BIOLOGY

Chapter 2 Cell structure and

organization
Cell

The basic unit of life

Extremely small (10 20 microns)

Made up of living material called protoplasm consisting of water, proteins,

carbohydrates and fats

Contains many compartments called organelles

Organelles
Cellulose cell wall
o Present in plant cells
o Rigid outermost layer of plant cells which provide mechanical support
o Prevents plant cell from bursting when absorbing water
o Made up of cellulose, a type of carbohydrate
o Fully permeable
o Gives the cell a fixed shape due to its rigidity
Cell surface membrane
o Present in plant and animal cell
o Made up of a double layer of phospholipids with some carbohydrates and proteins
o Forms boundary of cell
o Outermost layer in animal cell and is located beneath the cell wall in plant cells
o Partially permeable
o Protects the cell, controls movement of substances in and out of cell
`

Nucleus
o Present in both plant and animal cells
o Controls all cellular activities
o Darkly stained, prominent in microscopic slide images
o Most cells have diploid nucleus. Sex cells have haploid nucleus. Red blood cells do
not have a nucleus
Cytoplasm
o Present in plant and animal cells
o Contain organelles such as nucleus and mitochondria and more
o Site where most cell activities occur
Nucleus contains
o Nuclear envelope
separates the contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cytoplasm
o Nucleoplasm,
the dense material within the nucleus
o Nucleolus
plays a part in protein synthesis by producing ribosomes
o

Chromatin
a mass of long thin thread-like structure made up of proteins and a compound
called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Cytoplasm contains:
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
o Present in both plant and animal cells
o Involved in lipid synthesis and breakdown of toxins
o System of membranes inside the cell which is continuous with the nuclear
membrane
o Divided into 2 components rough ER (RER) and smooth ER (SER)
RER
A sheet-like structure with surface studded with ribosomes
Involved in protein synthesis and modifications
SER
Tube-like structure and its surface does not have ribosomes
Synthesises fats and steroids
Converts harmful substances into harmless substances in a process
called detoxification
o Sheet-like and tube-like structures of RER and SER increases its surface area to
volume ratio to carry out their functions more efficiently
Ribosomes
o Present in both plant and animal cells
o Made up of proteins and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
o Small, spherical and numerous. Mainly concentrated on the RER surface, but some
lie freely in the cytoplasm
o Make polypeptides from amino acids which eventually form proteins
o Make proteins used within the cytoplasm of the cell
o RER transports proteins made by ribosomes to the golgi apparatus for secretion out
of the cell
Golgi apparatus
`

Present in both plants and animal cells

Made up of several stacks of curved flattened membranes arragned in sacs called
cisternae
o Membranes are usually surrounded by spherical bodies called vesicles
o Vesicles transport immature proteins made in RER to Golgi body for further
processing
o Chemically modifies substances made in ER
o Stores and packages these substances in vesicles for secretion out of the cell
o Set of membranes that make up Golgi body is not continuous with nuclear
membrane or ER
Vesicles get pinched off RER, fuses with Golgi body, and substances in
vesicles released into golgi body
Golgi apparatus may modify these substances
Secretory vesicles containing this modified substances pinched off Golgi
apparatus and fuse with cell surface membrane to be released out of the cell
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion)
o Present in both plant and animal cells
o Small oval shaped organelle which are the powerhouse of the cell
o Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria, food substances are oxidised to release
energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
o ATP used by cell to perform cell activities such as growth and reproduction
o Has 2 layers of membrane, inner membrane highly folded into structures called
cristae
o Cells that require more energy usually have more mitochondria
Chloroplasts
o Present only in plant cells
o Contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which is essential for photosynthesis
o Cells in the leaves of the plant usually has highest concentration of chloroplasts
Vacuoles
o Present in both plants and animal cells
o Fluid-filled space enclosed by a membrane
o Animal cells contain numerous small vacuoles that contain water and food
substances t
o These vacuoles exist temporarily
o Plant cells have a large central vacuole containing water and a liquid called cell sap
o Cell sap contains dissolve substances such as sugars, mineral salts and amino acids
o This large vacuole is enclosed by a partially permeable membrane called tonoplast
o
o

Specialised cells, tissues, organs and systems

Red blood cell (RBC)
o Most abundant cell type in blood (45 % of total vol. of blood)
o Contains haemoglobin which binds reversibly to oxygen and transport it to other
parts of the body
o Absence of nucleus allows RBC to carry more haemoglobin
o Biconcave shape increases surface area to volume ratio to absorb oxygen at a
faster rate
o Flexible enough to squeeze through blood capillaries
Root hair cell
o Lines the outer surface of plant roots
o Has a long finger-like projection along its length to increase its surface area to
volume ratio for faster rate of water and mineral absorption
`

Central vacuole contains concentrated cell sap, decreasing vacuoles water

potential. More water can be absorbed by osmosis, as water moves from a region of
higher water potential (the soil) to a region of lower concentration (the root cell)
o Does not contain chloroplasts as it is usually not exposed to sunlight, hence does
not need to photosynthesise
Xylem vessel
o Transports water and dissolved minerals from plant roots to leaves
o Made up of dead cells with thick walls
o Narrow and have no cross walls to obstruct water flow through the lumen
o No protoplasm to offer resistance to water flow
o Walls are thickened with lignin to prevent collapse of the vessel
o Xylem vessel provides mechanical support for plants
tissues, organs and systems
Group of similar cells working together to perform a specific function is a tissue
Simple tissues are made up of cells of the same type. Complex tissues are made up of
more than one type of cell
Different tissues combine to form an organ
Organs work together in organ systems. A multi-cellular organism is made up of many
organ systems working together
o

Cells,

Chapter 3 Movement of substances

Diffusion

Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher

concentration to a region of lower concentration down a concentration
gradient
Occurs passively, no external energy needed
Takes place as long as a concentration gradient is present, even through a partially
permeable membrane
Rate of diffusion depends on concentration gradient, size of diffusing substance
and temperature
o Higher concentration gradient, faster diffusion rate
o Bigger particle, lower diffusion rate
o Higher temperature, higher diffusion rate
E.g. of diffusion
o Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide between alveoli and blood
capillaries in lungs

Osmosis
Osmosis is the net movement of water particles from a region of
higher water potential to a region of lower water potential down a
water potential gradient across a partially permeable membrane
Occurs passively
Takes place only through a partially permeable membrane
Terminology
Isotonic

Description
2 solutions are isotonic with respect
to each other if they have equal
water potential
A solution is hypertonic with respect
to the other if it has lower water
potential (lower water potential)
A solution is hypotonic with respect
to the other if it is less concentrated
(higher water potential)

Hypertonic

Hypotonic

A solution that contains more dissolved substances has a lower water

potential than a solution with less dissolved substances

Animal cell
`

Hypotonic
solution
Entry of water

Isotonic solution
No change

Hypertonic
solution
Water exits the

Plant cell

into cell. Cell

eventually
ruptures
Entry of water
into the cell. Cell
becomes turgid

No change

cell. Cell
becomes
crenated
Water exits the
cell.
Cell becomes
flaccid, then
plasmolysed

Active transport
Movement of substances from a region of lower concentration to a
region of higher concentration against a concentration gradient
Requires energy from respiration, in the form of ATP (adenosine triphospate)
Rate of active transport depends on the availability of energy
More energy, higher rate of active transport
Active transport is important because it allows cells to obtain nutrients that
are in low concentrations outside the cell

Chapter 4 Biological Molecules

Food
Provides energy for vital activities
Food provides raw material to make new protoplasm; needed for growth and
repair of worn out tissues
Keeps organism healthy
Water

Solvent for chemical reactions

Water is needed for many chemical reactions taking placing in living
things
Key component in tissues
Controlling body temperature
Via perspiration
Medium for transporting dissolved substances
E.g. digested food products and waste products
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic molecules made up of the elements carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen are present in the ratio 2:1
Made up of primary units called monosaccharides (simple sugars)
Cannot be further digested into simpler molecules

E.g. glucose, fructose, galactose. Same formula C 6H12O6, but arranged

differently within the molecule
2 monosaccharides combine chemically to form disaccharides, which are
complex sugars

E.g. maltose, sucrose, lactose. Same formula of C 12H22O11, but arranged

differently within the molecule
Multiple monosaccharides combine chemically to form polysaccharides, which
are complex macromolecules

E.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose

Monosacchari
de
Disaccharide

Polysaccharid
e
Condensation reaction is a chemical reaction in which 2 simple molecules are joined
together to form a larger molecule with the removal of 1 molecule of water
Glucose + Glucose
Maltose + water
Condensati
on reaction

Hydrolysis or hydrolytic reaction is a reaction in which a water molecules is needed

to break up a complex molecule into a smaller one
Maltose + water
Glucose + Glucose
Maltase
Hydrolytic
reaction

Test for starch

Procedure
Add a few drops of iodine
solution into sample

Results
Iodine remains yellowishbrown
Iodine turns dark blue

Conclusion
Starch is absent
Starch is present

Test for reducing sugar

Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Add an equal volume of
Solution remains blue
Reducing sugars are absent
Green/orange precipitate
Low concentration of reducing
Benedicts solution to the
forms
sugars present
sample in a test tube. Place
Brick
red
precipitate
forms
High concentration of
test tube into hot water bath
reducing sugars present
for a few minutes
Just remember color of rainbow. Brick red is high conc., blue is low

Glycogen and starch are stores of glucose

Plants store glucose as starch
Animals store glucose as glycogen
Glycogen and starch are suitable storage materials because
They are insoluble in water, thus does not change the water potential in cells
They are large molecules which are unable to diffuse through cell membranes, so
they will not be lost from cell
They can be easily hydrolysed to glucose when needed
Their molecules have compact shape so they occupy less space than all the
individual glucose molecules that make up a starch or glycogen molecule

Hydrolysis of starch

Part of a starch molecule

amylase
Maltose molecules
maltase
Glucose
molecules

Functions of carbohydrates

Fats

Substrate for respiration, provide energy for all activities

Form supporting structures (e.g. cell walls in plants)
Formation of nucleic acid (DNA)
Synthesise lubricants (mucus)
Converted into other organic compounds such as amino acids and fats

Fats are organic molecules made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen. Unlike carbohydrates, fats contain much less oxygen in proportion
to hydrogen
Fats are made up of 1 molecule glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids
Serve as storage of energy and heat insulation
Used to synthesise the lipid bilayer component of cell membranes

lipase
+ 3H2O

glycerol

lipas
Fat + water
Sources of fats
Butter
Cheese
Nuts

3 fatty
acid
Glycerol + fatty acid

Fat
molecule

Test for fats

Procedure
Add an equal volume of
ethanol to the sample in a
test tube. Mix thoroughly
and add an excess of
water

Results
Contents of test tube
remain clear
A cloudy white emulsion
formed

Conclusion
Fats are absent
Fats are present

Proteins

Proteins are organic molecules made up of elements carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen and nitrogen. Another element, sulfur, may also be present
Made up of primary units called amino acids which have (-NH 2), a (-COOH), an R
group and a hydrogen atom attached to a central carbon atom
Many amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form polypeptides
Polypeptides are further modified to form proteins

NH
`

COOH

Amino
group

Acid group

Test for proteins

Procedure
Results
Conclusion
Add an equal volume of
Solution remains blue
Proteins are absent
NaOH solution to the
Proteins are present
sample in a test tube. Add Solution turns violet
a few drops of 1% CuSO4
solution. Shake and mix
well
Proteins are found in
Milk, seafood, meat such as chicken
Plants foods such as soya beans, nuts, grains
Functions of proteins
Synthesis of new protoplasm, for growth and repair of worn-out body cells
Synthesis of enzymes and some hormones
Formation of antibodies to combat diseases

Chapter 5 Enzyme
Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts, which speed up the rate of

chemical reactions without themselves being chemically changed at
the end of the reaction
Since enzymes are not consumed by the reaction they catalyse, they can
continue to catalyse more reactions after a reaction is complete
Enzymes are protein in nature
Work by lowering the activation energy of reactions they catalyse
Contain active sites which are the reactive portions of the enzyme and act on
specific substrates
Enzymes can catalyse reversible reactions
o From complex molecules to simpler molecules and vice versa
Almost all reactions are catalysed by enzymes
Without enzymes, reactions in the body will be too slow to sustain life
Energy

3
time

1. Activation energy with

enzyme
2. Activation energy without
enzyme
Enzymes are classified
as
o Carbohydrases digest carbohydrates
o Proteases that digest proteins
o Lipase that digest lipids (fats)

Characteristics of enzymes

Enzymes speed up chemical reactions

o Enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions that occur in the cell by
lowering the activation energy needed to start a reaction
Enzymes are required in minute amounts
o Because they remain unchanged at the end of the reaction
o Same enzyme can be used over and over again to catalyse a large amount of
chemical reactions
Enzymes are specific in action
o Highly specific in nature. E.g. amylase on acts on starch, not proteins or fats.
o Specific due to its 3-D shape. Lock and key hypothesis explains how the
shape of an enzyme affects the way it functions

Enzymes catalyse reversible reactions

o E.g. CO2 + H2O

H2CO3

Lock-and-key hypothesis

Carbonic anhydrase

Substances which substrates act on are called substrates

Active sites are depressions on the surface of an enzyme molecule into which the
substrate molecule can fit like a lock-and-key (Enzyme is lock, substrate is key)
o Enzyme has specific 3-D shape, and a specific active site
o Only a specific substrate which is complementary to the active site can fit into the
enzyme. This results in the formation of an enzyme-substrate complex
o While substrate is attached to the active site, chemical reactions occur. Substrate is
converted into products and later leaves the active site. Enzyme remains
unchanged
General equation is
E + S ES E + P
Where E = enzyme, s = substrate(s), P = product(s)

Factors affecting enzymes

Temperature
o Every enzyme has an optimum temperature at which it is most active. (Usually 4045oC)
o Enzymes are inactive at low temperatures. The kinetic energy is low, hence chances
of substrate molecule colliding with enzyme is low
o As temperature increase, frequency of collisions increases, resulting in higher rate
of reaction
o Enzymes become denatured at very high temperatures, resulting in little or no
catalysis, hence rate of reaction decreases
Rate of enzyme
activity

temperature
Optimum
Denaturation is the change of temperature
3D structure of an enzyme or any other soluble proteins, caused
by heat or chemicals such as acids or alkalis

Denaturation results in loss or alteration of the enzymes active site. Substrate no longer
fits into enzyme active site and no reaction will occur
pH
o Each enzyme can only operate within a narrow range of pH
E.g. pepsin in stomach can only work in acidic environment
o Beyond the optimum pH range, enzymes become denatured, resulting in little or no
catalysis
o Highest rate of activity of an enzyme is at its optimum pH

Rate of enzyme
activity
`
pH
Optimum

Chapter 6 Nutrition in Humans

Nutrition is the process by which organisms obtain food and energy for growth, repair and
maintenance of the body
Alimentary canal

Consists of mouth, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine (ileum, jejunum,

duodenum), large intestine (colon) and anus
Includes salivary gland, pancreas, gall bladder and liver as accessory organs
Breaks down food from large portions into smaller soluble substances that can be carried
in the bloodstream
Digestion : Process of breaking down food
Assimilation : Process of making new molecules from simple substances absorbed by the
body
o Liver plays a major role in the assembly of biological molecules using substances
absorbed via alimentary canal
Egestion : Process of removing waste products
Salivary
gland
toungue
Mouth
cavity
epiglottis
oesophagu
spancreas
stomach
Gall
Bile duct
Pyloric
sphincter
pancreas
duodenu
m
jejunum
ileum
colon
Rectu
m
anus

Mouth

Breaks up food by chewing to increase surface area to volume ratio for faster rate of
digestion
Saliva lubricates food particles to move through oesophagus
Tongue mixes food with saliva and rolls food into a bolus
Salivary glands produce salivary amylase
Amylase turns starch into maltose

Oesophagus

Food is pushed through oesophagus by rhythmic contractions along its length

Peristalsis is the rhythmic, wave-like contractions in the wall of the alimentary canal
Oesophagus has 2 layers of muscles
o Longitudinal muscles (outer layer)
o Circular muscles (inner layer)

Longitudinal
muscles
Circular muscles

Longitudinal and circular muscles are antagonistic

o When circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles relax. Oesophagus constricts,
becoming narrower and longer
o When longitudinal muscles contract, circular muscles relax. Oesophagus dilates,
becoming wider

Stomach
`

Circular muscles
contract

Circular muscles relax

Longitudinal muscles

Longitudinal muscles
contract

Distensible muscular bag which can hold food for a long period of time to allow digestion
to take place
Strong muscles contract rhythmically to churn and break down food
Secretes high concentration of HCl(aq) acid which kills microorganisms that enter the
digestive system
Also secretes pepsin which are activated and work optimally at low pH
Secretes mucus, which lines the inner walls of the stomach and protects it from acid and
digestive juices
Pyloric sphincter opens periodically to allow food into the duodenum
Partially digested food that leaves stomach is called chyme

Small intestine

Consists of duodenum, jejunum and ileum

o Duodenum
Connects stomach to small intestine
Entry of food controlled by pyloric sphincter
Site of entry of pancreatic juice and bile from bile duct
Alkaline environment neutralises acid from stomach and denatures stomach
enzymes, preventing damage to duodenum wall
Bulk of digestion takes place in small intestine (ileum and jejunum)
Secretes intestinal juice which contains digestive enzymes such as lipase and maltase
Pancreatic and intestinal enzymes work optimally in alkaline pH
Most food substances are fully digested into simple substances and absorbed into the
bloodstream
Intestinal wall is highly folded with villi and microvilli to increase surface area to volume
ratio for more efficient absorption
Well supplied by blood and lymphatic capillaries to transport away absorbed substances

Intestinal villi (singular villi)

On the surface of the small intestinal wall, there is a high density of finger-like projections
called villi
Epithelial cells on each villus also have projections that are called microvilli
Villi and microvilli greatly increase surface area to volume ratio for more efficient
absorption of digested food substances
Each villus has a dense network of blood capillaries and a lacteal
Blood capillaries carry glucose, amino acids and minerals from the small intestine
Lacteals carry fatty acids, glycerol and fat-soluble vitamins from the small intestine
Blood capillaries from the villi of the intestine eventually combine and form the hepatic
portal vein
Epithelium only one cell thick

Large intestine

Receives undigested food from the small intestine

No digestion takes place in the large intestine
Prevents excessive loss of water and mineral salts through the faeces by reabsorbing them
Leads to rectum where faeces are expelled through anus

Part
Hepatic portal vein

Description
Connects capillaries from small intestine to the liver
Carries blood rich in absorbed glucose, amino acids and minerals
for processing and storage in the liver
Harmful microorganisms and toxins might cross the intestinal walls
to the bloodstream but are eliminated when they reach the liver
Blood that leaves liver has fairly constant concentration of glucose
despite large fluctuations in the hepatic portal vein, especially after
a starchy meal

Pancreas

Gall bladder
Liver
Hepatic artery
Hepatic
vein

Hepatic portal vein

Smalll
intestine

Secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes such as

trypsin, amylase and lipase
Pancreatic juice is released into the duodenum via bile duct
Secretes hormones such as insulin and glucagon which regulate
blood glucose levels
Bile is stored temporarily in the gall bladder
When gall bladder contracts, bile flows into duodenum via bile duct
Receives nutrient-rich blood from the small intestine via hepatic
portal vein
Produces bile which is necessary to emulsify fats
o Bile is stored temporarily in gall bladder and released into
duodenum
Regulates blood glucose concentration
o Too much glucose makes liver secrete insulin, converting
glucose into glycogen for storage
o Too little glucose causes liver to secrete glucagon,
converting glycogen into glucose
Iron storage
o Breaks down haemoglobin from worn-out RBC and stores the
iron that is released
Protein synthesis
o E.g. prothrombin and fibrinogen
Deamination of amino acids
o Deamination is the process by which amino groups are
removed from amino acids and converted into urea
Detoxification
o Converting harmful substances into harmless substances

Alcohol

Harmful to digestive system

o Alcohol stimulates acid secretion in stomach. Excess stomach acid increases the risk
of gastric ulcers

Prolonged alcohol abuse leads to cirrhosis of liver liver cells get destroyed and
replaced with fibrous tissue, making liver function less efficiently
Harmful effects on the nervous system
o Depressant. Slows down some brain functions. Varies from person to person
o Reduced self-control
o Effect on reaction time. Slowed reaction time, poor vision, slurred speech, slower
reflex actions
o

Enzyme
Salivary amylase
Pepsin
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreatic lipase

Produced by
Mouth
Stomach
Pancreas
Pancreas

Substrate
Starch
Proteins
Starch
Lipids

Trypsin
Intestinal lipase

Pancreas
Small intestine

Proteins
Lipids

Maltase
Peptidase

Small intestine
Small intestine

Maltose
Polypeptides

Products
Maltose
Polypeptides
Maltose
Glycerol and fatty
acids
Polypeptides
Glycerol and fatty
acids
glucose
Amino acids

Big fat droplets are broken up into smaller fat droplets by the process of emulsification, which
increases the surface area to volume ratio of the fats, speeding up their digestion by lipase

Chapter 7 Nutrition in plants

Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is
transformed into chemical energy. The chemical energy is used to synthesise
carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide. Water and carbon dioxide is released
during the process
Conditions for photosynthesis

Sunlight
Carbon dioxide
Chlorophyll

Stages of photosynthesis

There are 2 stages for photosynthesis: Light dependent stage and Light independent
stage
1. Light dependent stage
o Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and then converted into chemical energy
Light energy
Chemical energy
chloroph
o Light energy is used to split H2O molecules into hydrogen and oxygen molecules in
yll
the process called photolysis
2. Light independent stage
o Hydrogen produced in photolysis is used to reduce carbon dioxide into
carbohydrates such as glucose. Energy required from this process is taken from the
light dependent stage
o Enzymes play a part in both light dependent and light independent stages

Overall equation for photosynthesis

Light
6 CO2 + 12 H2O energy

C 6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H20

6 CO2 + 6 H2O Chlorophyl

C 6H12O6 + 6 O2 (simplified equation)
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen

Limiting factors for photosynthesis

Light intensity
Concentration of CO2
Temperature

Rate of

Rate of

CO2 concentration
Light
intensity
O AO: Light intensity/CO
2 concentration
Ois the limiting factor

A B : Light intensity/CO2 concentration is no longer the limiting factor, because other factors are
limiting the rate of photosynthesis
Rate of

Temperature

At low temperature, rate of photosynthesis is low

As temperature increase, rate of photosynthesis increase
At high temperature, rate of photosynthesis decreases rapidly due to denaturation of
enzymes and proteins involved in reactions

Fates of glucose after photosynthesis

1. Used immediately
For cellular respiration to provide energy for cellular activities
2. a) In daylight, rate of photosynthesis is high, amount of glucose produced is faster than
amount of glucose used. Excess glucose is converted into starch
b)In darkness, photosynthesis stops. Starch converts back into glucose
3. Converted into sucrose
Transported to other parts of plant or to storage organs such as seeds, stem tubers,
root tubers via phloem
Converted into starch or other forms of storage compounds at storage organs,
depending on plant
Might be converted back into glucose
4. Reacts with nitrates and other mineral salts absorbed in soil
To form amino acids in leaves
i. Used to form proteins for synthesis of new protoplasm in leaves
ii. Excess is transported to other parts of plants for synthesis of new protoplasm
or for storage as proteins
Forms fats
i. For storage
ii. Used in cellular respiration
iii. For synthesis of new protoplasm
Photosynthesis is important because:

Makes chemical energy available to animals and other organisms

Removes CO2 and provides O2
Energy is stored as fossil fuels through photosynthesis

Internal structure of lamina

cuticle
Upper epidermal
layer

Palisade
mesophyll layer

xylem

phloem

Spongy
mesophyll
layer
Lower
epidermal
layer

Upper epidermis

Stomatal
pore

One cell thick

Covered by a waterproof waxy layer called the cuticle which prevents water loss

Mesophyll layer

Consists of 2 layers : Palisade mesophyll and Spongy mesophyll

o Palisade mesophyll
Consists of one or two layers of closely packed enlongated cynlindrical cells
Higher concentration of chloroplasts than in spongy mesophyll as it is more
exposed to sunlight
o Spongy mesophyll
Cells are irregular in shape
Packed loosely
Numerous large intercellular air spaces among the cells allows for diffusion of
CO2 and O2 within the leaf

Lower concentration of chloroplasts than palisade mesophyll

Cells covered with a thin film of moisture
Contains the transport tissues, xylem and phloem. These are grouped to form
vascular bundles

Lower epidermis

Like the upper epidermis, one-cell thick and covered by an outer layer of cuticle which
reduces water loss through the epidermal cell

Stomata (singular : stoma)

Lower epidermis contains numerous stomata

Regulates exchange of gases
Each stoma surrounded by 2 guard cells which control opening and closing of stoma
Guard cell contain chlorophyll and can photosynthesise, unlike the rest of the epidermal
layer

Adaptations of leaf for photosynthesis

Adaptation
Petiole (leaf stalk)
Thin broad lamina

Waxy cuticle on upper and lower epidermis

layer

Stomata present in epidermal layer

Chloroplasts containing chlorophyll found in all
mesophyll cells
More chloroplasts in upper palisade tissue
Interconnecting system of air spaces in
spongy mesophyll
Veins containing xylem and phloem situated
close to mesophyll cells

Function
Holds leaf in position to absorb maximum light
energy
Thin lamina provides short diffusion distance
for gases and enable light to reach all
mesophyll cells
Broad lamina provides large surface area for
max absorption of light
Reduces water loss through evaporation from
the leaf
Transparent to allow light to enter leaf
Open in presence of light, allowing CO 2 to
diffuse in and O2 to diffuse out of the leaf
Chlorophyll absorbs and transforms light
energy to chemical energy used in
manufacturing of sugars
More light energy can be absorbed near the
leaf surface
Allows rapid diffusion of CO2 and O2 in and out
of mesophyll cells
Xylem transports water and mineral salts to
mesophyll cells
Phloem transports sugars away from leaf

Vascular bundle

Consists of xylem and phloem

o Xylem carries water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves
o Phloem carries sucrose manufactured from the leaves to the other parts of the
plants

Xylem
phloem
CO2 enters leaf through stomata
1. In daylight, when photosynthesis occurs, the CO 2 ion the leaf is quickly used up
a. CO2 concentration in leaf becomes lower than atmosphere
b. CO2 diffuses from surrounding air through stomata into the air spaces of the leaf
2. Surface of mesophyll cell surrounded by a thin film of water to allow CO 2 to dissolve in
it
3. Dissolved CO2 diffuses into the cells
Xylem transports water and mineral salts to the leaf
1. Xylem transports water and dissolved mineral salts to the leaf from the roots (Chpt 9)
2. Once out of veins, water and mineral salts move from cell to cell right through the
mesophyll of the leaf
4.

Chapter 8 Transport in humans

Pulmonary
artery

Pulmonary
vein

Vena Cava
Aorta

Deoxygena
ted blood
Heart
Hepati
c vein

Oxygenated
blood
Hepatic
artery

Hepatic
portal vein
Renal
vein

Renal artery

: represents flow of blood

Blood

Contains red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC), and platelets suspended in plasma
Transports nutrients, dissolved gases and waste products around the whole body
Protective function against infections by immune system and prevents blood loss by
clotting

RBC (Erythrocytes)
Biconcave
surface

Produced by bone marrow

Most abundant cell type in blood
Contains haemoglobin, which combines reversibly with oxygen. This enables RBC to
transport oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body
Contains enzymes which catalyse the rate at which CO 2 dissolves in plasma
Flexible enough to squeeze through lumen of narrow capillaries
No cell nucleus, which allows cell to carry more haemoglobin and transport oxygen more
efficiently
Biconcave in shape, increasing surface area to volume ratio to absorb and release oxygen
at a faster rate

WBC (Leucocyte)

Produced by bone marrow and lymph gland

Takes up 1% of total vol. of blood
Clolorless and does not contain haemoglobin
Irregular in shape and contains a nucleus
Can move, change shape and squeeze through thin capillary walls
nucleus
2 kinds of WBC
o Lymphocytes
Large, rounded nucleus
Nearly round in shape
Produces antibodies that help deactivate toxins and harmful microorganisms
o Phagocytes
Has a lobed nucleus and irregular in shape
Break down and remove foreign pathogens by engulfing them and ingesting
them in a process called phagocytosis

Platelets (Thrombocytes)

Fragments of cytoplasm from bone marrow cells

Not true cells

granule
s
Lobed
nucleu
s

Damaged platelets release an enzyme called thrombokinase which intiates the clotting
process

Plasma

Pale, yellowish liquid, consisting of 90% water and complex mixture of various dissolved
substances such as fibrinogen, prothrombin and antibodies
Functions as a transport medium
Contain dissolved mineral salts such as chlorides, sulfates and phosphates of calcium,
sodium, potassium. All these occur as ions in plasma
Contains food substances such as glucose, amino acids, fats, vitamins
Contains excretory products such as urea, uric acid, creatinine
Contains hormones such as insulin

Blood groups

Surface of RBC contain special proteins called antigens

Blood plasma contains antibodies
Natural antibodies will not react with your own antigens, but may react with others,
causing clumping of blood (agglutination)
People can be classified into blood groups according to the antibodies and antigens
present
The 4 blood groups are A, B, AB, O. Named after antigens present

Blood group
A
B
Antigen present
A
B
Antibody present b
a
A antigen reacts with a antibody, causing agglutination

AB
A and B
No antibodies

O
No antigens
a and b

AB

+
+
- : no agglutination

+
+
-

+
+
+
-

B antigen reacts with b antibody, causing agglutination

Recipient
Donor
O
A
B
AB
+ : agglutination

O is a universal donor, while AB is a universal recipient.

Functions of blood

Transport function
Substances transported
Digested food
- Glucose, amino acids,
mineral salts, fats, vitamins

Carried from
Intestines

Excretory products
Nitrogenous wastes : Urea,
uric acid, creatinine

All parts of the body

To
Other parts of the body
Excess mineral salts
transported to kidney for
excretion
To kidneys

Carbon dioxide : carried as

hydrogen carbonate ions
(HCO3- in plasma)
Hormones
Heat

Glands
Respiring body tissues (E.g.
muscles)

Oxygen (transported by
Lungs
haemoglobin in RBC)
How oxygen is transported to the cells of the body

To lungs, where HCO3- is

converted to CO2 to be
expelled
Target organs
All parts of the body to
maintain a uniform body
temperature
All parts of the body for
cellular respiration

Haemoglobin in RBC binds reversibly to form oxyhaemoglobin

Protective functions of the blood:

Blood clotting
Phagocytosis
Antibody production

Clotting/coagulation of blood

(Inactive)

Calcium + thrombokinase (thrombokinase produced by damaged tissue and blood

Thrombin
platelets)
(active)
(soluble) Fibrinogen thrombin
(insoluble) Fibrin
threads

Phagocytosis is the process of engulfing or ingesting foreign particles, such as bacteria, by the
WBC
Tissue rejection is caused by the patients lymphocyte responding to the transplant by producing
antibodies to destroy the transplant
Prevention of tissue rejection

Immunosuppressive drugs
o Inhibits the responses of the recipients immune system
o However, the recipient would have lower resistance to many kinds of infection
o Recipient has to continue taking the drugs for life

Circulatory system

Heart
o A muscular pump
o When relaxing, heart fills up with blood
o When contracting, heart forces out blood
o Blood circulates around the whole body
Arteries
o Carry blood away from the heart
Arterioles
o Arteries branch again to form arterioles
Capillaries
o Arterioles branch out to form capillaries

Microscopic blood vessels made up of a single layer of flattened cells called

endothelium
o Endothelium is partially permeable. Enables substances to diffuse through quickly
o Capillaries branch repeatedly, forming a large surface area for exchange of
substances between blood and tissue cells
Venules
o Capillaries unite to form venules
o

Veins
o Venules unite to form veins
o Carries blood back to the heart

Structure

Arteries
Thick elastic muscular
walls help to
withstand high blood
pressure exerted by
the heart
Elasticity helps
artery wall to
stretch and
recoil. Helps to
push blood in
spurts along
the artery,
giving rise to a
pulse

Veins
Thinner elastic
muscular layer than
arteries because
blood moves more
smoothly in veins,
less pressure needed
to withstand

Capillaries
One-cell thick walls,
no muscular/elastic
tissue allows diffusion
of substances
between blood and
tissue fluid

Small lumen relative

to diameter
Semi-lunar valves
absent

Large lumen relative

to its diameter
Semi-lunar valves
absent

Function

Carry blood away

from the heart
Carry oxygenated
blood (except
pulmonary arteries)

Large lumen relative

to diameter
Semi-lunar valves
present to prevent
backflow of blood
Carry blood towards
the heart
Carry deoxygenated
blood (except
pulmonary vein)

Flow

Blood under high

pressure

Blood under low

pressure

Blood moves in
pulses, reflecting the
rhythmic pumping
action of the heart

No pulse

Links arteries and

veins
Blood changes from
oxygenated in
arterioles to
deoxygenated at
venule
Blood pressure
reduced as blood
flows from arteriole to
venule end
No pulse

Blood flows rapidly

Blood flows slowly

Blood flows slowly

Transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluids

1. When blood enters capillaries from arteries, it is at relatively high pressure
2. Some blood plasma, excluding blood plasma proteins, is forced out of the capillary into the
tissue surrounding it
3. Fluid that escapes from capillaries is called tissue fluid, and bathes every cell in that tissue
4. At the end of the capillary, blood pressure is relatively low, fluid enters from the back into
the capillaries where it forms blood plasma
5. This way, freshly supplied tissue fluids containing nutrients and dissolved oxygen
constantly replaces tissue fluid containing dissolved wastes

Mammals go through double circulation, unlike other animals which only go through single
circulation
In double circulation, blood flows through the heart twice in one circuit
Mammals have a double circulation consisting of pulmonary and systemic circulations
o Pulmonary circulation: blood pumped from heart to lungs and back
o Systemic circulation: blood flows from heart to rest of the body and back

Pulmonar
y arteries

Aorta

Superior
vena
cava

Right
atriu

Left
atriu

Semi-lunar
valves

Inferior
vena
cava

Tricuspid
valve

Pulmoary
veins

Right
ventricl
e

Left
ventricl
e

Bicuspid
valve

Median
septum
2 upper chambers called atria (singular : atrium)
o Comparatively thin muscular walls since they only need to force blood into
ventricles, does not require high pressure
2 lower larger chambers called ventricles
o Comparatively thick muscular walls, especially the left ventricle, since it has to
pump blood to the rest of the body, requiring high pressure

Right ventricle has thinner walls than left as it only has to pump blood to the lungs
which is close to the heart and requires less pressure, compared to the left ventricle
having to pump blood to the rest of the body
Right and left sides of the heart separated by a muscular wall called median septum, runs
down the middle of the heart
o Median septum prevents mixing of deoxygenated blood in the right side with
oxygenated blood in its left side
o Mixing of deoxygenated blood with oxygenated blood reduces the amount of oxygen
transported to the tissue cells
o

Cardiac cycle
1. Begins with relaxation of the atria, resulting in blood flowing from the vena cava into the
right atrium and from the pulmonary vein into the left atrium
2. Atria contraction increases pressure and forces blood to flow into their respective
ventricles
3. Atria relaxation and ventricular contraction cause the closure of the bicuspid and tricuspid
valves resulting in the lub sound
4. Closure of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves prevent the backflow of blood from the
ventricles back to the atria
5. Blood from the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery
6. Blood from the left ventricle enters the aorta
7. Relaxation of the ventricles causes the closure of the semi-lunar valves, resulting in dub
sound
8. Closure of semi-lunar valves prevent backflow of blood from the arteries to ventricles
when ventricles relax
9. Each cardiac cycle consists of an atrial and ventricular contraction
Contraction of ventricles is called ventricular systole
Relaxation of ventricles is called ventricular diastole

1 cardiac
cycle
`

Main arteries of the body:

The arteries leaving the heart are

o Pulmonary artery from the right ventricle
o Aorta from the left ventricle
From the aortic arch
o Arteries to the head, neck, arm
o Aortic arch curls backwards towards the left side of the heart and continues
downwards as the dorsal aorta
Dorsal aorta distributes blood to regions of the body below the heart. It supplies
oxygenated blood through
o Hepatic artery to the liver
o Arteries to the stomach, intestines
o Renal arteries, one to each kidney

Main veins of the body

Blood
o
o
o

is returned to the heart by

Pulmonary vein brings blood from the lungs to the left atrium
Superior vena cava returns blood from the head, neck and arns to the right atrium
Inferior vena cava runs upwards parallel to the dorsal aorta and brings blood to the
right atrium
Inferior vena cava collects blood from
o Renal veins from the kidneys
o Hepatic vein from the liver
o Veins from the gut do not open directly into the inferior vena cava. Instead, leads to
the hepatic portal vein which leads into liver

Coronary heart disease

Coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscles

Narrowed lumen of coronary arteries caused by fatty deposits causes
o Atherosclerosis
o This results in an increase of blood pressure
o Such affected arteries develop rough inner surface, increasing the risk of a blood
clot trapped in the artery
o A blood clot formed in an artery is called a thrombosis
o When it occurs in the coronary artery, supply of oxygen to heart muscles is reduced
or cut off completely
o Without oxygen, heart muscle cells may be damaged, heart attack occurs
Stress, smoking, alcohol and fatty diets increase the risk of developing heart diseases
Leading a smoke-free, healthy lifestyle with regular exercise decreases the risk of
developing heart disease

Chapter 9 Transport in plants

xylem

phloem

Xylem

Transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves of the plant
Provides mechanical support to the stem
Empty lumen with no cross walls or cytoplasm reduces resistance to water flowing
through the xylem
Walls thickened with lignin to prevent collapse of the vessel

Phloem

Transports manufactured food such as sucrose and amino acids from the leaves to
the other parts of the plant
Consists of sieve tube cells and companion cells
o Sieve tube cells only have a thin layer of cytoplasm with perforated cross
walls
o Companion cells rich in mitochondria, which provide energy to keep sieve
tubes alive for active transport
Transport of substances occurs by diffusion and active transport
Holes in sieve plates allow for rapid flow of manufactured food substances through
the sieve tubes

Root hair cells

Form the epidermal layer of roots

Have a long and narrow projection which increase surface area to volume ratio for
more efficient water absorption
Central vacuole contains concentrated cell sap, which helps to draw water into the
cell from the soil by osmosis
Have the ability to transport minerals via active transport since they are living cells

Translocation

Transport of manufactured food substances such as sugars and amino acids in

plants
Occurs in phloem vessels which are made up of living cells
Involves active transport and diffusion

Translocation studies

Using aphids in translocation studies

o Aphids penetrates leaf or stem and feed on phloem
o Anaesthetising the aphid with CO2 and cutting off the body, leaving the
feeding stylet, and examining the liquid that exudes from the cut end of the
proboscis shows that it is inserted into the phloem sieve tube, and the liquid
is sucrose and amino acids
o This shows that translocation of sugars and amino acids occurs in the
phloem
Using carbon-14 isotopes
o Plant is provided with CO2 containing radioactive carbon, 14C
o When photosynthesis occurs, the sugars formed contain the radioactive
carbon. Stem is cut out and exposed onto an X-ray photographic film.
o Radioactive substances are present in the phloem, showing that
translocation of sugars occur in the phloem

Entry of water into a plant

Each root hair cell is a fine tubular outgrowth of an epidermal cell

Sap in root hair cell is a relatively concentrated solution of sugars and various
salts. Water enters root hair cell by osmosis, moving from a region of higher water
potential (from soil) to region of lower water potential (root hair cell)
Water drawn into the root hair cell by osmosis creates a pushing force called root
pressure
Narrow xylem vessels allow water to creep upwards via capillary action
Water loss through the stomata of leaves creates a suction force to pull water
upwards resulting in transpiration pull

1
2

1. Water enters the root hair cell by osmosis

2. Because there is a higher water potential in the root hair cell than the
neighbouring cells, water moves to it by osmosis
3. This repeats until the water enters the xylem vessels and moves up the plant
`

Root hair cells absorb ions or mineral salts by active transport

When the concentration of ions in the soil is lower than in the cell sap, it moves
into the cell by active transport, using energy from cellular respiration in the root
hair cell

Capillary action

Water tends to move up very narrow tubes due to interactions between molecules
of water and surfaces of the tube

Transpiration pull

Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from a plant, mainly through the
stomata of the leaf
Spongy mesophyll cells have a thin layer of moisture around them for gases to
dissolve and diffuse into the cell
Evaporation causes water surrounding the cells to be lost as water vapor through
the stomata of the leaves when the stomata is opened
Therefore, loss of water in plant via transpiration is a consequence of gaseous
exchange in plants
Loss of water causes water potential to decrease due to an increase in
concentration of dissolved solutes in the cell
Water then moves from neighbouring cells by osmosis and eventually creates a
suction force at the xylem vessels called transpiration pull
Transpiration is important because it also helps to cool the leaves on the plant

Factors affecting rate of transpiration

Air movement (Wind removes saturated air filled with water vapor)
o Increased air movement increased transpiration rate
Humidity (Humid air has high concentration of water vapor)
o Increased humidity decreased transpiration rate
Light intensity (increasing light intensity causes stomata to open)
o Increased light intensity increased transpiration rate
Temperature (Temperature increase increases rate of evaporation)
o Increased temperature increased transpiration rate

Wilting

Occurs due to excessive transpiration and insufficient water uptake, resulting in

net loss of water from the plant
Cells of plants become flaccid, resulting in wilting
Flaccid guard cells close stomata, preventing further water loss from leaves
Leaves fold up, reducing surface area for water loss

Chapter 10 Respiration in Humans

Respiration is the breakdown (oxidation) of food substances with the

release of energy in living cells

2 forms of respiration:

Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration is the breakdown (or oxidation) of glucose in the

presence of oxygen with the release of a large amount of energy. Carbon
dioxide and water are released as waste products
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6 H2O + Large amount of energy
Occurs primarily in mitochondria of cells

Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose in the absence of

oxygen. Anaerobic respiration releases less energy than anaerobic
respiration
Occurs when there is a lack of oxygen/energy provided for muscles by blood to
respire, such as vigorous exercise
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + Small amounts of energy
Glucose lactic acid + small amount of energy
Occurs primarily in the cytoplasm of cells
Accumulation of lactic acid in muscle cells results in muscle pains and fatigue
Lactic acid is gradually removed from the muscles and transported to the liver
o In the liver, some lactic acid is oxidised to release energy, which converts the
remaining lactic acid into glucose

Respiratory tract

Air enters from the nose to the nasal cavity, where nostril hairs help remove large
dust particles
Mucus glands along trachea and bronchi produces mucus which helps trap dust
and microorganisms
Ciliated cells on the inner surface of trachea and bronchi sweep upwards to remove
mucus
Mucus also helps warm and moisten air before entering lungs

Alveoli

Forms a very large exchange surface for gases in the lungs

Surrounded by a dense capillary network for efficient gaseous exchange
Thin film
of
moisture

Continuous
blood flows
from
pulmonary

Alveola
r cavity

To
pulmonary
vein

1. Deoxygenated blood from pulmonary arteries enter the lungs and into the
capillaries at alveoli
2. Concentration of O2 alveoli is higher than in capillary, thus O2 diffuses into
capillaries and binds to haemoglobin in the RBC to be carried back into the heart
3. At the same time, CO2 concentration in the capillary is higher than alveoli, thus CO2
diffuses out of the capillary into the alveoli to be exhaled
Alveoli is one-cell thick to minimise distance for diffusion
Surface of alveoli in contact with air is lined with a layer of moisture to allow gases
to dissolve and diffuse across
Breathing
Action

Ribs

Lungs

Diaphragm

Inhaling

Moves
upwards and
outwards
Moves
downwards
and inwards

Volume
increase

Contracts
and moves
downwards
Relaxes and
moves
outwards

Exhaling

Volume
decrease

External
intercostal
muscle
Contract

Internal
intercostal
muscle
Relax

Relax

Contract

Removal of CO2

CO2 is a waste product of cellular respiration

Carbonic anhydrase is an enzyme found in RBC which catalyses the conversion of
CO2 and H2O into H+ and HCO3- ions
CO2 + H2O HCO3- + H+
CO2
CO2 + H2O

CO2

H2CO3

HCO3- +
H+

HCO3-

HCO3-

These ions are water soluble, carried by blood plasma

When ions reaches the lungs, ions move back into RBC and are converted back
into CO2, which leaves the lungs as a gas during exhalation

Smoking and respiratory diseases

Chemicals
Nicotine

Properties
Addictive
Makes blood clot easily

Carbon monoxide

Combines with
haemoglobin to form
carboxyhaemoglobin
Increased rate of fatty
deposits on arterial wall
Causes uncontrolled cell
division
Paralyses cilia lining

Tar and irritants

Effects
Increased blood pressure
Increase risk of blood clots
Increases risk of coronary
heart disease
Lowered supply of O2 in the
body
Increased blood pressure
Increases risk of cancer in
lungs
Tar accumulates in
respiratory airways,
obstructing it

Diseases caused

Chronic bronchitis
o Epithelium lining on airways inflamed
o Excessive mucus secreted
o Cilia and epithelium paralysed. Mucus and dust particles unable to be
removed
o Obstructed air passages, making breathing difficult
o Persistent coughing to clear air passage
Emphysema (by violent coughing due to bronchitis)
o Partition wall in alveoli break down due to coughing
o Decreased surface area for gaseous exchange
o Lungs lose elasticity and become inflamed with air
o Difficulty in breathing wheezing and severe breathlessness results
Lung cancer
o Caused by carcinogens in tobacco smoke

Chapter 11 Excretion in humans

Excretion is the process by which metabolic waste products and toxic

substances are removed from the body of an organism

The sum of all chemical reactions within the body of an organism is known as catabolism

Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism

Human urinary system

Contains:
o Kidneys
o Ureters
o Urinary bladder
o Urethra

Ureter

Narrow tube which connects the kidney to the urinary bladder, and where urine
passes through

Urinary bladder

An elastic muscular bag located in front of the rectum

Stores urine

Urethra

A duct which urine passes from bladder to outside of body

Sphincter muscles

Located at bottom of bladder, controls urination by contraction and relaxation

Kidney

Cortex
o Contains many malphigian corpuscles
Malphigian corpuscle is a single nephron
o Outer dark red region, granular texture

o Covered by fibrous capsule

Medulla (pyramids)
o Inner pale red region
o Renal pyramids located in this region
o Striated (Striped) texture containing many tubules
Renal pyramids
o Conical structure in the medulla
o Human kidney has 12-16 pyramids
o Redial stripes on medulla pyramids indicate numerous kidney tubules called
nephrons
Urine is formed in nephrons
Renal pelvis
o Renal pyramids project into a funnel-like shape called renal pelvis
o The enlarged portion of the ureter inside the kidney

Structure of a nephron

Bowmans capsule
o Each nephron begins in the cortex as a cup like structure called the
Bowmans capsule
Proximal convoluted tubule
o Bowmans capsule leads into a short, convoluted tubule which straightens
out as it passes into the medulla

Loop of Henle
o In the medulla, tubule extends into the renal pyramid and U-turns back into
the cortex
o Consists of both the ascending and descending loop of Henle
Distal convoluted tubule
o The part of the tubule after the loop of henle which is convoluted again
Collecting duct
o Tubule opens into a collecting duct that runs straight through the medulla to
the renal pelvis

Ultrafiltration

Occurs at the Malphigian corpuscle of each nephron

Blood enters kidneys by renal artery, branching into many arterioles
Each afferent arteriole branches into a small ball of capillaries called the
glomerulus
Blood enters glomerulus at high hydrostatic forces (high blood pressure) and most
of the blood plasma, excluding proteins and large molecules are filtered out of the
capillary
o All blood cells are too large to pass through the basement membrane and are
retained in the capillaries. Presence of blood in urine may indicate kidney
problems
The filtrate passes into the Bowmans capsule and travels in another set of tubules.
Filtrate contains water and small molecules (such as glucose and amino acids,
mineral salts and nitrogenous waste products). Blood cells, platelets and large
molecules such as proteins and fats retained in glomerular capillary
Filtered blood leaves the glomerulus by an efferent arteriole instead if a vein

Reabsorption

Most of the mineral salts and all of the glucose and amino acids reabsorbed
through the walls of the proximal convoluted tubule into the surrounding blood
capillaries
o These solutes are reabsorbed by diffusion and active transport. This
reabsorption is highly selective, only the substances required by the body
would be reabsorbed
o Water in the filtrate is reabsorbed by osmosis
Water is reabsorbed at the loop of henle
At the distal convoluted tubule, some water and mineral salts are reabsorbed
At the collecting duct, some water is reabsorbed
o Excess water, excess salts and metabolic waste products (e.g. urea, uric
acid, creatinine) pass out of the collecting duct into the renal pelvis as a
mixture called urine

Ultrafiltration
occurs
Selective reabsorption

Unwante
d
material

Osmoregulation is the control of water and solute concentration in the blood to maintain
a constant water potential in the body
Amount of water in blood plasma is controlled by anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), produced
by hypothalamus, released by the pituitary gland
1. Lower water potential than normal of blood plasma detected by hypothalamus and
stimulates pituitary gland to release ADH
2. ADH released into bloodstream causes constriction of blood vessels, increasing
blood pressure
3. Reaches the kidney and causes more water to be reabsorbed, hence conserving
water and increasing water potential of blood
a. Regulation of water potential is important to prevent dehydration or cells
bursting
Kidney failures

Kidney failure results in the inability of the kidney to remove wastes from the blood
or to reabsorb useful substances effectively
Commonly caused by high blood pressure, damaging the glomerular filtration
membranes or caused by diabetes mellitus, which results in excess glucose being
filtered and not reabsorbed by the kidney
Patient is usually treated by dialysis, where a machine takes over the kidneys job
of removing wastes from blood

Drinking more water

Increase

Less ADH secreted

Increased
More

Water potential
Stimulates
hypothalamus
Pituitary gland secretes
Reabsorption of water
Urine

Drinking less water

Decrease

More ADH secreted

Decreased
Less

Dialysis

Blood from patient passes through partially permeable tubes inside the dialyser
Tubes are bathed in dialysis fluid containing salts and glucose in approximately
equal concentrations with that of blood

Only urea and unwanted wastes will diffuse across the membrane into the dialysis
fluid to be removed
Blood and dialysis fluid flow in opposite directions to maintain a high concentration
gradient for the diffusion of wastes
o This is known as counter-current flow
Useful substances, proteins and blood cells, remain in the tubes and are pumped
back to the patients

Chapter 12 Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal body environment,

which is essential for survival
Important parameters include body temperature and blood pH
Huge fluctuations in these parameters affect enzymatic activities, which affect
many of the bodys chemical reactions
Homeostasis involves
o Thermoregulation maintenance of a constant body temperature
o Osmoregulation the maintenance of a constant water potential and pH

Corrective mechanism

Changes in the internal environment of the body are detected by receptors as a

stimulus
Receptors send information regarding the stimulus to a processor which is usually
part of the brain
The processor then sends signals to the effectors which initiate changes in the
body to counter the stimulus
Receptors continue to monitor the internal environment and send information to
the processor until the stimulus is removed
The process of correcting the internal environment through this corrective
mechanism is known as negative feedback

Receptor (Detect

Stimul
us
`

Effectors
(Implements
corrective

As condition returns to normal,

negative feedback is sent to
receptor to continue
monitoring stimulus until
normal condition is achieved

Response
(Condition starts
to return to

Normal
condition

Corrective mechanism

Regulating blood glucose concentration

Islets of Langerhans secrete insulin

Receptor
Islets
Langerhans
pancreas

of
in

Stimulus

As blood glucose levels decreases,

Blood
negative feedback is sent to islets
glucose
of Langerhans to continue
concentrati monitoring stimulus until normal
on above
condition is achieved
Normal
condition
Stimulus
Blood glucose
concentrationAs blood glucose levels increases,
below normalnegative feedback is sent to islets

Insulin is transported to liver and

muscle cells
Insulin increases permeability of cell
surface membrane to glucose.
Glucose absorbed more quickly
Insulin causes liver and muscles to
convert excess glucose to glycogen,

Blood glucose
concentration
decreases.
Blood glucose
concentration
increases

of Langerhans to continue
monitoring stimulus until normal
condition is achieved
Corrective mechanism
Islets of Langerhans secrete glucagon
Receptor
Islets of
Langerhans in
pancreas

Glucagon transported to liver

and muscle cells
Glucagon causes the conversion
of stored glycogen to glucose
From liver, glucose enters
bloodstream

Corrective mechanism

Regulating blood water potential

Receptor

Hypothalamus
stimulated

Stimulus
Water
potential
increases

As water potential decreases,

negative feedback is sent
hypothalamus to continue
monitoring stimulus until normal
condition is achieved
Normal
condition

Less ADH released by pituitary

gland into bloodstream
Less ADH transported to kidney
Cells in walls of collecting duct
become less permeable to water
Less water reabsorbed into
bloodstream
More water excreted
Urine is more diluted
More urine produced

Water potential
decreases.

Stimulus

Water potential
Water
increases
potential
As water potential increases,
below normalnegative feedback is sent to
hypothalamus to continue
monitoring stimulus until normal
condition is achieved
Corrective mechanism

Receptor
hypothalamus
stimulated

More ADH secreted by pituitary

gland into bloodstream
More ADH transported to
kidneys
Cells in walls of collecting duct
become more permeable to
water
More water reabsorbed into
bloodstream
Less water excreted
Urine more concentrated

Skin

Functions
o Protect the body from foreign organisms and UV rays from sunlight
o Prevent excessive water and heat loss
o Have nerve receptors which contribute to the sense of touch
o Production of Vitamin D in the presence of sunlight

Component
Receptor

Organ
Thermoreceptor in skin

Processor

Hypothalamus

Effectors

Arterioles in skin

Sweat glands

Thyroid glands

Hair erector muscles

Component
Receptor

Organ
Thermoreceptor in skin

Processor

Hypothalamus

Function
Detect rise in temperature
of skin and sends signals to
hypothalamus
Detects rise in temperature
and sends signals to
effectors
Vasodilation occurs to allow
more blood to reach the
skin and lose more heat
Produce sweat which will
take away heat when it
evaporates from the skin
Decrease in metabolic rate
of the body to reduce heat
production
Relax to make hair lay flat
to lose more heat
Function
Detect fall in temperature
of skin and sends signals to
hypothalamus
Detects fall in temperature
and sends signals to

Effectors

Arterioles in skin

Muscles in body
Thyroid glands

Hair erector muscle

effectors
Vasoconstriction occurs to
allow more blood to reach
the skin and lose more heat
Shivering occurs to produce
more heat
Increase in metabolic rate
of the body to increase
heat production
Contracts to allow hair to
stand, trapping air and
reducing heat loss (air is a
poor conductor of heat)

Chapter 13 Coordination and

response in humans
Human nervous system

Human nervous system consists of

o Central nervous system (CNS) containing the brain and the spinal cord
o Peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting of nerves connecting the central
nervous system and the rest of the body. Function of PNS is to conduct
sensory and motor signals between the CNS and the limbs and organs
(receptors and effectors)
Stimulus is a change in the environment that causes an organism to react.
Detected by sensory neurons
Response is a change in the body as a result of the stimulus. Effectors cells are
muscle cells or gland cells which carry out the response to the stimuli
Receptors collect information from the external and internal environments and
send information to the CNS via sensory neurones
Nerve impulses from the CNS reach the muscles via motor neurons

Nervous tissue

Nerve impulses are transmitted by nerves, which are bundles of neurones wrapped
in connective issue
A neurone is a nerve cell
o Neurones have a cell body, an axon, and a dendron
o Cell body contains nucleus and cytoplasm
3 main types of neurones
o Sensory neurones transmit nerve impulses from the receptors to the relay
neuron in the central nervous system
o Relay neurones transmit nerve impulses from the sensory neurones to the
motor neurones. Found within CNS

o Motor neurones transmit nerve impulses from relay neurone to effectors

muscle cells or gland cells
How impulses are transmitted around the body
1. Stimulus detected by receptors
2. Information is converted into nerve impulses
3. Sensory neurones transmits nerve impulses from sensory neurones to relay
neurones in the CNS
4. Brain processes nerve impulses
5. Brain sends other nerve impulses based on the received information from relay
neurones to motor neurones
6. Motor neurones sends nerve impulses to effectors
7. Effectors carry out intended action

receptor
Sensory
neurone
Nerve impulse

Relay
neuron

Effectors

Motor neurone

Structure of neurones

Central
nervous
system

Cell
body

Dendrite of
dendron

Myelin
shaft

Dendrons are nerve fibres that transmit nerve impulses towards the cell body
Dendrites of dendrons receive nerve impulses from other neurones
Axons are nerve fibres that carry nerve impulses away from the cell body
Dendrites of axon transmit nerve impulses to other neurones
Myelin shaft is a layer of fatty substance that shields and insulates the nerve fibre.
Myelin sheath is surrounded by a thin membrane known as the neurilemma
Nodes of Ranvier are regions where the myelin shaft is absent. They speed up
transmission by allowing impulses to jump from node to node
Motor end plates (in motor neurone) is the junction between the dendrite and
muscle fibre

Smooth and circular cell body

Long dendron, short axon
Transmits impulses from receptor to CNS

Motor neurone

Dendrite of

Nodes of
Ranvier

Sensory neurone

axon

Cell
body
Axon

Dendrite

Dendro

Irregularly-shaped cell body

Short dendron, long axon
Transmit nerve impulses from the CNS to the nerve effectors

Synapse

The junction or connection between 2 neurones

Impulses are transmitted from an axon to a dendron across a synapse
Transmission across a synapse is by chemical means (through a neurotransmitter)

Nerves

A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue

Nerves that emerge from the brain are called cranial nerves, nerves that emerge
from the spinal cord are spinal nerves
Spinal nerves contain mixed fibres. They are made up of sensory and motor nerve
fibres

Nerve impulse transmission

Relay neurones lie within the grey matter of the spinal cord
Relay neurones transmit nerve impulses from
o Sensory neurones brain
o Brain motor neurones
o Sensory neurones motor neurones
Relay neurones form synapses with sensory and motor neurones

Voluntary and reflex actions

Reflex actions
Reflex action is an immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious
control
These actions are involntary and are not under the control of a persons will
Shortest pathway of nerve impulses from the receptor to the effectors is known
as the reflex arc
E.g. of reflex actions

o Touching a hot object

1. Heat stimulates receptors in your skin
2. Nerve impulses are produced and they are transmitted along the
sensory neurone to the spinal cord
3. In the spinal cord, nerve impulses are transmitted to the relay neurone,
and then to the motor neurone. At the same time, nerve impulses are
transmitted to the brain
4. Upon receiving nerve impulses from relay neurone, motor neurone
transmits nerve impulses to effector
5. Effector muscles contract, resulting in withdrawal of hand from the
object
Types of reflex actions
o Spinal reflex
Reflexes that are controlled by the spinal cord
Withdrawal reflexes, knee-jerk reflexes
o Cranial reflex
Reflexes that are controlled by the brain, but occur without a persons
consciousness
Pupil reflex, salivation
Reflex arc
o The shorter pathway which nerve impulses travel from the receptor to the
effector in a reflex action

Chapter 14 The Human Eye

The eye is a receptor

Cornea

A dome-shaped transparent layer that is able to refract light rays into the eye

Sclera

Tough white outer covering, protects eyeball from mechanical damag

Continuous with the cornea

Conjunctiva

A mucus membrane, covering the sclera

Secretes mucus to keep front of the eyeball moist

Pupil

A hole in the center of the iris, allowing light to enter the eye

Iris

A circular sheet of muscles, consisting of 2 sets of involuntary muscles cicular

and radial muscles
Also contains a pigment which gives the eye color

Eyelid

Protects cornea from mechanical damage

Squinting prevents excessive entry of light
Blinking spread tears over the eyes so that dust can be wiped off

Eyelash

Shields eye from dust particle

Tear gland

Secretes tears to
o Wash away dirt
o Keep cornea moist for atmospheric oxygen to dissolve
o Lubricate the conjunctiva, reducing friction when the eyelids move

Internal structure of eye

Wall of the eyeball has 3 layers

o Sclerotic coat (Sclera) outermost layer
Tough, white outer covering of eyeball which is continuous to cornea
Eye muscles attached to this layer facilitates the movement of the
eyeball
o Choroid middle layer
Black pigmented middle layer which prevents internal reflection of light
Contains blood vessels that carry oxygen and nutrients to eyeball and
remove metabolic waste products from the eyeball
o Retina innermost layer
Contains light-sensitive cells known as photoreceptors which consists
of rods and cones
Connected to nerve fibres from the optic nerve
Fovea (yellow spot)
o A small yellow depression where images are focused
o Contains cones but not rods
o Enables a person to have detailed color vision in bright light
Blind spot
o Region where optic nerve leaves the eye
o Does not contain photoreceptors, therefore not sensitive to light
Optical nerve
o Transmits impulses to the brain where photoreceptors are stimulated
Lens
o Transparent, circular and biconvex structure
o Shape or thickness can change in order to refract light onto the retina

Suspensory ligament
o Attaches the edge of the lens to the ciliary body
Ciliary body
o Contains ciliary muscles which control the curvature and thickness of the
lens
Aqueous chamber
o Space between the lens and the cornea
o Filled with aqueous humour, a transparent watery fluid
o Aqueous humour keeps front of the eyeball firm, and refracts light into the
pupil
Virtreous chamber
o Space behind the lens
o Filled with vitreous humour, a transparent jelly-like substance
o Vitreous humour keeps eyeball firm and refracts light onto the retina
o More dense liquid that aqueous humour

Photoreceptors in the retina

Cones
o Three types of cones
Red

Blue
Green
o Each type contains different pigments, which absorbs light of different
wavelength
o Work together to enable us to see a variety of colors in bright light
Rods
o Rods are stimulated even by very dim light, but only in black or white
o Contains a pigment called visual purple
o Visual purple is bleached when exposed to bright light and impulses cannot
be sent to brain

Focusing light by the lens (accommodation reflex)

An image is focused in the eye by changing the thickness of the lens, thus able to
refract light into fovea accurately
Nature of image
o Vertically inverted
o Laterally inverted
o Smaller image than the object
Role of brain
Inverted image formed on retina
Light sensitive cells(rods and cones) are stimulated
Nerve impulses generated are transmitted through the optic nerve
Nerve impulses reach the optic centre of the brain
Brain interprets information and forms an upright image
Brain has a corrective function
Image is upside down in retina, but brain makes it upright

Distance of object
Near

Far

Action of the eye

Ciliary muscles contract

Result
Suspensory ligaments
slacken, relaxing pull on
lens, lens becomes thicker
and more convex,
decreasing focal length
Ciliary muscles relax
Suspensory ligament
become taut, pulling on
edge of lens, lens becomes
thinner and less convex,
increasing focal length
By increasing/decreasing focal length, light rays are sharply focused on the
retina, stimulating the photoreceptors
Nerve impulses generated are transmitted to brain via optic nerve
Brain interprets impulses, person sees object as distant/near

Response to light intensity by the pupil (pupil reflex)

Light enters eye through a hole called the pupil

Iris controls diameter of pupil, hence controls the amount of light that enters the eye
and prevents damage to the retina
The iris controls the amount of light passing through 2 type of muscles: Circular and
radial
Radial muscles
Circular
muscles

These 2 muscles are antagonistic

Work together to control size of pupil
Light intensity
Low
High

Action of eye
Iris circular muscles relax
Iris radial muscles
contract
Iris circular muscles
contract
Iris radial muscles relax

Result
Pupil dilates and allows
more light to enter eye

Pupil becomes smaller to

prevent excessive light
from entering the eye
and damaging the retina
Pupil reflex protects eye from excessive light exposure, which could damage the
retina
Pupil becomes larger when light levels are low, and smaller when light levels are high
The reflex arc of the pupil reflex
Stimulus (change in light intensity)receptor(retina)sensory neurone in optic
nerve relay neurone to brainmotor neuroneeffector(iris)

Chapter 15 Hormones
Hormones

A hormone is a chemical substance produced in minute quantities by an

endocrine gland. It is transported in the bloodstream to target organ(s)
where it exerts its effects(s).
After hormones have performed their functions, they are eventually destroyed by the
liver
Hormone production is controlled by the nervous system, produced by endocrine
glands
Endocrine glands are ductless glands that transport their secretion through the
bloodstream
Exocrine gland have ducts present to transport secretion to target organs
Hormones can have an effect on multiple target organs
Hormones influence the growth, development and activity of an organism
E.g. of hormones are
Insulin and glucagon, produced by the islet of Langerhans in the liver, released
directly into the bloodstream
Too much of a hormone could harm the person
E.g. hyperthyroidism is the overproduction of thyroid hormones in the thyroid.
Results in increased metabolic rate, high body temperature, can result in heart
failure

Endocrine glands and their hormonal secretion

Endocrine
gland
Islets of
Langerha
ns in the
pancreas
Islets of
Langerha
ns in the
pancreas

Hormone
released
Insulin

Action

Increases glucose uptake and cell metabolism by making cells

more permeable to glucose
Decreased blood glucose concentration

Glucagon

Adrenal
medulla
in the
adrenal
gland

Adrenaline

Pituitary

Anti-

Stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose

Increased blood glucose concentration
Stimulates the conversion of fats and amino acids into glucose
Stimulates the conversion of lactic acid to glucose
Speeds up glycogen breakdown
Increased blood glucose concentration
Increases metabolic rate
Increases heart rate and blood pressure
Increases rate and depth of ventilation
Increases rate of blood clotting
Constricts arterioles in skin
Causes pupils to dilate
Contracts hair muscles, producing goose bumps
Increase permeability of kidney to water

gland

diuretic
hormone
Ovaries
Oestrogen
Progestero
ne
Testes
Testostero
ne
Adrenaline secretion:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Water potential of blood increase

Oestrogen controls development of breasts and broadening of

pelvis
Progesterone helps maintain a healthy pregnancy
Causes deepening of voice and growth of facial hair

Stimuli activate hypothalamus in the brain

Transmission of impulses down the spinal cord
Motor neurone transmits impulses to adrenal gland
Adrenal gland secretes adrenaline into bloodstream
Blood transports adrenaline to target organs
Target organs respond to adrenaline

Diabetes mellitus

A disease in which the blood glucose concentration cannot be controlled within

normal limits. Usually due to low insulin production, lack of insulin secretion or the
failure of target cells to respond to insulin

Type 1 diabetes
Develops early in a persons life.
Known as juvenile or early-onset diabetes

Type 2 diabetes
Occurs later in a persons life.
Known as late-onset diabetes

Islets of Langerhans unable to secrete

sufficient insulin

Insulin is produced but target cells, such

as muscle cells, do not respond well to
insulin

Inject insulin directly into their

bloodstream. They ensure that they have
a supply of sugary food such as sweets in
case blood glucose levels get too low

Control blood sugar levels by carefully

controlling dietary intake and exercising

Signs of
1.
2.
3.

diabetes
Persistently high blood glucose levels
Presence of glucose in urine after a meal
Healing of wounds is slow and difficult

Comparing endocrine and nervous controls

Similar in that
1. Both help to coordinate the activities in the body
2. Both activated by the stimulus
3. Both exert effects on target organ(s)
Differences:

Endocrine control
Involves hormones (chemical substances)
Hormones are transported by the blood
Usually slow responses
Responses may be short-lived (e.g.
adrenaline) or long-lived (e.g. growth
hormones)
Always involuntary
May affect more than one target organ

Nervous control
Involves nerve impulses (electrical
signals)
Impulses are transmitted by neurones
Usually quick responses
Responses are short-lived

May be voluntary or involuntary

Usually localised

Chapter 16 Cell division

Mitosis

Mitosis is a form of nuclear division that produces 2 daughter nuclei

containing the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus. The
daughter nuclei are genetically identical
1. Parent cell containing x chromosomes
2. DNA replicates
3. Mitosis
4. 2 genetically identical daughter cells form (with x chromosomes each)
Mitosis is important for organism growth and tissue repair
Since identical cells are produced, new cells can replace worn out cells during repair
to perform the functions of the old cells
Mitosis occurs during asexual reproduction

Mitosis
Phase
Interphas
e

Prophase

Metaphas
e
Anaphase

Process
Not part of mitosis, cells carry out their normal activities
Just before mitosis, chromatin threads replicate producing 2 identical
chromatin threads joined at a centre called a centromere. These 2
chromatin threads are called sister chromatids
Disintegration of nuclear membrane
Asters form around centrioles, and the pair of centrioles move to the
opposite poles of the cell
Spindle fibres extend from centrioles
Chromatins condense and DNA replicates, forming X-shaped
chromosomes and they migrate towards centre of cell
Chromosomes are attached by spindle fibres at the centromere to the
centrioles
Chromosomes are aligned at the centre plane of the cell
Sister chromatids of each chromosome separate and each of them
become a distinct chromosome
Spindle fibres holding the chromosomes shorten and pull the daughter
chromosomes towards the centrioles

Telophase

Cytokines
is

Spindle fibres break down

Each set of chromosomes unwinds and uncondenses
Nuclear membrane reforms
Now there are 2 diploid daughter cells
Not part of mitosis, cleavage forms in cell and deepens until cell splits
into 2

Mitosis in plants

Mitosis in plant cells are similar to animals except that

Centrioles are absent in plant cells
Cleavage of cytoplasm does not occur during cytokinesis. Instead, a cell
plate is formed between the 2 daughter nuclei, dividing cell into 2. Cell plate
is formed by the fusion of small fluid-filled vesicles produced by the Golgi
Apparatus

Chromosomes

Every diploid cell has 2 sets of chromosomes in its nucleus

One set of chromosomes come from the mother, other one comes from the father
Each chromosome in a paternal or maternal set has a corresponding chromosome in
the other set that is approximately the same and contains the same genes
The pair of corresponding chromosomes is called a homologous chromosome

22 pairs of homologous chromosomes in a male cell (XY) and 23 pairs of

homologous chromosomes in a female cell (XX)

Meiosis

Meiosis is a form of nuclear division that produces 4 daughter nuclei

containing half the number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus
Consists 2 sets of divisions
Chromosome number is reduced by half during the first division (from 2n to n)
Results in the formation of 4 haploid cells which will participate in reproduction
All 4 cells produced from the single parent cell are genetically different
Meiosis occurs in the production of gametes
Gametes are haploid reproductive cells
Diploid parent cell contains 2 pairs of chromosomes (2n = 4)
Replication of chromosomes
Meiosis I occurs, each daughter cell contains 2 chromosomes, but each
chromosome consists of 2 chromatids
Meiosis II occurs, 4 haploid gametes containing 2 chromosomes (n = 2)

Process in meiosis
Phase
Interphas
`

Process
Not part of meiosis, cell does its normal activities

Prophase
I

Metaphas
eI
Anaphase
I

Telophase
I

Cytokines
is
Prophase
II

Metaphas
e II
Anaphase
II
Telophase
II

Cytokines
is
`

Just before meiosis, chromatin threads replicate, producing 2 identical

sister chromatids attached at the centromere
Disintegration of nuclear membrane
Asters form around centrioles and the pair of centrioles move to
opposite poles of the cell
Spindle fibres extend from centrioles
Homologous chromosomes pair up (this process is called synapsis)
Crossing over occurs, the homologous chromosomes twist around each
other, and may break and exchange parts (this results in genetic
variability between daughter cells) (the point where they cross each
other is called chiasma)
Chromatins condense and DNA replicates, forming X-shaped
chromosomes and they migrate towards centre of cell
Homologous Chromosomes are attached by spindle fibres at the
centromere to the centrioles
Homologous Chromosomes are aligned at the centre plane of the cell
Homologous chromosomes separate and each of them become a
distinct chromosome
Spindle fibres holding the chromosomes shorten and pull the daughter
chromosomes towards the centrioles
Spindle fibres break down
Each set of chromosomes unwinds and uncondenses
Nuclear membrane reforms
Now there are 2 haploid daughter cells
Not part of meiosis, cleavage forms in cell and deepens until cell splits
into 2
Disintegration of nuclear membrane
Asters form around centrioles and the pair of centrioles move to
opposite poles of the cell
Spindle fibres extend from centrioles
Chromatins condense and DNA replicates, forming X-shaped
chromosomes and they migrate towards centre of cell
Chromosomes are attached by spindle fibres at the centromere to the
centrioles
Chromosomes are aligned at the centre plane of the cell
Chromosomes separate into sister chromatids
Spindle fibres holding the chromosomes shorten and pull the sister
chromatids towards the centrioles
Spindle fibres break down
Each set of chromosomes unwinds and uncondenses
Nuclear membrane reforms
Now there are 4 haploid daughter cells
Not part of meiosis, cleavage forms in cell and deepens until cell splits
into 2 (Total of 4)

Meiosis produces haploid gametes

Meiosis produces haploid gametes

When haploid male gametes fuses with haploid female gametes, the diploid
number of chromosomes is maintained
Meiosis results in genetic variation
Variation occurs due to crossing over and independent assortment
Independent assortment of chromosomes means that one chromosome from each
pair can combine wither either chromosome of other pair
Variations increases the chances for the species to survive changes in the
environment

Differences between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis
Daughter cell contain the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell
Pairing of homologous chromosomes does
not occur
No crossing over
Daughter cells are genetically identical to
the parent cell
2 daughter cells produced from one parent
cell
Involves only 1 nuclear division
Occurs in normal body cells during growth
or repair of body parts

Meiosis
Daughter cells contain half the number of
chromosomes as the parent cell
Pairing of homologous chromosomes
occurs at prophase I
Crossing over may occur
Daughter cells are not genetically identical
to the parent cell
4 daughter cells produced from one parent
cell
Involves 2 nuclear division
Occurs in the gonads during gamete
formation

Chapter 17 Reproduction in plants

Reproduction

Reproduction is the process of producing new organisms to ensure the

continuity of a species
2 types of reproduction
Sexual
Asexual
Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent, without the fusion of gametes
A cell divides to produce 2 identical daughter cells by mitosis
Daughter cells have the same type and amount of genes as the parent cell
Offspring are called clones
Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of 2 gametes to form the
zygote. It produces genetically dissimilar offspring
Gametes are formed when a cell divides to produce 4 daughter cells through
meiosis
Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes as the parent
Male gamete fuses with female gamete in a process called fertilisation to
form a zygote
Zygote has same number of chromosomes as the parent cell

Parts of a flower

Petal

Brightly colored to attract insects for pollination

Provides a landing platform for insects

All the petals together make up the corolla
Receptacle
The enlarged end of the flower stalk that bears parts of the flower
Pedicel
Flower stalk
Stamen
The male part of the flower
All the stamens together make up the andromecium (plural androecia)
Stamen consists of anther and filament
Filament
holds the anther in a suitable position to disperse pollen grains
Anther
produces pollen grains, each made up of 2 lobes, each containing
2 pollen sac
anther contains a vascular bundle made up of a phloem and
xylem
Pollen grains

Carpel

Pollen grains have a haploid set of chromosomes

Each pollen grain has 2 nuclei, the generative nucleus and the pollen
tube nucleus (a.k.a vegetative nucleus)

Carpel is the female part of the flower

All the carpels together make up the pistil or gynoecium (plural gynoecia)
Carpel consists of ovary, style, and one or more stigmas
Stigma
Stigma is a swollen structure that receives pollen grains
Mature stigma secretes sugary fluid to stimulate the germination
of pollen grains
Style
Connects the stigma to the ovary
Holds the stigma in a suitable position to trap pollen grains
Ovary
Contains ovules needed for fertilisation
Combines with pollen grains to form a zygote

Contains one or more ovules

Ovule contains ovum and the definitive nucleus
Ovum has a haploid set of chromosomes
Ovule is attached to the placenta by a stalk called the funicle

Pollination

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
Important to help bring together male and female gametes to enable
fertilisation to take place
Pollination can be brought about by insects or wind
There are 2 types of pollination
Self pollination
Cross pollination
Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or a different flower on the same plant
Flowers are bisexual with anthers and stigmas maturing at the same time
Stigma is situated directly below the anther
Certain flowers in bisexual plants never open (cleistogamous) and only self
pollination can happen
Advantages of self-pollination
Beneficial qualities are passed down from the parent plant to the
offspring
Only one parent is required
Less pollen and energy is wasted
Not dependent on external factors for pollination
More likely to take place successfully since stigma are closer to anthers
Disadvantages
Offspring produced are genetically similar to parents, causing fewer
varieties of offspring

Probability of harmful recessive alleles being expressed in offspring is

higher compared to cross-pollination
Cross-pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains to the flower of another plant of
the same species
Dioecious flowers only bear either male or female flowers, thus unable to
self-pollinate
In bisexual plants, cross-pollination occurs when
Anther and stigma mature at different times
Stigmas of plants are situated a distance away from the anthers
Advantages of cross-pollination
More varieties of offspring are produced which leads to greater genetic
variation
Increased probability of offspring being heterozygous
Seeds produced are capable of surviving longer before germination
Probability of harmful recessive alleles being expressed in offspring is
lower as compared to cross pollination
Offspring can inherit beneficial qualities from both parents
Disadvantages of cross pollination
2 different plants of the same species required
Dependent on external factors for pollination
More energy and pollen are wasted
Less likely to successfully occur due to self pollination

Comparison between insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers

Insect-pollinated flower
Presence of sweet nectar to attract insects
Large and sticky pollen in order for the
pollen to be caught on the insect
Brightly colored flowers with large petals
to attract insects
Stamen is usually stiff and pointing
upwards

Wind-pollinated flower
Nectar is absent as insects are not needed
for pollination
Small and light pollen in order for pollen to
be carried far away by the wind
Small petals in order not to obstruct the
wind
Stamen is usually pendulous and dangling
from the sides of the flower

Fertilisation

When a pollen grain lands on the tip of the stigma, a pollen tube grows from it
Enzymes released by pollen grain digests a pathway to the ovule for the male
gametes to travel in
Once the male gametes reach the ovule, one of them fuses with the ovum to form the
zygote
The zygote undergoes cell division and development to form the embryo of a seed
Many pollen tubes can grow simultaneously inside the stigma

Chapter 18 Reproduction in humans

Sperm
urethra

Organ/gland
Testis
Scrotum

Sperm duct/vas deferens

Prostate gland
Urethra
Penis

Organ
Ovary

Oviduct/ fallopian tube

Uterus
Cervix
Vagina

Menstrual cycle

Function
Produces sperms and testosterone which
is the primary male sex hormone
Contains and protects the testes.
Regulates temperature by bringing testes
closer or further from the body
Transports sperms to the urethra
Produces a fluid that activates sperm cells
and provides them with energy
Common duct for sperms and urine
Male erectile organ to release sperms into
the vagina during sexual intercourse

Function
Releases developed ovum and produces
oestrogen and progesterone, which are
the female sex hormones
Site of fertilisation and brings ovum to
uterus
Site of implantation of the embryo for the
development into a fetus
Dilates during childbirth
Female sexual organ where sperms are
deposited during sexual intercourse

Menstrual cycle lasts between 23 35 days and is on average 28 days long

Controlled by female sex hormones (progesterone and oestrogen) which prepare the
uterus for implantation of a fertilised ovum
Progesterone and oestrogen are both produced primarily by the ovaries
Each menstrual cycle is defined to start at the onset of menstruation
During menstruation, inner lining of uterus us shed and discharged from the body via
the cervix and vagina
Roughly in the middle of each cycle (day 14-15) is an event called ovulation, where a
developed ovum is released by the ovary into the oviduct. Where fertilisation will take
place if sperms are present

Fertilisation
Amniotic sac

Amniotic fluid
Umbilical cord

Occurs in the oviduct where the sperm (male gamete) and ovum (female gamete)
fuse together, forming a zygote
Zygote will divide rapidly to form a ball of cells
Zygote will be transported to the uterus by contraction of the oviduct and sweeping of
the cilia on the inner wall of the oviduct
When the embryo reaches the uterus, it implants itself onto the lining of the uterus
and develops into a foetus
At the same time, a portion of the cells from the embryo develops into the placenta
which remains attached to the uterus as the foetus develops
When pregnancy occurs, menstruation is inhibited by the presence of high levels of
progesterone

Amniotic sac and amniotic fluid

The amniotic sac is a membrane that forms during fetal development

Contains the amniotic fluid in which the foetus is suspended and attached to the
uterus via the umbilical cord
Amniotic fluid protects the foetus from external shock and allows the foetus to move
freely inside the uterus
During childbirth, the event whereby the amniotic sac ruptures is known as water
breaking and the amniotic fluid which is released helps lubricate the vagina

Part
Placenta

Function
Allows diffusion of food substances and
Amniotic fluid
oxygen from the mothers blood to the
Umbilical cord foetus blood
Allows diffusion of wastes and carbon
dioxide from the fetus blood to the
mothers blood
Allows transfer of antibodies and

Umbilical cord

hormones from the mother to the

foetus
Prevents mixing of blood of the mother
and the foetus which might result in
agglutination
Attaches the fetus to the uterus at its
navel (belly button)
Contains 2 umbilical arteries and 1
umbilical vein
Umbilical vein carries oxygenated and
nutrient rich blood from the placenta to
the foetus
Umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated
and nutrient-depleted blood from the
foetus to the placenta

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

A virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) by attacking the
white blood cells and destroying the immune system
Most frequently transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected
partner or sharing of contaminated needles
An infected mother could pass the virus to her child during pregnancy
Prevention methods include abstinence from sexual contact with multiple partners,
using condoms and avoiding sharing of needles

Chapter 19 Heredity
Basic knowledge for heredity

Chromosome

A chromosome is a rod-like structure visible in the nucleus during

cell division. It is made up of the molecule deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)
Chromosomes are condensed chromatin threads
DNA carries the hereditary information for making organisms
Each chromosome may carry many genes along its length

Gene

Alleles

A gene is a unit of inheritance, born on a particular locus (position)

of a chromosome. It is a small segment of DNA in a chromosome
that controls a particular characteristic or protein in an organism

Alleles are different forms of the same gene. They occupy the same
relative positions on a pair of homologous chromosomes
E.g. the gene of the height of peas has 2 alleles: short and tall. Letters are
usually used to represent alleles. Capital for dominant allele (T), lower case
letter for recessive allele (t)
Homologous chromosomes
Exists in pairs. One chromosome in the pair comes from the male
parent and the other from the female parent
They are similar in shape and size (except sex chromosomes)
Exactly the same order or sequence of gene loci. Alleles in those gene loci
may not be the same
Phenotype
Refers to the physical trait which is expressed
Phenotype of an organism is the result of its genes and the effects of its
environment
Tallness in pea plants is a phenotype
Genotype
Genotype is the genetic makeup (pairs of alleles) of an organism,
that is, the combination of genes in an organism
An organism is homozygous for a trait if 2 identical alleles controlling the
trait are identical
E.g. TT or tt
An organism is heterozygous for a trait if the alleles controlling thhe trait are
different
E.g. Tt
Dominant allele
A dominant allele expresses itself and gives the same phenotype in
both homozygous and heterozygous
E.g. tall plants have TT and Tt genotype
Recessive allele
A recessive allele only expresses itself in homozygous condition. Does
not represent itself in heterozygous conditions
E.g. pea plants are only short when the genotype is tt

Genetic diagrams

Phenotypic ratio

Tolerant : N-tolerant
1 : 1
Where T is the allele for tolerant and t the allele for n-tolerant

Punnett square

Co-dominance

Co-dominance results when the 2 alleles controlling a trait both express themselves in
an organism
E.g. Crossing a homozygous red bull and a homozygous white bull results in the
offspring having both red and white fur. Both the allele for red and white hairs express
themselves.

Sex determination

Humans cells have 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes and 1 pair of sex

chromosomes labeled X or Y
Females have 2 X chromosomes, and are thus homozygous
Males have 1 X and 1 Y chromosome, and are thus heterozygous
Since females have only X chromosomes, the gametes (ova) produced will also only
contain an X chromosome each
Since males have both X and Y chromosomes, the gametes (sperms) produced can
have either an X or Y chromosome

Multiple alleles

Multiple alleles is a term used for a gene that exists in more than 2 alleles
E.g. The occurrence of blood groups in humans
Blood group
A
B
AB
O

Genotype
IAIA or IAIO
IBIB or IBIO
IAIB
IOIO

Discontinuous and continuous variations

Variations are differences in traits between individuals of the same species

There are 2 types of variations
Continuous variations
Discontinuous variations
Continuous variations
Differences between individuals are gradual
E.g. height and weight
Such traits are usually controlled by many genes and influenced by the
environment, such as nutrition and exercise
Discontinuous variations
Are those where differences between individuals are distinct
E.g. blood group and double/single eyelids
Such traits are usually controlled by a single gene

Mutation

Mutation is a sudden random change in the structure of a gene or in the chromosome

number, usually due to a replication error which remains unrepaired.
Diversity in a species is due to mutation
Gene mutation produces variations between individuals as it results in new alleles or
genes
E.g Albinism, a recessive gene mutation (only occurs in homozygous
recessive)
Characterised by the absence of pigments in the skin, hair and eyes.
An albino individual has a reddish-white skin and white hair
Iris appears red due to lack of pigment and the presence of blood
vessels below the iris
Albinos are very sensitive to sunlight and are sun burnt easily
Sickle-cell anaemia, a gene mutation

Chromosomal

Mutation results in a change in the structure of gene controlling

haemoglobin
The mutated gene produces haemoglobin S (HbS), instead of
haemoglobin A (HbA)
HbS clumps together due to the change in its 3-D shape, making the
cell sickle-shaped
Normally, such a harmful allele would have been eliminated from the
population as the affected individual would die before reproducing.
However this disease is common in West Africa where malaria is
prevalent
Individuals who are heterozygous for the sickle-cell allele suffer
less from the attack of malaria because a small percentage of
their red blood cells are sickle-shaped, thus more resistant to
malaria
Individuals who are homozygous have shorter life spans due to
sickle-cell anaemia
Hence, heterozygous individuals have a better chance of survival
because they do not fully contract malaria or sickle-cell anaemia.
Thus, the sickle-cell allele persists in the population
mutation

E.g. downs syndrome

The individual has 47 chromosomes instead of the normal 46
chromosomes humans have. There is an extra copy of chromosome 21
Mutagenic agents
Mutagens increase rate of mutations
Some chemicals if present in certain concentrations, are mutagenic
E.g. Tar, formaldehyde (in cigarette smoke), and lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD)
Mutation and selection
Some mutations disrupt the normal functions of a cell
However some mutations are beneficial
E.g. a mutation may allow an organism to avoid predators because of
better camouflage

Selection

Evolution via natural selection

Due to variations, some individuals in a population are bound to be more
suited to the environment than others
The individuals that are better suited to the environment they live in will
have a higher chance of being able to reproduce and pass down their genes
to their offspring
Over time the proportion of individuals in the population with the genetic
advantage increases
These individuals are said to be selected by nature and the whole process is
called natural selection
Natural selection is the driving force behind evolution
Artificial selection
A process whereby man selects individuals from a population of organisms to
propagate because they have desirable qualities
E.g. a farmer may keep the seeds of crops that bear better quality fruits and
plant them so that his future batch of crops have a better chance of
producing good fruits
This method is increasingly being replaced by newer and more efficient
biotechnological methods such as gene cloning
However, such methods reduce the genetic diversity of the population of
organisms, and in an event of sudden environmental change, the population
might not be able to adapt and survive.

Natural selection
Results from gene mutation
Slow process

Artificial selection
Results from manipulation by humans
Faster process

Chapter 20 Molecular genetics

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

A molecule that carries genetic information

A small segment of DNA carries a gene that stores information used to make
polypeptides (multiple nucleotides make a gene)
DNA molecule made up of 2 anti-parallel polynucleotide strands (strands running in
opposite directions)
Bases on one strand forms bonds with the bases on other strands according to the
rule of base pairing
The 2 anti-parallel strands of the DNA molecule coil to form a double-helix structure
Each DNA molecule contains 2 strands twisted around each other to form a double
helix
A molecule of DNA is wrapped around proteins to form a single chromatin thread
During cell division, chromatin threads coil tightly into structures called chromosomes
inside the cell nucleus

Polynucleoti
de

Basic units of DNA (nucleotide)

DNA is made up of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is made up of:

A sugar called deoxyribose, which is a pentose sugar
A phosphate group

A nitrogen-containing base
The sugar and phosphate groups form the sides of the ladder
Nitrogenous bases point towards the centre and form the rungs of the ladder
There are 4 types of nitrogen-containing bases
Adenine (A) bonds with Thymine (T)
Guanine (G) bonds with Cytosine (C)
A and T, G and C, are complementary bases. Complementary bases are
joined by hydrogen bonds

Genes

Genes are basic units of inheritance in a living organism

A gene is a sequence of nucleotides.
The sequence of nucleotides controls the formations of polypeptides, which can be
used to make proteins
Since there are 4 different nucleotides (each with a different base), for a gene made
up of n nucleotides, there are 4n different combinations
3 nucleotides in a gene form a codon and each codon codes for 1 amino acid
Genetic code states which amino acid each codon forms
Codon
TAC
TAT
CAT
GAG

Amino acid coded for

Methionine (M)
Alanine (A)
Lysine (K)
Glutamic acid

DNA function

DNA is used to carry the genetic code, which is used to synthesise specific
polypeptides
Within DNA molecule, there are specific regions called genes, whereby information
encoded is used to manufacture polypeptides
Polypeptides are not directly made from DNA. Information on DNA molecule is first
transcribed into a messenger molecule called mRNA, which is then translated into
polypeptides
The sequence of nucleotides within the genes is very specific and any changes within
the gene could result in genetic diseases such as sickle-cell anaemia

Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering is a technique used to transfer genes from one organism to

another. Individual genes may be cut off from the cells of one organism and inserted
into the cells of another organism of the same or different species. The transferred
gene can express itself in the recipient organism
The basic structure of the genetic code is very similar in almost all organisms
In all organisms, DNA is made up of the 4 nucleotides (ATGC) arranged into genes
which make polypeptides

Hence genes can be transferred between organisms and this process is part of
genetic engineering
By transferring genes or changing the genetic code in controlled ways, it will be
responsible for an organism such as bacterium to produce different polypeptides and
proteins
This is called recombinant DNA technology

Transferring the human insulin gene into bacteria

1. Isolate the insulin gene. Cut gene using a restriction enzyme. This cuts the
restriction site at the 2 ends of the gene to produce sticky ends.
2. Obtain plasmid from a bacterium. Cut plasmid with same restriction enzyme
3. Insert gene into plasmid. The human insulin gene will bind to the plasmid by
complementary base pairing between their sticky ends. Add the enzyme
DNA ligase to seal the human insulin gene to the plasmid. This plasmid which
contains 2 different organisms is called recombinant plasmid
4. Mix the recombinant plasmid with E.coli bacterium. Apply temporary heat or
electric shock to open up the pores in the cell surface membrane of the
bacterium for the plasmid to enter
5. This transgenic bacterium will use the new gene to make insulin. Such
bacteria can be isolated and grown for mass production of human insulin
Ethical issues

There are many ethical issues surrounding genetic engineering

Because the implications and risks associated with this field of research are not fully
understood.
Making changes to an organisms DNA can result in very profound effects on the
organism or its environment
E.g. new proteins in GM food might cause allergies in humans that consume them, or
result in deaths of useful insects such as bees.