysis, including the effects of friction, has been presented by
Droste (1997). A simplified approach is usually adequate and is presented
herein.
Figure 6.18: Definition Sketch for Flow in a Launder
The first issue is the size of V-notch weir required. The individual V-notches
are typically set out with a centre to centre spacing of between 150 and 300
mm. With the number of V-notches consequently established, the flow
through each can be determined from:
QperV notch =
where N
Q
N
(6.40)
is the number of V-notches.
The maximum height, H, over the weir is then determined from the standard
V-notch weir equation refer to Chapter 4.4.3, Equation (4.24):
QperV notch =
8
5
Cd 2 g tan H 2
15
2
(6.41)
The discharge coefficient, Cd, is a function of the notch angle, . For = 900,
Cd has a value of 0.58.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -45
The head over the weir, calculated from Equation (6.41), should be increased
by a safety factor of 15%.
The next stage in the hydraulic design is to determine the maximum depth in
the launder. First, the critical depth at the discharge point of the launder is
calculated from:
( qL) 2
yc = 2
4b g
where q =
(6.42)
Q
and L is the length of the weir (circumference of the tank)
L
is the width of the launder
The depth at the upstream end of the launder is then calculated from:
2q 2 x 2
H = y + 2
gb yc
2
c
where x =
(6.43)
L
for a circular basin.
2
The depth, H, calculated from Equation (6.43) should be increased by a factor

of safety of 50% to allow for friction loss, freeboard, and a free fall allowance.
The derivation of Equations (6.42) and (6.43) has been presented by Droste
(1997), in which further refinement is provided by including friction loss. This
refinement would enable the full longitudinal profile in the launder to be
calculated.
It should be noted that such a refined design is rarely justified because design
practice usually ensures that the launder is hydraulically over-designed.
The design of a launder is illustrated by Example 6.7
Example 6.7
Design the overflow weirs and launders (collection channels.) for the clarifiers
of Example 6.6.
Note: The critical condition is when the peak flow occurs with one clarifier
out of service. The launder must be able to cope with the corresponding flow.
Solution
Weir design
One clarifier must handle peak flow.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -46
Peak weir loading rate

32,000m 3 / day
=
2 18m
where: 2 represents the inflow on both sides
18 represents the diameter
= 283m 3 / m / day
Assume that weir comprises V-notches with spacing of 25cm centre to centre.
(This may need adjusting)
Total number of V-notches
= 2
D
0.25
Take D as 18m, even though it will be less for the inner ring and more for the
outer.
Total number of V-notches
= 2
18
0.25
= 452
Flow per notch
=
32,000
1
3,600 24 142
= 0.00082m 3 / sec
Now, for each V-notch, notch angle is 900 and Cd=0.58.

Q=
5
8
Cd 2 g tan H 2
15
2
15 0.00082
H =
8 0.58 19.6
= 0.051m
Manual of Practice
Section 6
A safety factor of 15% is normally appropriate.

Allow for water depth over notch of 1.15 0.051
= 0.059m
= 60mm
Width of V-notch at the top = 60mm 2 = 120mm.

Weir design as follows:
Launder design
Q is discharge/unit length of launder

= weir loading rate 2 (because launder is fed from both sides)
q =
283
2m 3 / m / sec
3,600 24
= 0.0066m 3 / m / sec
Assume a launder width
Try 500mm
Calculate depth at launder discharge point
(qL)
yc = 2
4b g
2
( 0.0066 18) 2
4 0.52 9.81
=0.243m
Manual of Practice
6 -47
Section 6
6 -48
Calculate maximum depth in launder at upstream end
2q 2 x 2
H =y +
gb 2 y
0.5
(Note: x =
D
)
2
18
2 0.0066 2

2
2
H = 0.243 +
2
9.81 0.5 0.243
=0.419m
Increase this depth by 50% to allow for friction loss in the launder, freeboard,
and free-fall allowance.
Total depth to be provided in launder
= 0.419 1.5
= 0.629, say 0.65m
Launder depth below vertex of V-notch weirs
= 0.65m
Launder width = 0.50m
6.7
Sludge Hydraulics
6.7.1
Preliminary
Sludge produced in sewage treatment plants must be conveyed from one plant
point to another. The conditions of the sludge range from the consistency of
water or scum to a thick sludge. It may also be necessary to pump sludge offsite for long distances for treatment and disposal. For each type of sludge and
pumping application, a different type of pump may be needed.
The primary issues of concern are the type of pump to use, the computation of
head loss in pipes carrying sludge, and other practical hydraulic aspects. These
issues are examined in this section.
Types of pumps are briefly discussed. Simplified computations, suitable for
short lengths of pipe, are then presented. The application of rheology to head
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -49
loss computations for long-pipe calculations is then presented. Finally,

practical aspects of sludge piping are briefly covered.
It should be noted, in particular, that details of sludge processes are not
covered because they are outside the scope of hydraulics concern. Specialist
texts should be consulted for these details.
6.7.2
Sludge Pumping
Although specifying a single type of pump to handle all sludges within a

treatment plant is an attractive idea, the wide range of conditions imposed on
such service normally exceeds the capabilities of a single type of pump.
Fortunately, many types of pump are available to the design engineer.
Types of pumps most frequently used to convey sludge include the plunger,
progressive cavity, centrifugal, torque flow, diaphragm, high-pressure piston,
rotary lobe, and screw lift pumps. Specialist literature should be consulted for
details on each. The application of different types of pump is summarised in
Table 6.7.
Commonly, centrifugal pumps of non-clog design are used. Problems arise,
however, over choosing the most appropriate size. These problems occur
because, at any given speed, centrifugal pumps operate well only if the
pumping head is within a narrow range. Because of the variable nature of
sludge, pumping heads may vary significantly.
Selected centrifugal pumps must have sufficient clearance to pass the solids
without clogging, but have a small enough capacity to avoid pumping a sludge
diluted by large quantities of sewage overlying the sludge blanket. It is
impractical to throttle the discharge to reduce the capacity because of frequent
stoppages. For this reason, it is essential that these pumps be equipped with
variable speed drives. Where the application involves high pressure, multiple
pumps may be used and connected in series.
Usually the consistency of untreated primary sludge changes during pumping
with the most concentrated sludge being pumped first. Later, the pump must
handle a dilute sludge which has essentially the same hydraulic characteristics
as water.
This change in characteristics causes a centrifugal pump to operate farther out
on its characteristic curve. It is necessary that the pump motor is sized for the
additional load and that a variable speed drive is used to reduce the flow under
these conditions. It should be noted that if the pump motor is not sized for the
maximum load when pumping water at top speed, it will go on overload or be
damaged if overload devices do not function or are set too high.
In determining the operating speeds and motor power required for a
centrifugal pump handling sludge, it is important that system curves be
determined for the densest sludge anticipated, the average conditions, and
water. These system curves should be plotted on the pump characteristic crves
for a range of available speeds.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
Principle
Kinetic
(rotodynamic)
pumps
Common Types
6 -50
Typical Applications
Nonclog mixed-flow Grit slurry, incinerator ash slurry

pump,
Unthickened primary sludge
Recessed-impeller
pump (vortex pump, Return activated sludge
torque-flow pump)
Waste activated sludges from
attached-growth biological
Screw centrifugal
processes
pump
Grinder pump
Circulation of anaerobic digestor

Drainage, filtrate, and centrate
Dredges on sludge lagoons
Positivedisplacement
pumps
Plunger pump
Waste activated sludge
Progressing cavity
pump
Thickened sludges (all types)
Air-operated
diaphragm pump
Unthickened primary sludge
Rotary lobe pump
Feed to dewatering mahines
Pneumatic ejector
Unthickened secondary sludges
Peristaltic pump
Dewatered cakes
Reciprocating piston
Other
Air lift pump
Return activated sludge
Archimedes screw
pump
Table 6.7:
Sludge Pump Applications by Principle
The intersection of the pump curves with the system curves at the desired
capacity yields the maximum and minimum speeds required for a particular
pump. The intersection of the maximum speed pump curve with the system
curve for water permits the determination of the power required. For the
determination of hours of operation, average speed, and power costs, the
intersection of the pump curve with he system curve for average conditions is
appropriate.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6.7.3
6 -51
Head Loss Determination
It is clear that the procedures in the previous section require an estimate of the
head loss in the pumping lines. The head loss depends on the rheology (flow
properties) of the sludge, the pipe diameter, and the flow velocity. It is known,
further, that head osses increase with increased solids content, increased
volatile content, and reduced temperatures. It is also known that, when the
product of the percentage of volatile matter and the percentage of solids
exceeds 600, difficulties in pumping sludge are often experienced.
Dilute sludges such as unconcentrated activated and trickling filter sludges
behave in a very similar manner to water. They are classified as Newtonian
fluids. As such, the pressure drop is proportional to the velocity and the
viscosity under laminar conditions, and to the square of the velocity under
turbulent conditions. The head loss in pumping unconcentrated sludges may be
between 10 and 25% greater than for water.
Concentrated sludges, however, are non-Newtonian fluids. The pressure drop
under laminar conditions is not proportional to the velocity and the viscosity is
not a constant. Primary, digested, and concentrated sludges at low velocity are
characterised by a plastic phenomenon whereby a definite pressure is required
to overcome resistance and start the flow. The resistance then increases
approximately with the velocity up to a velocity of about 1.1 m/sec, defining
the upper limit of the laminar flow regime. Above about 1.4 m/sec, the flow
may be considered to be turbulent.
Within the turbulent range, the head losses for well-digested sludge may be
two to three times greater than for comparable water velocities. For primary
and concentrated sludges, the losses may be substantially greater.
Two approaches for calculating head losses are considered in the following. A
simplified approach is considered first, which is particularly suitable for short
pipe lines. A more complex method is then discussed which uses the sludge
rheology and is suited to head loss calculations in long pipe lines.
Simplified Approach
The simplified approach is used to compute head losses in short pipe lines.
The accuracy is adequate, especially for solids concentrations less than 3% by
weight.
Firstly, the head loss of water at the same flow rate is determined, using any
one of the Darcy-Weisbach, Hazen-Williams, or Manning equations. This
head loss is then multiplied by a factor, k, obtained from empirical curves for a
given solids content and sludge type, or for a given velocity and solids content.
The first method is suggested when the pipe velocity is greater than 0.8 m/sec,
thixotropic behaviour is not considered, and the pipe is not obstructed by
grease or other material. Figure 6.19 presents the multiplication factor, k, as a
function of solids concentration for digested sludge and for untreated primary
and concentrated sludges respectively.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -52
Figure 6.19: Head Loss Multiplication Factor for Different Sludge Type
and Concentration
The second method is less restrictive in its application and involves only the
pipe velocity and solids concentration in determining the multiplication factor.
Figure 6.20 presents the corresponding relationship for k.
Application of Rheology to Head Loss Computations
Where sludge must be pumped over long distances, the accuracy of the
estimates of head loss becomes more important because of their increased
impact on the design of pumping needs. For this reason, the head loss
computations should take account of the rheological properties of the sludge.
In the discussion following, a method is described which uses similar concepts
to the Darcy-Weisbach method, but with modifications to allow for sludge
properties.
Sludge behaves like a Bingham plastic ie it exhibits a linear relationship
between shear stress and flow only after flow begins. A Bingham plastic is
described by two constants, the yield stress, sy, and the coefficient of rigidity,
. Typical ranges of values for these two constants are presented in Figures
6.21 and 6.22 respectively. It should be noted, however, that published data
are highly variable. If considered important, pilot studies should be undertaken
to determine the rheological data for specific applications.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -53
Figure 6.20: Head Loss Multiplication Factor for Different Pipe Line
Velocities and Concentrations
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -54
Figure 6.21: Range of Design Values for Yield Stress as a Function of

Percentage Sludge Solids
Figure 6.22: Range of Design Values for Coefficient of Rigidity as a

Function of Percentage Sludge Solids
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -55
Following the determination of the yield stress and the coefficient of rigidity,
two dimensionless numbers are used to determine the pressure drop as
follows:
Reynolds Number
Re =
where
VD
(6.44)
is the density of the sludge (kg/m3)
is the average velocity in the pipe (m/sec)
is the pipe diameter (m)
Hedstrom Number
He =
D 2 sy
(6.45)
The friction factor for the pipe-sludge system is then determined using the
graph in Figure 6.23.
Figure 6.23: Friction Factor for Sludge Analysed as a Bingham Plastic
The pressure drop in the pipe is then calculated from:

p =
2 fLV 2
D
(6.46)
Equation (6.46) can be readily shown to be a form of the Darcy-Weisbach

equation.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -56
The equations and graphs presented above apply to the entire range of laminar
and turbulent flows. It should be noted, however, that Figure 6.23 does not
include any allowance for pipe roughness.
To allow for pipe roughness, it is recommended that, in addition to the above
procedure, the pressure drop should be calculated using a standard procedure
for water. If this process gives a higher pressure drop than that given by
Equation (6.46), roughness is dominant and the pressure drop given by the
water formula will provide a reasonably accurate estimate of pressure loss.
However, where use of the water formula is indicated, for worst case design
conditions, a safety factor of 1.5 is recommended.
The procedure for calculating head loss, including the sludge rheology, is
illustrated in Example 6.8.
Example 6.8
A pipeline of length 1,000 m and diameter 200 mm conveys untreated (raw)

sludge at an average flow rate of 40 l/sec.
Calculate the head loss in the pipeline.
Analysis of the sludge indicated the following rheological data:
Yield stress:
sy = 1.1 N/m2
Coefficient of rigidity:
= 0.035 kg/m/sec
Specific gravity:
S.G. = 1.01
Solution
Pipe flow velocity

Q
V =
A
0.040
=
0.2 2
4
=1.27m/sec
Sludge density
= 1,000 1.01
= 1,010kg/m3
Reynolds Number
VD
Re =
1,010 127
. 0.2
=
0.035
=7.33 103
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -57
Hedstrom Number
D2sy
He =
2
0.2 2 11
. 1,010
0.0352
. 10 4
= 363
From friction factor diagram

f = 0.007
2 fLV 2
p =
D
2 0.007 1,010 1,000 127
. 2
=
0.2
=114.03kN/m2
Pressure loss in metres of water
6.7.4
p 114.03 1,000
=
9.81 1,000
= 1162
. m
Sludge Piping
In sewage treatment plants, sludge piping should normally not be less than 150
mm in diameter to prevent blockages. In exceptional circumstances, glasslined pipe of smaller diameter has been used successfully. Because of their
greater risk of blockage, gravity sludge withdrawal lines should not be less
than 200 mm in diameter. Pump connections should not be smaller than 100
mm in diameter. Instead of elbows in the line, it is good practice to install
cleanouts in the form of plugged tees or crosses so that the lines can be rodded
if necessary.
Velocities in the piping should be between 1.5 and 1.8 m/sec and, not
withstanding the minimum sizes, the pipe should be sized to maintain these
velocities.
Grease has a tendency to coat the inside of piping used for primary sludge and
scum. Most often, this is much more of a problem in large sewage treatment
plants than in small plants. Grease accumulation results in a decreased
effective diameter and a consequent large increase in pumping head. The
buildup of head occurs more slowly in systems where more dilute sludges are
pumped. In some plants, specific provision is made for melting grease by
circulating hot water, steam, or digester supernatant through the main sludge
lines.
Friction losses are usually relatively low in sewage treatment plants because
the pipe lengths are relatively short. There is, accordingly, little difficulty in
providing an ample safety factor.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -58
In long sludge lines, however, special design features should be considered.

The provision of two parallel pipes should be considered, unless a single pipe
shut down for maintenance for several days will not create problems.
Allowance for external corrosion and pipe loads should be considered. The
provision of facilities to supply dilution water to the lines for flushing
purposes may be necessary. Mechanical cleaning of the pipe lines may be
necessary and provision should be made for the insertion of a pipe cleaner.
Alternatively, or in addition, provision for steam injection for cleaning may be
appropriate.
Air relief and blowoff valves at high and low points, respectively, in the pipe
line may be indicated and the likelihood of water hammer phenomena,
consequent to pump and/or valve operation should be considered. A discussion
of water hammer is presented in Chapter 5.
6.8
Effluent Disposal Hydraulics

6.8.1
Preliminary
After treatment, sewage is either re-used or disposed of into the environment.

Disposal is by far the most common and, since this is a re-entry into the
hydrological cycle, it can be seen as the first step in a very indirect and longterm re-use. The most common method of disposal is by discharge and
dilution into ambient waters.
It should be noted that another means of disposal is by discharge onto the land
where the treated sewage seeps into the ground and recharges underlying
groundwater aquifers. Part of this sewage also evaporates and, particularly in
desert areas, the evaporated fraction can be substantial. Land application is not
covered in this section.
The single most important element of effluent disposal is the associated
environmental impact. There is an associated regulatory framework which
affects such issues as the selection of discharge locations, the selection of
outfall structures, and the level of treatment required. Thus, sewage treatment
and disposal are linked and cannot be considered in isolation.
This section is designed to give an introduction to effluent disposal into
natural waterways. The overall topic encompasses many areas including ater
quality parameters, water quality standards and criteria, hydraulic transport
processes such as advection and diffusion, and constituent transformation
processes.
No attempt is made in this section to grapple with the complex numerical
mathematics associated with transport and transformation processes. Many
excellent texts are available which cover these topics. In this section, the
issues of river outfalls and ocean disposal are examined qualitatively and
empirically and some simple design rules are introduced.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6.8.1
6 -59
River Outfalls
Many existing effluent discharges into rivers are very poorly designed. Often
they comprise open-ended pipes which achieve minimal initial mixing. In
shallow streams, open ended discharges on the bank may fall directly onto the
water surface, creating the potential for foaming problems.
Such problems can often be eliminated by utilising a submerged discharge
point, farther out into the stream. Where such rivers are navigable, however,
outfall design requires special attention and is likely to be closely regulated.
Rapid initial mixing of an effluent discharge into a river can be achieved with
a multi-port diffuser. Such a structure discharges the effluent through a series
of holes or ports along a pipe extending into the river. For shallow rivers, very
rapid vertical mixing is achieved over the full river depth. Turbulent
entrainment then draws river water into the effluent plume, promoting rapid
dilution.
This situation is shown schematically in Figure 6.24, which also shows a
typical elevation of a riser.
Figure 6.24: Plan and Elevation Schematic of a Typical River Diffuser
The initial dilution, S, achieved in the near field, defined as being within
approximately one diffuser length, is given by:
S=
UHL
2 QDU D cos
1 + 1 +
U 2 LH
2 QD
Manual of Practice
(6.47)
Section 6
where U
6 -60
is the river velocity
is the river depth
is the diffuser length
UD
is the discharge velocity through each port
is the orientation of the ports above the horizontal
The diffuser length, L, is often the most important parameter as it largely

determines the cost of the structure. Equation (6.47) is used to determine the
length of diffuser required to achieve a prescribed level of dilution. The
equation is applicable to shore-attached as well as mid-river diffusers.
The equation shows that high port discharge velocities increase dilution.
However, care must be taken to ensure that there are no subsequent problems
of scour or navigation. In practice, port velocities should not exceed 3 m/sec,
although this guideline may be exceeded where circumstances warrant it and
especially during infrequent high-flow events.
Figure 6.25 shows a typical river diffuser arrangement. The port spacing
adopted is typically of the same order as the water depth. At the outboard end
of the diffuser, a large cleanout port is provided to facilitate flushing.
Figure 6.25: Schematic of a Typical Diffuser Outfall
The primary purpose of a multi-port diffuser is to distribute the flow evenly

along the entire length of the structure. For this reason, the discharge per port
should be as uniform as possible along the length of the diffuser. This is
achieved by decreasing the diameter of the diffuser pipe in steps as shown in
Figure 6.25. The detailed design to ensure an even flow distribution is based
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -61
on the so-called manifold problem, the details of which have been discussed
by Fischer et al (1979).
The use of Equation (6.47) in practice is illustrated with Example 6.9.
Example 6.9
Determine the length and number of discharge ports for a multiport diffuser
that will provide a near-field dilution of 10 when discharging a maximum flow
of 1.5 m3/sec into a river. Under low flow conditions, the river water depth is
1.2 m and the current speed is 0.6 m/sec.
Note: For the shallow water conditions prevalent under low river flow
conditions, the maximum discharge velocity, UD, should be lower than the
value of 3 m/sec, recommended in the notes, to reduce the risk of bottom
erosion and hazards to boaters. A value of 2 m/sec is suggested. Because of
the shallow depth, the ports will discharge horizontally in the same direction
as the river flow.
Solution
Calculate required diffuser length

2QDU D cos
UHL
1 + 1 +
S=
U 2 LH
2QD
10 =
2 15
0.6 12
. L
. 2 1
1 + 1 + 2
0.6 L 12
2 15
.
.
Solve by trial
L=18m
Determine required number of ports
Port spacing water depth
18
No. of ports =
+1
12
.
= 16
Determine port diameter
Q = (On. of ports)
4 15
.
D0 =
16 2
= 0.244m
D02
UD
4
1
Nearest standard size = 0.25m

Check required number of ports
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -62
N=
D02
U
4
15
. 4
=
2 0.252
=15.3
Select 15 ports
Port velocity
=
D2
4
15
. 4
=
15 0.252
= 2.04m/sec
N
(OK)
Dilution rate
2 15
0.6 12
. 18
. 2.04 1
1 + 1 +
S=
2
0.6 18 12
2 15
.
.
= 10.1
(OK)
Diffuser length:
Number of ports:
Port diameter:
Port spacing:
Port velocity:
Dilution (near field):
6.8.3
18m
15
250mm
1.29m
2.04m/sec
100.1
Ocean Disposal
Oceans and large lakes are used for effluent disposal by many communities.
Provided that the outfall structure is appropriately designed, such water bodies
provide extensive assimilation capacity.
Sewage effluent is typically carried to an offshore discharge point by a pipe or
tunnel. The actual discharge may be through a single port or multi-port
diffuser.
The characteristics of the effluent plume are complicated by the density
difference that exists between the lighter effluent and the denser sea water.
The density of the effluent is dependent on its temperature and, to a lesser
extent, on the suspended solids concentration.
The configuration of a typical effluent plume in the ocean is shown in Figure
6.26.
Manual of Practice
Section 6
6 -63
Figure 6.26: Schematic of Effluent Discharge Plume in the Ocean
In the initial mixing region, also known as the discharge near field the
effluent is strongly buoyant and rises rapidly in the water column. This plume
entrains large amounts of ambient water, thereby diluting the effluent.
Stratification of the water column means that the ambient water that is first
entrained is deep, denser water. This has the effect of reducing the plume
buoyancy as it rises into less dense ambient water. At some point during the
rise of the plume, its density may become equal to that of the ambient water
and the plume will rise no further.
The achievement of an equilibrium height of rise only occurs where the water
column is relatively strongly stratified. When the water column is not
stratified, or only weakly so, the plume rises to the water surface. Beyond the
initial mixing region is the so-called far field where the effluent travels on
ambient currents and is further diluted by turbulent diffusion.
It is clear that the dilution mechanisms acting in the near field and the far field
are very different and, for this reason, they are treated separately. The details
of the dilution mechanisms are outside the scope of this manual and, for
details of these and detailed design guidelines, reference should be made to
Roberts et al (1989).
Manual of Practice

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants Sec-6

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Section 6

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

2000 Assoc.Prof R.J.Keller

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

Schematic of Hydraulics for a Typical Clarifier

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

consideration in the unit processes of sewage treatment plants are discussed.

Sedimentation is the separation of suspended particles, heavier than the

Sedimentation is classified according to the nature of the particles to be

2000 Assoc.Prof R.J.Keller

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

Removal of grit and

Process often occurs in

Usually occurs within

2000 Assoc.Prof R.J.Keller

Classes of Sedimentation Phenomena

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

Because the particles are considered to settle independently of neighboring

The drag force on the particle is given by:

The equilibrium condition is reached when W is equal to FD ie:

Re-arrangement of Equation (6.3) yields:

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

In which momentum is dissipated.

Schematics of Different Types of Settling Tank

Considering first the rectangular horizontal flow tank of Figure 6.2, it is

It is clear that BL is equal to the tank surface area, A, so that:

2000 Assoc.Prof R.J.Keller

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

Evaluation of the integral leads to:

Now, R22 R12

is equal to the surface area, A. Substituting into Equation

(6.10), and noting that t =

which is identical to Equation (6.7).

which is identical to Equations (6.7) and (6.12).

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

Under quiescent conditions, suspended particles exhibit a natural tendency to

Effect of Tank Depth on Removal of Class 1 and Class 2

It is an important requirement of sedimentation tanks for flocculent

2000 Assoc.Prof R.J.Keller

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

Then, for a rectangular tank:

Class 3 sedimentation is associated with an increased concentration of

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

Class 3 sedimentation frequently occurs in secondary settling clarifiers used in

Suspension Exhibiting Hindered Settling Behaviour

Class 4 sedimentation is characterised by particle concentrations which are so

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

Screening of sewage is one of the oldest treatment processes. The purpose of

Schematic of Sloping Bar Screen

Hydraulics of Sewage Treatment Plants

Figure 6.5 shows a schematic of a sloping bar screen. Application of

is the upstream depth of flow

is the downstream depth of flow

is the acceleration due to gravity

is the upstream velocity

is the velocity through the screen

is a discharge coefficient with a typical value of 0.84.

Alternatively, an orifice equation may be applied in the form:

is the flow rate

It should be noted that the discharge coefficient in Equation (6.17) is different

is a bar shape factor, as given in Table 6.2

2000 Assoc.Prof R.J.Keller