Biodiversity

Is the variety of the earth's species, the genes they contain, the
ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosystem processes that
sustain all life.

Species Diversity
The number in abbundance of species present in different
communities.

Genetic Diversity
The variety of genetic material within a species or a population.

Ecosystem Diversity
The variety of terrestial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area
or on the Earth.

Biological Evolution
Earth's life changes over time through changes in the genes of
populations.

Natural Selection
Individuals of a population have genetically based traits that
enhance their ability to survive and produce offspring with the
same traits.

Mutations
Random changes in the structure or number of DNA molecules
in a cell that can be inherited by offspring.

Adaptation
Any inheritable trait that enables an individual organism to
survive through natural selection and to reproduce more than
other individuals under prevailing environmental conditions.

Genetic Resistance
The ability of one or more organisms in a population to tolerate a
chemical design to kill it.

Fitness
Measure of reproductive stress, not strength.

Tectonic Plates

Huge flows of molten rock within the Earth's interior breaks its
surface into a series of gigantic solid plates.

Speciation
Two species arrive from one.

Geographic Isolation
Occurs when different groups of the same population of a species
become physically isolated from one another for long periods.

Reproductive Isolation
Mutation and change by natural selection operate independently
and the gene pools of geographically isolated populations.

Endemic Species
Species that are found in only one area.

Background Extinction
Species disappearing at a low rate.

Species Richness
The number of different species in a community or population.

Species Evenness
The reletive abbundance of individuals within each of those
species.

Ecological Niche
The role that a species plays in its ecosystem.

Generalist Species
Species with broad niches.
Ex. Cockroach

Specialist Species
Species that occupy narrow niches.
Ex. China's Giant Panda

Indicator Species
Species that provide early warnings of damage to a community or
ecosystem.

Keystone Species

Have a large effect on the types and abbundances of species in an

ecosystem

Foundation Species
Species that play a major role in shaping communities by
creating and enhancing their habitats in ways that benefit others.

What is most significant when determining the diversity of an

Ecosystem?
The number of species present

What factors are used to determine what constitutes a species?

Physically distance from other groups of organisms, can
interbreed with others from the same group

Which of the following is the best description of species

evenness?
the relative dominance of each species within an ecosystem

Which of the following measures of biodiversity takes into

account the number of species present and the relative
abundance of the species present?
Shannon;s Index

which of the following is the best description of evolution?

the genetic change within a population over time

Which (of the following) is the best example of artificial

selection?
breeding of horses for speed

Which of the following statements about mutations is

incorrect?
all mutations are harmful

Which of the following is not a key component of the theory of

evolution by natural selection?
differences in traits are not associated with differences in the
ability to survive and reproduce

When a population suddenly reduces in size either from habitat

loss , natural disaster, or other changes in the environment, its
genetic variation is affected. When this occurs, this is known
as:
Bottleneck effect

A population of rabbits with typical variations of traits lives in

a meadow with a depression that runs through the middle.
Over time, the depression fills in with water and becomes a
river, separating the one population into two over a period of
several years. This is an example of:
Allopatric speciation

Which of the following would result in the highest rate of

evolution?
A population with high genetic variation

Which type of species would be most vulnerable to

environmental changes?
Niche specialists

Approximately what percentage of species that have lived on

the planet is now thought to be extinct?
99%

How would a collision with a meteorite lead to a worldwide,

mass extinction?
A large meteorite would produce a dust cloud that blocked
sunlight, reducing photosynthesis

Which of the following is not considered to be contributing to

the current increase in extinction rates?
Natural selection

What occurs when a small group from a population colonizes a

new area?
Founder effect

Which is NOT a problem with clear cutting as a means of

timber harvest?
High cost of clear cutting when compared to other methods

Selective cutting has many benefits, which do NOT include

Optimum growth for sun loving species

Massive forest fires that burn large areas and destroy canopy
are most likely to benefit
Early succession species seeking to fill a niche

Before certain projects can begin in the US, the project owner
must file an EIS. The purpose of this is to
force land owners to suggest alternative approaches to the
project and assess the environmental impacts of those
alternatives

Public lands in the US are categorized for use based on the

managing agency. In general Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)
lands are used for
Wildlife conservation, hunting, and recreation

Public lands in the US are categorized for use based on the

managing agency. In general Bureau of Land Management
(BLM) lands are used for
Grazing, mining, timber harvesting, and recreation

Public lands in the US are categorized for use based on the

managing agency. In general National Park Service (NPS)
lands are used for
Recreation and conservation

Public lands in the US are categorized for use based on the

managing agency. In general US Forestry Service (USFS) lands
are used for
Timber harvesting, grazing, and recreation

The best forest management techniques mimic natural

processes. This is most likely to include
Allowing prescribed burns to remove accumulated dead biomass

National wildlife refuges are managed primarily for the

purpose of protecting wildlife. They are usually managed by
FWS (fish and wildlife service)

A management system that includes prescribed burns will

likely lead to
Large quantities of biomass accumulating on the forest floor, A
decrease in the likelihood of uncontrolled natural fires

The U.S. has a total land area of about 980,000,000 hectares.

Approximately how many hectares are used for recreational
and wildlife lands?
107,500,000 hectares

Instrumental value of ecosystems, also known as ecosystem

services, includes all of the following EXCEPT:
intrinsic value

Including the mass extinction events that occurred prior to

human existence, ecologists hypothesize that human activity
could currently be the reason behind mass extinction number:
six

The event that is defined by the last member of a species dying

is termed
extinction

The IUCN labels species that are at high risk of extinction as:
threatened

Evaluating the overall status of different plant and animal

groups is difficult mostly because:
the majority of known species have not been assessed for current
population trends

River barriers such as dams are an example of which of the

following factors that can lead to species endangerment?
habitat alteration

Which North American species was driven extinct by

overharvesting?
Passenger pigeon

An example of an alien species that would have been

introduced by the ballast water of ocean freighters would be:
zebra mussel

The international legislation that establishes a "Red List" for

species susceptible to trade and thus endangerment is called
the:
Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species

The Lacey act, mandated by the government of the United

States, was designed to:
inhibit the interstate commerce of illegally harvested species

In the United States, which agency is responsible for

monitoring the import of threatened species as well as
administering the Endangered Species Act?
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Climate change would most likely have the greatest impact on

which of the following groups of species?
organisms in extreme environments such as the polar bear

The United States legislation that is designed specifically to

protect organisms such as manatees, polar bears, sea otters,
and sea lions would be the:
Marine Mammal Protection Act

The greatest threat to the northern spotted owl population is

most likely:
continued logging of old growth forests in the pacific northwest

According to the principles of island biogeography, which of

the following factors increases island biodiversity?
increased proximity to the mainland, increased island size

The phenomenon of forgiving the debt of economically

underprivileged nations in exchange for preserving habitat for
biodiversity is known as:
debt for nature swap

All of the following could be considered ecosystem services that

may benefit a nation that is forgiving the debt of a developing
nation in exchange for the preservation of biodiversity
EXCEPT:

fossils
Skeletons, bones, shells, body parts, leaves, seeds, or impressions
of such items that provide recognizable evidence of organisms
that lived long ago.

biological evolution
Change in the genetic makeup of a population of a species in
successive generations. If continued long enough, it can lead to
the formation of a new species. Note that populations, not
individuals, evolve.

micelle
An aggregate of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid
colloid.

protocell
A self-organized, endogenously ordered, spherical collection of
lipids proposed as a stepping-stone to the origin of life.

macroevolution
Evolution on a scale of separated gene pools. Macroevolutionary
studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of
species.

microevolution
The change in allele frequencies that occur over time within a
population. This change is due to four different processes:
mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow, and
genetic drift.

natural selection
Process by which a particular beneficial gene (or set of genes) is
reproduced in succeeding generations more than other genes.
The result of natural selection is a population that contains a
greater proportion of organisms better adapted to certain
environmental conditions.

mutation
Random change in DNA molecules making up genes that can
alter anatomy, physiology, or behavior in offspring.

differential reproduction
Phenomenon in which individuals with adaptive genetic traits
produce more living offspring than do individuals without such
traits.

adaptation

Any genetically controlled structural, physiological, or behavioral

characteristic that helps an organism survive and reproduce
under a given set of environmental conditions. It usually results
from a beneficial mutation.

coevolution
Evolution in which two or more species interact and exert
selective pressures on each other that can lead each species to
undergo adaptations.

ecological niche
Total way of life or role of a species in an ecosystem. It includes
all physical, chemical, and biological conditions that a species
needs to live and reproduce in an ecosystem.

fundamental niche
Full potential range of the physical, chemical, and biological
factors a species can use if it does not face any competition from
other species.

realized niche
Parts of the fundamental niche of a species that are actually used
by that species.

generalist species
Species with a broad ecological niche. They can live in many
different places, eat a variety of foods, and tolerate a wide range
of environmental conditions. Examples include flies,
cockroaches, mice, rats, and humans.

specialist species
Species with a narrow ecological niche. They may be able to live
in only one type of habitat, tolerate only a narrow range of
climatic and other environmental conditions, or use only one
type or a few types of food.

speciation
Formation of two species from one species because of divergent
natural selection in response to changes in environmental
conditions; usually takes thousands of years.

sympatric speciation
Occurs when populations of a species that share the same habitat
become reproductively isolated from each other. This speciation

phenomenon most commonly occurs through polyploidy, in

which an offspring or group of offspring will be produced with
twice the normal number of chromosomes. Where a normal
individual has two copies of each chromosome (diploidy), these
offspring may have four copies (tetraploidy). A tetraploid
individual cannot mate with a diploid individual, creating
reproductive isolation.
Sympatric speciation is rare. It occurs more often among plants
than animals, since it is so much easier for plants to self-fertilize
than it is for animals. A tetraploidy plant can fertilize itself and
create offspring.

allopatric speciation
Occurs when populations of a species become geographically
isolated. When populations become separated, gene flow
between them ceases. Over time, the populations may become
genetically different in response to the natural selection imposed
by their different environments.
Allopatric speciation is the most common form of speciation.

geographic isolation
Separation of populations of a species for long times into
different areas.

reproductive isolation
Long-term geographic separation of members of a particular
sexually reproducing species.

genetic drift
The change in the frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a
population due to random sampling. The alleles in the offspring
are a sample of those in the parents, and chance has a role in
determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces.
Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely
and thereby reduce genetic variation.

population bottleneck
Occurs when a population's size is reduced for at least one
generation. Because genetic drift acts more quickly to reduce
genetic variation in small populations, undergoing a bottleneck
can reduce a population's genetic variation by a lot, even if the
bottleneck doesn't last for very many generations. Ex.: Northern
elephant seals have reduced genetic variation probably because

of a population bottleneck humans inflicted on them in the

1890s. Hunting reduced their population size to as few as 20
individuals at the end of the 19th century. Their population has
since rebounded to over 30,000but their genes still carry the
marks of this bottleneck: they have much less genetic variation
than a population of southern elephant seals that was not so
intensely hunted.

founder effect
The loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population
is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger
population. Ex.: Afrikaaners have an unusually high frequency of
Huntington's disease, probably because of the founder effect.

parapatric speciation
Occurs when populations are separated not by a geographical
barrier, such as a body of water, but by an extreme change in
habitat. While populations in these areas may interbreed, they
often develop distinct characteristics and lifestyles. Reproductive
isolation in these cases is not geographic but rather temporal or
behavioral. For example, plants that live on boundaries between
very distinct climates may flower at different times in response to
their different environments, making them unable to interbreed.
Parapatric speciation is extremely rare.

extinction
Complete disappearance of a species from the Earth. It happens
when a species cannot adapt and successfully reproduce under
new environmental conditions or when a species evolves into one
or more new species.

endemic species
Species that is found in only one area. Such species are especially
vulnerable to extinction.

background extinction
Normal extinction of various species as a result of changes in
local environmental conditions.

mass extinction
A catastrophic, widespread, often global event in which major
groups of species are wiped out over a short time compared with
normal (background) extinctions.

mass depletion
Widespread, often global period during which extinction rates
are higher than normal but not high enough to classify as a mass
extinction.

artificial selection
Process by which humans select one or more desirable genetic
traits in the population of a plant or animal species and then use
selective breeding to produce populations containing many
individuals with the desired traits.

genetic engineering
Insertion of an alien gene into an organism to give it a beneficial
genetic trait.

recombinant DNA
DNA that has been altered to contain genes or portions of genes
from organisms of different species.

genetically modified organism (GMO)

Organism whose genetic makeup has been altered by genetic
engineering. Also known as a transgenic organism.

biological diversity or biodiversity

the variety of the earth's species, or varying life-forms, the genes
they contain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the
ecosystem processes of energy flow and nutrient cycling that
sustain all life.

species
a set of individuals that can mate (if they are sexually
reproducing) and produce fertile offspring. Ex.: homo sapiens
sapiens

ecosystem diversity
the earth's variety of deserts, grasslands, forests, mountains,
oceans, lakes, rivers, and wetlands. A major component of
biodiversity.

biomes

large regions such as forests, deserts, and grasslands with

distinct climates and certain species adapted to them.

functional diversity
the variety of processes such as energy flow and matter cycling
that occur within ecosystems as species interact with one another
in food chains or webs.

fossils
mineralized or petrified replicas of skeletons, bones, teeth, shells,
leaves, and seeds, or impressions of such items found in rocks.

fossil record
the entire body of evidence gathered using fossils. It is uneven
and incomplete.

biological evolution or evolution

the process whereby earth's life changes over time through
changes in the genetic characteristics of populations.

theory of evolution
all species descended from earlier, ancestral species.

natural selection
where individuals with certain traits are more likely to survive
and reproduce under a particular set of environmental
conditions than those without the traits.

mutations
random changes in DNA molecules of a gene in any cell that can
be inherited (sex cell).

heritable trait
a trait that can be passed down from generation to generation.

adaptation or adaptive trait

any heritable trait that improves the ability of an individual
organism to survive and to reproduce at a higher rate than other
individuals in a population under prevailing environmental
conditions.

differential reproduction

enables individuals with a heritable trait to produce more

surviving offspring than other members of the population
produce.

genetic resistance
the ability of one or more organisms in a population to tolerate a
chemical designed to kill it.

tectonic plates
gigantic solid plates on the earth's surface.

speciation
when one species splits into two or more different species.

geographic isolation
occurs when different groups of the same species become
physically isolated from one another for a long period of time.

reproductive isolation
occurs when geographically isolated populations of sexually
reproducing organisms become so different in genetic makeup
that they cannot produce live, fertile offspring if they are rejoined
and attempt to interbreed.

extinction
a process in which an entire species ceases to exist or a
population of a species becomes extinct over a large region.

endemic species
species only found in one area and are vulnerable to extinction.
Ex: those species found only on islands.

background extinction
a low rate of extinction of about 1 - 5 species for each million on
earth.

mass extinction
a significant rise in extinction rates above the background level.

artificial selection
where humans change the genetic characteristics of populations
by crossbreeding those with desireable traits.

species diversity
the number and variety of species in an ecosystem. It is a
combination of species richness and species evenness.

species richness
the number of different species present in an ecosystem. Ex.: a
coral reef is high and an aspen forest is low

species evenness
the comparative numbers of individuals of each species present
in an ecosystem. Ex.: tropical forests high and aspen forest low

theory of island biogeography

the number of different species (richness) found on an island is
determined by the interaction of (1) the rate at which new species
immigrate and (2) the rate at which species become locally
extinct.

ecological niche or niche

a way of life for a species in a community and includes everything
that affects its survival and reproduction, such as how much
water and sunlight it needs, how much space it requires, what it
feeds on, what feeds on it, and the temperatures it can tolerate.

habitat
a species' home or place where it lives.

generalist species
species that have broad niches, such as flies, cockroaches,
raccoons, humans.

specialist species
species that have narrow niches, such as giant panda, some
shorebirds

native species
species that normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem.
Ex.: deer in NJ.

nonnative species, invasive, alien, or exotic species

species that migrate into, or are deliberately or accidentally
introduced into an ecosystem. Ex.: gypsy moths in NJ.

indicator species
species that provide early warnings of damage to a community or
an ecosystem. Ex.: Loss of seabirds on NJ shore.

keystone species
species whose roles have a large effect on the types and
abundance of other species in an ecosystem. They are limited in
number. Ex.: butterflies, alligators, or sharks

foundation species
a species that play a major role in shaping their communities by
creating and enhancing their habitats in ways that benefit other
species. Ex.: beaver, elephants, bats, birds
Passenger pigeon
Once most abundant bird in N. America; more
than all other N.A. birds combined. Last flock
destroyed in 1896; last one died in 1914 in a
Cincinnati Zoo. Humans killed species in just
50 years

Natural Selection
The process by which traits that enhance
survival and reproduction are passed on more
frequently to future generations than those that
do not, thus altering the genetic makeup of
populations through time.

Alfred Russell Wallace

English naturalist who proposed,
independently of Charles Darwin, the concept
of natural selection as a mechanism for
evolution and as a way to explain the great
variety of living things

Logistical growth curve

A population graph that initial shows
exponential growth and then plateaus because
the population maxes out the ecosystems
carrying capacity.

Charles Darwin
English naturalist. He studied the plants and
animals of South America and the Pacific
islands(Galapagos), and in his book On the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
(1859) set forth his theory of evolution.

Evolution
The genetic changes in populations of
organisms through generations by means of
natural selection.

Adaptive trait
Any heritable trait that enables an organism to
survive through natural selections and
reproduce better under prevailing
environmental conditions

Mutations
Random errors in gene replication that lead to
a change in the sequence of nucleotides; the
source of all genetic diversity

Recombination

The formation of new combinations of the

different alleles of each gene on a chromosome;
the result of crossing over.

Directional selection
Form of natural selection in which the entire
curve moves; occurs when individuals at one
end of a distribution curve have higher fitness
than individuals in the middle or at the other
end of the curve

Stabilizing selection
Form of natural selection in which the entire
curves area begins to form in the middle.
Favors intermediate types of the species.

Disruptive selection
Form of natural selection in which a single
curve splits into two; occurs when individuals
at the upper and lower ends of a distribution
curve have higher fitness than individuals near
the middle

selective breeding
The process of selecting a few organisms with
desired traits to serve as parents of the next
generation.

Artificial selection
The selective breeding of domesticated plants
and animals to encourage the occurrence of
desirable traits.

Biodiversity
The variety of organisms in a given area, the
genetic variation within a population, the

variety of species in a community, or the

variety of communities in an ecosystem

Species
A group of organisms so similar to one another
that they can breed and produce fertile
offspring

Population
A group of organisms of the same species in a
given area

Speciation
The process by which a new species evolves
from a prior species, the most basic process in
macroevolution.

Allopatric Speciation
Speciation due to organisms of a species being
separated by geographical barriers so that
eventually they become so different that they
cannot interbreed.

Sympatric Speciation
Speciation that occurs within one area - some
factor other than geographical separation has
prevented free interbreeding between members
of the species.

Bottleneck effect
Genetic drift resulting from the reduction of a
population, typically by a natural disaster, such
that the surviving population is no longer
genetically representative of the original
population.

Genetic drift

The gradual changes in gene frequencies in a

population due to random events

Phylogenetic trees
Also called cladograms, a treelike diagram that
represents the history of divergence of species
or other taxonomic groups of organisms

Burgess Shale
Canadian fossil formation that contains
Cambrian soft-bodied organisms as well as
organisms with hard parts. Fossils date from
approximately 530 million years ago.

Extinction
Disappearance of a species from all parts of its
geographical range

Survivorship curves
They show the likelihood of survival at
different ages throughout the lifetime of the
organism. Type 1 (high probability of death at
old age - humans, elephants). Type 2 ( straight
equal probability of death at all age - birds).
Type 3( high probability of death at young age
-Toads)

Endemic

A disease that is constantly present to a greater

or lesser degree in people of a certain class or
in people living in a particular location

Background extinction rate

The average rate at which species go extinct
over the long term. Approximately 10 per year.

Mass extinction events

The extinction of a large proportion of the
worlds species in a very short time period due
to some extreme and rapid change or
catastrophic event. There has been five of these
in the bast half billion years.

Alvarez
Father/son team that first proposed that a
giant asteroid caused the K-T extinction.

K-T Mass extinction

This mass extinction event was the most recent
and occurred approximately 65 million years
ago. Killed off 70% of all living species
including dinosaurs. Proposed meteorite origin

was proposed by the Alvarez scientists by

comparing iridium levels.

Adaptive radiation
Process by which a single species or small
group of species evolves into several different
forms that live in different ways; rapid growth
in the diversity of a group of organisms.
Example of this is birds with different beaks
adapted to different beaks.

Biosphere
All the parts of the planet that are inhabited by
living things; sum of all earth's ecosystems

Population ecology
The study of populations in relation to the
environment, including environmental
influences on population density and
distribution, age structure, and variations in
population size.

Community Ecology
The study of how interactions between species
affect community structure and organization.

Ecosystem Ecology
The study of energy flow and the cycling of
chemicals among the various biotic and abiotic
factors in an ecosystem.

Ecosystem
A specific biological community and its
physical environment interacting in an
exchange of matter and energy.

Habitat
The place or set of environmental conditions in
which a particular organism lives.

Habitat selection
The process by which organisms actively select
habitats in which to live

Niche
The full range of physical and biological
conditions in which an organism lives and the
way in which the organism uses those
conditions

Specialists
Species with a narrow niche and thus having
very specific requirements to survive in their
ecosystem.

Generalists
Species with a broad niche who are able to live
in a large variety of habitats or use a wide
variety of resources.

Population density
The number of organisms per unit area.

Population dispersion
Also known as distribution, the way in which
individuals of a population are spread in an

area or volume; the three types are clumped,

uniform, and random

Uniform distribution
The distribution characteristic of a population
with a relatively regular spacing of individuals,
commonly as a result of territorial behavior

Clumped distribution
The most common type of population
distribution where many members of the
population live close together(usually near
resources), humans for example. Also called
patchy.

Random distribution
Distribution in which the location of members
in a population is totally random, location of
each individual is determined by chance.

Sex ratio
The proportion of males to females. To
maximize population growth needs to be
50/50.

Age structure
The number and proportion of people at each
age in a population

Age Pyramids
A way to display information about the number
of organisms alive in particular age groups of a
population.

Crude birth rate

The number of live births in a given period of
time per thousand organisms.

Crude death rate

The number of deaths in a given time span per
1,000 organisms.

Growth rate

An expression of the increase in the size of an

organism or population over a given period of
time. (Sorry but this time I'm too lazy to add
the formula)

Emigration
The movement of organisms OUT of a
population

Immigration
The movement of organisms INTO a
population

Exponential Growth
Growth of a population that multiplies by a
constant factor at constant time
intervals(geometric increases). Forms Jshaped curve.

Carrying capacity
The largest number of individuals of a
population that a given environment can
support at a given time.

limiting factors
Any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the
existence, numbers, reproduction, or
distribution of organisms

Environmental resistance
All the limiting factors that tend to reduce
population growth rates and set the maximum
allowable population size or carrying capacity
of an ecosystem

density dependent factors

Limiting factors (such as competition,

predation, parasitism, and disease) that are
affected by the number of individuals in a given
area

density independent factors

Limiting factor that affects all populations in
similiar ways, regardless of population size.

Biotic potential
The maximum reproductive rate of an
organism, given unlimited resources and ideal
environmental conditions

Gestation period
The length of time between fertilization and
birth

k selected
Organisms that reproduce later in life, produce
fewer offspring and devote significant time and
energy to the nurturing of their offspring.
Populations usually stabilize at carrying
capacity.

r selected
Organisms that reproduce early in life and
often and have a high capacity for reproductive
growth(biotic potential). Populations usually
fluctuate greatly.

Golden Toad
Is now extinct, used to live in the Costa Rican
cloud forests; could be due to El Nino, fungus
or Global climate change, restricted range of its
habitat, airborne pollution, lower pH levels

Ecotourism
A form of tourism that supports the
conservation and sustainable development of
ecologically unique areas.