LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY

DIGLOSSIA
CODE CHOICE

DIGLOSSIA
In Eggenwil, a town in the Aargau canton of Switzerland,
Silvia, a bank teller, knows two very distinct varieties of
German.. One is the local Swiss German dialect of her
German
canton which she uses in her everyday interactions with
other Swiss Germans. The other is standard German
which she learnt at school,
school, and though she understands
it very well indeed, she rarely uses it in speech.
speech.
Newspapers are written in standard German,
German, and when
she occasionally goes to hear a lecture at the university
it may be in standard German
German.. The sermons her mother
listens to in church are generally in standard German
too, though more radical clerics use Swiss German
dialect. The novels Silvia reads also use standard
German..
German

Typical features of this linguistic

situation
TWO VARIETIES OF THE SAME
LANGUAGE - HIGH (H) AND LOW (L) USED SIDE BY SIDE IN SPEECH
COMMUNITY
H AND L USED FOR CLEARLY
DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS
H - NOBODYS MOTHER TONGUE
TONGUE,,
EVERYBODY USES L FOR ORDINARY
CONVERSATION

FERGUSONS CLASSIC
EXAMPLES
Switzerland, H: std German, L: Swiss
German
Arabic countries,
countries, H: Classical Arabic (lang
of Koran), L: local dialects in particular
country (e.g: Egypt, Morocco, Iraq, etc.)
etc.)
Greece,, H: katharevusa, L: dhimotiki
Greece
(language of people)
Haiti,, H: French, L: Haitian Creole
Haiti

MAIN FEATURES
Separate functions
Nobody uses H for ordinary conversations
Prestige
Literature
Learning vs. Acquisition
Standardization
Variations between forms of grammar,
vocabulary and phonology
Stability

Shared vocabularies of H and L

Paired items in Greek
Greek::
H
L
ikos
spiti
idhor
ner
al
m
inos
krsi

(meaning)
house
water
but
wine

The menu had inos

inos on it, but the diner asked
for krsi
krsi.

Causes for diglossia

diglossia to relax
(Fergusons prediction
prediction))
More widespread literacy
Broader communication among different
regional and social segments of the
community
Desire for a full
full--fledged national language
as an attribute of autonomy / sovereignty

STATE OF DIGLOSSIA TODAY

Arabic countries:
countries: stable,
table, although local Arabic
Vs have
have more prestige in some respects than
Classical Arabic.
Arabic.
Haiti:: Kryl is recognised as a standard
Haiti
language..
language
Greece:: Dhimotiki was made into the only
Greece
standard language in 1974
1974.. Katharevousa is no
longer used (except by Greek Orthodox Church).
Switzerland:: relative
Switzerland
relatively
ly stable,
stable, BUT Swiss
German dialects are hardly varieties with low
prestige..
prestige

EXTENDED DIGLOSSIA
Concept introduced by Joshua Fishman
(American sociolinguist) in 1967
Modifies Fergusons view in two crucial
ways:
allows for presence of several separate
codes, not just two
any degree of linguistic relatedness (not
restricted
restrict
ed to cases in the middle range of
linguistic relationship
relationship = 2 distinct Vs of same
language)

BROAD DIGLOSSIA
Fasold, 1984
Any number of varieties
Any degree of linguistic relatedness, from
separate languages to merely stylistic
differences
Differences in use bw H and L:
FUNCTION

Diglossia: from classic to broad

Classic/narrow
Ferguson 1959
2 varieties of same
language
Intermediate range
of relatedness

Extended
Fishman 1967
Several separate
codes, not just two

Any degree of
linguistic
relatedness
H: nobodys mother from different
languages to just
tongue
stylistic differences
H & L: separate
functions

Broad
Fasold 1984
Any number of
varieties /codes
Any degree of
linguistic
relatedness
H: also mother
tongue
Uses of H and L:
Only function
differs

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

All speech communites are diglossic in the broad
sense, including Hungary or the UK.
Diglossia is a characteristic feature of speech
communities,, rather than individuals.
communities
Individuals may be bibi- or multilingual
multilingual,, societies are
diglossic.
Term describes societal or institutionalised
bilingualism,, where two or more Vs cover all
bilingualism
domains of society.

CODE SWITCHING
Code switching is a conversational strategy
used to establish, cross or destroy group
boundaries; to create, evoke or change
interpersonal relations with their rights and
obligations.
(Susan Gal
Gal,, 1988.
1988. The Political Economy of Code
Choice.)
Choice
.)

DOMAINS
Definition: typical interactions bw typical
participants in typical settings.
Domain
Family
Friendship
Religion
Education
Work
Etc.

Addressee

Setting

Topic

Code

Code switching:
switching: switches whose causes
are identifiable and predictable are
situational
Code
ode--mixing:
mixing: no social factors /
dimensions apply metaphorical
switching, for rhetorical reasons.
reasons.
Not conscious,
conscious, conveys information as
well as affective meaning.
meaning.

Diglossia reinforces
differences,,
differences
whereas code
code-switching tends to
reduce them.