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conflict with the leaders and churches of the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. The
latter culminated in the EastWest Schism, dividing the Western Church and Eastern Church.
From 12571377, the pope, though the bishop of Rome, resided in Viterbo, Orvieto, and Perugia,
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and then Avignon. The return of the popes to Rome after the Avignon Papacy was followed by the
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Western Schism: the division of the western church between two and, for a time, three competing
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papal claimants.
Languages
The Renaissance Papacy is known for its artistic and architectural patronage, forays into
etina
European power politics, and theological challenges to papal authority. After the start of the
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Protestant Reformation, the Reformation Papacy and Baroque Papacy led the Catholic Church
through the Counter-Reformation. The popes during the Age of Revolution witnessed the largest
Portugus
expropriation of wealth in the church's history, during the French Revolution and those that
Suomi
followed throughout Europe. The Roman Question, arising from Italian unification, resulted in the
Ting Vit
Contents [hide]
1 During the Roman Empire (until 493)
1.1 Early Christianity
1.2 From Constantine (312493)
2 Middle Ages (4931417)
2.1 Ostrogothic Papacy (493537)
2.2 Byzantine Papacy (537752)
2.3 Frankish influence (756857)
2.4 Influence of powerful Roman families (9041048)
2.5 Conflicts with the Emperor and East (10481257)
2.6 The wandering popes (12571309)
2.7 Avignon Papacy (13091377)
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Further information: Primacy of Simon Peter and Persecution of Christians in the Roman
Empire
Catholics recognize the pope as the successor to Saint Peter, whom Jesus designated as the
"rock" upon which the Church was to be built.[1][2] Although Peter never bore the title of "pope"
(Latin papa), Catholics recognize him as the first pope and Bishop of Rome,[3] because he had the
office, but not the title.[4] Official declarations of the Church speak of the popes as holding within
the college of the bishops a position analogous to that held by Peter within the college of the
Apostles, namely Prince of the Apostles, of which the college of the Bishops, a distinct entity, is the
successor.[5][6][7]
Protestants tend to deny that Peter and those claimed to be his immediate successors had
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universally recognized supreme authority over all the early churches. The same Protestants said
that Rome's prominence may be seen as only moral, not ecclesiastical, and that emergence of the
Roman pontiff to supreme power and prominence happened by natural circumstance rather than
divine appointment.[8]
Many popes in the first three centuries of the Christian era are obscure figures. Several suffered
martyrdom along with members of their flock in periods of persecution. Most of them engaged in
intense theological arguments with other bishops.
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The "Donation of Constantine", an 8th-century forgery used to enhance the prestige and authority
of popes, places the pope more centrally in the narrative of Constantinian Christianity. The legend
of the Donation claims that Constantine offered his crown to Sylvester I (31435), and even that
Sylvester baptized Constantine. In reality, Constantine was baptized (nearing his death in May
337) by Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop, unlike the pope.[citation needed]
Although the "Donation" never occurred, Constantine did hand over the Lateran Palace to the
bishop of Rome, and began the construction of Old St. Peter's Basilica (the "Constantinian
Basilica").[citation needed] The gift of the Lateran probably occurred during the reign of Miltiades
(31114), Sylvester I's predecessor, who began using it as his residence.[citation needed] Old St.
Peter's was begun between 326 and 330 and took three decades to complete.
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the practice of popes naming their own successors, which held until an unpopular choice was
made in 530, and discord only ended with the selection in 532 of John II, the first to rename himself
upon succession.[citation needed]
Theodoric was tolerant towards the Catholic Church and did not interfere in dogmatic matters. He
remained as neutral as possible towards the pope, though he exercised a preponderant influence
in the affairs of the papacy.[11] Ostrogothic influence ended with the reconquest of Rome by
Justinian, who had had pro-Gothic Pope Silverius (536537) deposed and replaced with his own
choice, Pope Vigilius (537555).
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made an unusual journey north of the Alps to visit the Frankish king, Pepin III, to seek his help
against the invading Lombards.
The pope anointed Pepin at the abbey of St Denis, near Paris, together with Pepin's two young
sons Charles and Carloman. Pepin duly invaded northern Italy in 754, and again in 756. Pepin was
able to drive the Lombards from the territory belonging to Ravenna but he did not restore it to its
rightful owner, the Byzantine emperor. Instead, perhaps accepting the validity of the Donation of
Constantine, he handed over large areas of central Italy to the pope and his successors.
The land given to pope Stephen in 756, in the so-called Donation of Pepin, made the papacy a
temporal power and for the first time created an incentive for secular leaders to interfere with papal
succession. This territory would become the basis for the Papal States, over which the popes ruled
until the Papal States were incorporated into the new Kingdom of Italy in 1870. For the next eleven
centuries, the story of Rome would be almost synonymous with the story of the papacy.
The Lombard kingdom reached its height in the 7th and 8th century. Paganism and Arianism were
at first prevalent among the Lombards but were gradually supplanted by Catholicism. Roman
culture and Latin speech were gradually adopted and the Catholic bishops emerged as chief
magistrates in the cities. Lombard law combined Germanic and Roman traditions. After Aistulf's
death King Desiderius renewed the attack on Rome. In 772, Pope Adrian I enlisted the support of
Charlemagne, Pepin's successor, who intervened, and, after defeating the Lombards, added their
kingdom to his own.
After being physically attacked by his enemies in the streets of Rome, Pope Leo III made his way in
799 through the Alps to visit Charlemagne at Paderborn.
It is not known what was agreed between the two, but Charlemagne traveled to Rome in 800 to
support the pope. In a ceremony in St Peter's Basilica, on Christmas Day, Leo was supposed to
anoint Charlemagne's son as his heir. But unexpectedly (it is maintained), as Charlemagne rose
from prayer, the pope placed a crown on his head and acclaimed him emperor. It is reported that
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Charlemagne expressed displeasure but nevertheless accepted the honour. The displeasure was
probably diplomatic, for the legal emperor was supposed to be seated in Constantinople.
Nevertheless this public alliance between the pope and the ruler of a confederation of Germanic
tribes was a reflection of the reality of political power in the west. This coronation launched the
concept of the new Holy Roman Empire which would play an important role throughout the Middle
Ages. The Holy Roman Empire only became formally established in the next century. But the
concept is implicit in the title adopted by Charlemagne in 800: 'Charles, most serene Augustus,
crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman empire.'
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He deposed all three and installed his own preferred candidate: Pope Clement II.
The history of the papacy from 1048 to 1257 would continue to be marked by conflict between
popes and the Holy Roman Emperor, most prominently the Investiture Controversy, a dispute over
whopope or emperorcould appoint bishops within the Empire. Henry IV's Walk to Canossa in
1077 to meet Pope Gregory VII (107385), although not dispositive within the context of the larger
dispute, has become legendary. Although the emperor renounced any right to lay investiture in the
Concordat of Worms (1122), the issue would flare up again.
Long-standing divisions between East and West also came to a head in the EastWest Schism
and the Crusades. The first seven Ecumenical Councils had been attended by both Western and
Eastern prelates, but growing doctrinal, theological, linguistic, political and geographic differences
finally resulted in mutual denunciations and excommunications. Pope Urban II (108899) speech at
the Council of Clermont in 1095 became the rallying cry of the First Crusade.
Unlike the previous millennium, the process for papal selection became somewhat fixed during this
period. Pope Nicholas II promulgated In nomine Domini in 1059, which limited suffrage in papal
elections to the College of Cardinals. The rules and procedures of papal elections evolved during
this period, laying the groundwork for the modern papal conclave. The driving force behind these
reforms was Cardinal Hildebrand, who later became Gregory VII.
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Main articles:
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Main articles:
Viterbo
Papacy,
Orvieto
Papacy and
Perugia
Papacy
The pope is the
bishop of Rome,
...and Orvieto
but nowhere is it
written that he
has to stay there (in fact, only 200 years prior, cardinals would have been required to reside in
Rome). Political instability in thirteenth-century Italy forced the papal court to move to several
different locations. Destinations included Viterbo, Orvieto, and Perugia. The popes brought the
Roman Curia with them, and the College of Cardinals met in the city where the last pope had died
to hold papal elections. Host cities enjoyed a boost to their prestige and certain economic
advantages, but the municipal authorities risked being subsumed into the administration of the
Papal States if they allowed the pope to overstay his welcome.
According to Eamon Duffy, "aristocratic factions within the city of Rome once again made it an
insecure base for a stable papal government. Innocent IV was exiled from Rome and even Italy for
six years, and all but two of the papal elections of the thirteenth century had to take place outside
Rome. The skyline of Rome itself was now dominated by the fortified war-towers of the aristocracy
(a hundred were built in Innocent IV's pontificate alone) and the popes increasingly spent their time
in the papal palaces at Viterbo and Orvieto."[14]
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intrigue or even murder.[17] Alexander VI had four acknowledged children: Cesare Borgia, Lucrezia
Borgia, Gioffre Borgia, and Giovanni Borgia.
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The pontificate of Pope Sixtus V (15851590) opened up the final stage of the Catholic
Reformation, characteristic of the Baroque age of the early seventeenth century, shifting away
from compelling to attracting. His reign focused on rebuilding Rome as a great European capital
and Baroque city, a visual symbol for the Catholic Church.
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bishop who openly propagated siding with the suffering working classes[27] Since Leo XIII, Papal
teachings expand on the right and obligation of workers and the limitations of private property:
Pope Pius XI Quadragesimo anno, the Social teachings of Pope Pius XII on a huge range of social
issues, John XXIII Mater et magistra in 1961, Pope Paul VI, the encyclical Populorum progressio on
World development issues, and Pope John Paul II, Centesimus annus, commemorating the 100th
anniversary of Rerum novarum of Pope Leo XIII.
The eclipse of papal temporal power during the 19th century was accompanied by a recovery of
papal prestige. The monarchist reaction in the wake of the French Revolution and the later
emergence of constitutional governments served alike, though in different ways, to sponsor that
development. The reinstated monarchs of Catholic Europe saw in the papacy a conservative ally
rather than a jurisdictional rival. Later, when the institution of constitutional governments broke the
ties binding the clergy to the policies of royal regimes, Catholics were freed to respond to the
renewed spiritual authority of the pope.
The popes of the 19th and 20th centuries exercised their spiritual authority with increasing vigor
and in every aspect of religious life. By the crucial pontificate of Pope Pius IX (18461878), for
example, papal control over worldwide Catholic missionary activity was firmly established for the
first time in history.
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nuncio during the 1920s, he had made unsuccessful attempts to obtain German agreement for
such a treaty, and between 1930 and 1933 he attempted to initiate negotiations with
representatives of successive German governments, but the opposition of Protestant and Socialist
parties, the instability of national governments and the care of the individual states to guard their
autonomy thwarted this aim. In particular, the questions of denominational schools and pastoral
work in the armed forces prevented any agreement on the national level, despite talks in the winter
of 1932.[28][29]
Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor on 30 January 1933 and sought to gain international
respectability and to remove internal opposition by representatives of the Church and the Catholic
Centre Party. He sent his vice chancellor Franz von Papen, a Catholic nobleman and former
member of the Centre Party, to Rome to offer negotiations about a Reichskonkordat.[30] On behalf
of Cardinal Pacelli, his long-time associate Prelate Ludwig Kaas, the out-going chairman of the
Centre Party, negotiated first drafts of the terms with Papen.[31] The concordat was finally signed,
by Pacelli for the Vatican and von Papen for Germany, on 20 July and ratified on September 10,
1933.[32]
Between 1933 to 1939, Pacelli issued 55 protests of violations of the Reichskonkordat. Most
notably, early in 1937, Pacelli asked several German cardinals, including Cardinal Michael von
Faulhaber to help him write a protest of Nazi violations of the Reichskonkordat; this was to become
Pius XI's encyclical Mit brennender Sorge. The encyclical, condemning the view that "exalts race,
or the people, or the State, or a particular form of State ... above their standard value and divinizes
them to an idolatrous level", was written in German instead of Latin and read in German churches
on Palm Sunday 1937.[33]
World War II (19391945) [edit]
Main articles: Vatican City during World War II and Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust
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When Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, the Vatican declared neutrality to avoid
being drawn into the conflict and also to avoid occupation by the Italian military. In 1944, the
German Army occupied Rome. Adolf Hitler proclaimed that he would respect Vatican neutrality.
However, several incidents, such as giving aid to downed Allied airmen, nearly caused Nazi
Germany to invade the Vatican. Rome was liberated by the Allies after several months of
occupation.
The Church policies after World War II of Pope Pius XII focused on material aid to war-torn Europe
with its 15 million displaced persons and refugees, an internal internationalization of the Roman
Catholic Church, and the development of its worldwide diplomatic relations. His encyclical Evangelii
praecones[34] increased the local decision-making of Catholic missions, many of which became
independent dioceses. Pius XII demanded recognition of local cultures as fully equal to European
culture.[35][36] He internationalized the College of Cardinals by eliminating the Italian majority and
appointed cardinals from Asia, South America and Australia. In Western Africa[37] Southern
Africa[38] British Eastern Africa, Finland, Burma and French Africa Pope Pius established
independent dioceses in 1955.
While after years of rebuilding the Church thrived in the West and most of the developing world, it
faced most serious persecutions in the East. Sixty million Catholics came under Soviet dominated
regimes in 1945, with tens of thousands of priests and religious killed, and millions deported into
Soviet and Chinese Gulags. The communist regimes in Albania, Bulgaria, Romania and China
practically eradicated the Roman Catholic Church in their countries[39]
From Vatican II (1962present) [edit]
Further information: Second Vatican Council
The continuing strength of the forces within the church
favoring theological innovation and energetic reform
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of Pope Paul VI in his attempts to ensure that the Council language is friendly and open to the
sensitivities of Protestant and Orthodox Churches, whom he had invited to all sessions at the
request of Pope John XXIII. Bea also was strongly involved in the passage of Nostra aetate, which
regulates relation of the Church with the Jewish faith and members of other religions[41]
The establishment of national conferences of bishops tended to erode papal authority to some
degree, and Pope Paul VI's encyclical Humanae Vitae (1968), reaffirming the prohibition of artificial
birth control, was met with both evasion and defiance in the USA and Western Europe but warmly
welcomed in South America, Eastern and Southern Europe.[42]
Pope Paul VI (19631978), however, continued the ecumenical efforts of Pope John XXIII in his
contacts with Protestant and Orthodox churches. He also continued John XXIII's attempts to make
discreet moves in the direction of pragmatic accommodation with the Communist regimes of
eastern Europe, a policy that were possible in the eras of Krushchev and Brezhnev. Paul VI also
reorganized the curia and spoke strongly for peace and social justice.
Pope Paul VI faced criticism throughout his papacy from both traditionalists and liberals for
steering a middle course during Vatican II and in the course of the implementation of its reforms
thereafter.[43] His passion for peace during the Vietnam War was not understood by all. The urgent
task of overcoming World poverty and start real development resulted partly in benign neglect of
papal teachings by the influential and the rich. On basic Church teachings, this pope was
unwavering. On the tenth anniversary of Humanae Vitae, he strongly reconfirmed his teachings.[44]
In his style and methodology, he was a disciple of Pius XII, whom he deeply revered.[45] He suffered
under the attacks of his predecessor for his alleged silences, knowing from personal association
with the late pope the real concerns and compassion of Pius XII.[45] Pope Paul is not credited to
have had the encyclopaedic culture of Pius XII, nor his phenomenal memory, his amazing gift for
languages, his brilliant style in writing,[46] nor did he have the Charisma and outpouring love,
sense of humor and human warmth of John XXIII. He took on himself the unfinished reform work of
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these two popes, bringing them diligently with great humility and common sense and without much
fanfare to conclusion.[44] In doing so, Paul VI saw himself following in the footsteps of the Apostle
Paul, torn to several directions as Saint Paul, who always said, I am attracted to two sides at once,
because the Cross always divides.[47]
He became the first pope to visit all five continents.[48] Paul VI systematically continued and
completed the efforts of his predecessors, to turn the Euro-centric Church into a Church for the
whole world, by integrating the bishops from all continents in its government and in the Synods
which he convened. His August 6, 1967 Motu Proprio Pro Comperto Sane opened the Roman
Curia to the bishops of the world. Until then, only Cardinals could be leading members of the
Curia.[48]
An inner joy seems to have been a characteristic of Paul VI. His confessor, the Jesuit Paolo Dezza
arrived at the Vatican every Friday evening at seven p.m. to hear confession of Paul VI. The only
words he ever spoke about his long service to Paul VI during his pontificate were, that this pope is
a man of great joy.[49] After the death of Pope Paul VI, Dezza was more outspoken, saying that "if
Paul VI was not a saint, when he was elected pope, he became one during his pontificate. I was
able to witness not only with what energy and dedication he toiled for Christ and the Church but
also and above all, how much he suffered for Christ and the Church. I always admired not only his
deep inner resignation but also his constant abandonment to divine providence.".[50] It is this
character trait, which led to the opening of the process of beatification and canonization for Paul
VI.
With the accession of Pope John Paul II after the
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Pope Francis
February 28, 2013, less than three weeks later. On March 13, 2013, Pope Francisthe first Jesuit
pope and the first pope from the Americaswas elected to the papacy.
See also
[edit]
List of popes
Index of Vatican City-related articles
Notes
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Catholicism portal
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Joyce, G. H. (1913). "Pope". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
4. ^ Wilken. p. 281. "Some (Christian communities) had been founded by Peter, the disciple Jesus
designated as the founder of his church. But there is another school of thought on this issue of Peter
being given the title of founder of the Christian church. The Biblical truth is that Peter had no more
influence over the church than any other disciple of Jesus. In fact, Paul did more to build up
Christianity than any other disciple. The "keys of the kingdom" that Jesus supposedly gave to Peter
was simply the privilege given to all the Apostles to preach the Gospel. Once the position was
institutionalized, historians looked back and recognized Peter as the first pope of the Christian
church in Rome" Missing or empty |title= (help).
5. ^ "Second Vatican Council"
7. ^ Avery Dulles (1987). The Catholicity of the Church . Oxford University Press. p. 140. ISBN 0-19826695-2.
8. ^ Wells, David F. "The Rise of the Papacy"
9. ^ Baumgartner, 2003, p. 6.
10. ^ Richards, 1979, p. 70.
11. ^ Lffler, Klemens. "Ostrogoths." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1911. 21 Jul. 2014
12. ^ Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972, p. 537.
13. ^ Brook, Lindsay (2003). "Popes and Pornocrats: Rome in the early middle ages". Foundations 1
(1): 521.
14. ^ Duffy, 2006, p. 156.
15. ^ a
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bc
"
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Graham, 76
45. ^ a
Graham 76.
49. ^ Hebblethwaite,339
50. ^ Hebblethwaite, 600
51. ^ "The pope started this chain of events that led to the end of communism," Wasa said. "Before
his pontificate, the world was divided into blocs. Nobody knew how to get rid of communism. "He
simply said: Don't be afraid, change the image of this land."
52. ^ "What has happened in Eastern Europe in recent years would not have been possible without the
presence of this Pope, without the great role even political that he has played on the world scene"
(quoted in La Stampa, March 3, 1992).
53. ^ George Weigel, Witness to Hope, biography of Pope John Paul II
54. ^ Redemptor Hominis Orinatio 'Sacercotalis
55. ^ Peter Hebblethwaite, Paul VI New York, 1993
56. ^ According to some critics like Hans Kng in his 2008 autobiography
57. ^ see Anni sacri
58. ^ Vatican.va Homily on Christ
References
[edit]
Collins, Roger (2009). Keepers of the Keys: A History of the Papacy. Basic Books. ISBN 0-46501195-0.
Pennington, Arthur Robert (1882). Epochs of the Papacy: From Its Rise to the Death of Pope
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