Chapter 5

Use and calibration of the Resistograph for

analysis of oak (Quercus sp.) decay and callus
formation associated with fire scars

A report prepared by

Michael Stambaugh, Erin R. McMurry,

Joseph M. Marschall and Richard Guyette
At the
University of Missouri, Department of Forestry
203 ABNR Building
Columbia, Missouri
573-882-7741
For
The Missouri Department of Conservation
West Plains Office

May 15, 2008

Abstract
Fire and other disturbances frequently cause injury and damage to trees that are
undetectable by inspection of the outer tree bole. We investigated the use of the
Resistograph to assess tree scarring and decay in oaks (Quercus spp.) following fire
injury. Resistance was measured on fifty-eight freshly cut cross sections of oak. Visual
inspections were made by comparing each Resistograph reading with the actual crosssectional drilling line. Mean resistance of bark was much lower than that of wood and
ranged from 0 to 8.3 percent. Transition from bark to wood was characterized by a rapid
increase in resistance with mean values increasing from about 2 to 25 percent. At the
injury location the interface between wound wood and the killed cambium commonly
results in a detectable crack with low or no resistance and characterized by an immediate
and distinct decrease in amplitude. Commonly, decay or the beginning of decay lies just
inside the crack and resulted in lowered resistance and lowered serial resistance
variability within the decayed region. Cavity lengths detected by the Resistograph were
highly correlated with actual cavity size (r = 0.97). Results from this study suggest that
the Resistograph could be used to rapidly identify fire scar injuries and the extent of
wound-initiated decay.
Keywords: Quercus, wood density, Missouri, Ozark, prescribed fire

Introduction
Fire and other disturbances frequently cause injury and damage to trees that are
undetectable by inspection of the outer tree bole. Evidence of the extent of wounding and
decay can be closed over and undetectable within a few years post-fire. Ability to detect
the extent of internal tree damage could aid in identifying cull trees, determining changes
in tree grade, identifying hazard trees, or quantifying wildlife cavities. Forest managers
would benefit by knowing the extent of damage in trees without cutting them down;
however, obtaining this information can be difficult, imprecise, and inefficient using
standard techniques (e.g. increment borer, sounding bole with hammer).
The Resistograph (IML, Inc.,
Kennesaw, GA) (Figure 1) is an
instrument that records changes in the
physical quality of wood through
changes in the resistance to torque of
a penetrating drilling bit (Rinn et al.
1996). IML Incorporated has
developed Resistograph instruments
for the rapid, precise, and nondestructive detection of decay in the
inner portion of trees (IML, Inc.
2006). The instrument is highly
sensitive and capable of recording
changes in wood resistance at submillimeter precision (e.g., detection of
changes in annual ring boundaries).
Optional settings such as automated
cavity detection are available for
certain models. In addition,
Figure 1. Worker using the IML RESI
accompanying software aids in
F400-S Resistograph decay detection
plotting resistance measurements for
instrument for the fire scarring and
visual inspection and exporting of raw
decay analysis. Digital measurement
data for statistical analysis.
data were stored and imported to FDeveloped primarily as a tool for
Tools Pro Software (IML Technologies
inspection of wooden structures, utility
2006).
poles and urban trees, use of the
Resistograph in forestry research is a
relatively recent application. In one study, Isik and Li (2003) found the Resistograph
useful for quickly and accurately assessing wood density in a loblolly pine (Pinus taeda
L.) progeny trial. In a shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) progeny trial in Missouri,
Gwaze and Stevenson (in press) found the Resistograph had potential for differentiating
between wood densities at a family level, but not for predicting individual tree densities.
Wang et al. (2003) utilized Resistograph measurements to test for effects of thinning and
pruning methods on annual ring characteristics. Farris et al. (2004) used the Resistograph
to relate wood densities of ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa C. Lawson) snags to use by

foraging woodpeckers. To our knowledge, however, no studies have investigated the

utility of the Resistograph in fire effects research.
This paper reports on the applicability of the IML RESI F400-S Resistograph for
efficient determination of scarring and decay in white and red oak species due to
prescribed fire injuries. We present methods, results and discussion on the use and
calibration of the instrument on oaks, and offer technical guidelines for efficient field use.

Methods
Study site and sample collection
The study was conducted at Peck Ranch Conservation Area in Carter County, Missouri,
USA. The site is in the Ozark Highlands ecoregion and in the western portion of the
Central Hardwoods forest region. Forests are primarily mixed hardwoods dominated by
oak-hickory forest types with scattered shortleaf pine. Fire records and dating of fire scars
confirmed that the only fires occurring at the site within the past fifty years were
prescribed fires in 1996, 2001 and 2004. In January 2007, fifty-eight oak trees were
felled and sections were removed from the base of each tree (e.g., 3 to 10 cm above
ground). Resistograph measurements (given as the percent amplitude of resistance
between a freely spinning probe (0%) and impenetrable wood (100%)) were made on
each cross section. Cross sections were collected from 28 white oaks (Quercus alba L.),
22 black oaks (Q. velutina Lam.), and 8 scarlet oaks (Q. coccinea Mnchh.). Sections
were transported and drilled with the Resistograph within three days of being cut to
minimize the differences between these results and those obtained from standing trees.
Resistance amplitude (hereafter referred to as resistance) was measured on each basal
cross section in an outdoor laboratory (Figure 1). Cross sections were secured on a bench
top and drilled according to execution guidelines described in the product manual.
Drillings were made using the sensitivity stage 2 setting (hardwoods), at full speeds and
with fully charged batteries. Drilling advance rates ranged between 43 and 45 cm per
minute and maximum drilling depth using this Resistograph model was 40 cm. All
sections were drilled at least once, with some sections drilled multiple times to
adequately capture different stages of injury and decay across multiple injuries.
Resistances were categorized according to four wood classes: sapwood, heartwood,
wound wood, and decayed wood (Smith and Sutherland 2001). Because each cross
section drilling produces numerous observations of each wood class (e.g., 40-600) we
only used a sub-sample (n = 15) to generate summary statistics of resistance by wood
class. Sub-samples were selected based on equal representation of tree species and
presence of all wood classes. Decayed wood frequently included white rot and the
appearance of wound-initiated discoloration (Smith and Sutherland 1999). Drilling line
locations and depths were marked on each sample cross section so that resistance could
be matched and attributed to the different wood classes (i.e. sapwood, wound wood).
Where drilling lines entered cavities, we measured the actual cavity length (cm) and
compared it to the cavity length determined by the instruments automatic cavity
detection option.

Analysis
Visual inspections were made by comparing each resistance with the actual cross
sectional drilling line. Plots of resistance were matched against the marked drilling lines
(Fig. 2a, b). For each wood class, summary statistics of resistance by species were
generated. Correlation analysis was used to relate the cavity detection length (determined
by instrument by drilling on the radial plane) with an actual measurement of the same
cavity length.

Results and Discussion

Wood resistance trended upward with increasing proximity to tree center. This effect
seems to have implications for the resistance of all wood classes, even decay. For
example, decay in the outer portion of the tree may have lower resistance than equally
decayed wood closer to the tree center. In addition to areas of decay, cracks and cavities
in the inner portions of trees may exhibit relatively high resistance. One possible
explanation for this trend is the effect of increased resistance with drilling depth and the
increased length of drill shaft moving through the sample. Though the probe tip cuts a
hole wider than the shaft diameter, which should prevent resistance along the shaft of the
drill (Nicolotti and Miglietta 1998), even slight deviation from a perfectly horizontal
angle of entry may introduce friction and resistance during drilling (Dunster 2000).
Another possible explanation for increasing wood resistance with drilling depth could be
differences in oak wood properties. Although this effect is likely small compared to the
drill bit resistance, differences in wood properties within the tree (e.g. heartwood vs.
sapwood, mature vs. juvenile wood) may contribute to observed resistance trends. One
other possibility for the trend of increased resistance with drilling depth is that the
instrument was not operating correctly; however, after returning the instrument for
maintenance, the trend persisted. Changes in resistance from bark to heartwood showed
many features enabling their identification from Resistograph measurements. Mean bark
resistance was much lower than that of wood and ranged from 0 to 8.3 percent (Table 1).
Transition from bark to wood was characterized by a rapid increase in resistance with
mean values increasing from about 2 to 25 percent. Sapwood resistance steeply trended
upward with drilling depth hence having a wide range in minimum and maximum
resistance. The transition from sapwood to heartwood was not obvious or marked by
abrupt increases in resistance. However, visual analyses of plots appeared to show
resistance variance increasing from the sapwood to the heartwood. Use of resistance
ranges and changes in resistance variance should enable good estimation of the amount of
sapwood and heartwood from graphical analysis (Fig. 2a, b). Although not tested, it
appears that fire scars and extent of decay could be identified using the Resistograph
instrument using their common pattern or signature. At the injury location the interface
between wound wood and the killed cambium commonly results in a crack. Crack
resistance is typically low and characterized as a precipitous and distinct decrease in
resistance. Commonly, decay or the beginning of decay lies just inside the crack,
resulting in lowered resistance and lowered serial resistance variability within the
decayed region (Fig. 2a, b). The transition from decay back to clear wood is characterized
as a fast and smooth increase in resistance followed by a sustained higher level of
resistance (i.e. sound wood) with increased resistance variability. Without a
5

Figure 2. Cross-sections and resistance amplitude plots for oaks collected in

January 2006. Lines on cross sections indicate the drilling path. (A) Fire scar
dated to dormant season of year 2001 on a Q. coccinea. (B) Fire scar dated to
dormant season of year 2001 on a Q. alba.
6

distinct resistance feature (i.e., signature pattern) it is likely difficult to accurately

distinguish fire scars from normal wood using the Resistograph. Furthermore, even with
a signature pattern, it may not be possible to distinguish a fire scar resistance pattern
from that of another injuring agent (e.g., lightning, mechanical equipment, wildlife).
Resistances of wound wood and decay are more similar to sapwood than heartwood
(Table 1). For this reason fire scars within sapwood are likely more difficult to
differentiate than fire scars within heartwood. Resistance of wound wood within the
sapwood and unwounded sapwood appeared to be very similar across all three oak
species; therefore, it is likely not possible to precisely quantify the amount of wound
wood present using the Resistograph. Wound wood resistances were similar to heartwood
in that the serial variability appeared increased. One difference was that wound wood
resistance appeared to lack upward trend like that of the heartwood; however, this may be
due to the width of wound wood typically being relatively small (e.g. 3 cm). Of the three
oak species, Q. velutina showed both the highest sapwood and heartwood resistance.
Maximum heartwood resistances were all very high (87% and greater).
Cavities were drilled and measured on cross sections to test the accuracy of the
automatic cavity detection capability. Detected and actual cavity measurements were
highly correlated (r = 0.97) (Fig. 3). There could be a tendency for the instrument to
overestimate larger (> 10 cm long) cavity lengths; however, more observations of large
cavities are needed to support this claim. A frequent occurrence was for the drill bit not to
enter the opposite side of the cavity, but instead to be bent, run slightly down the cavity
shaft, and reenter in a misaligned position. On thirteen occasions the Resistograph
detected a cavity where none existed; however, all of these cavities were estimated at less
than 1.84 cm in size. A few cavities were detected while drilling through low resistance
bark. Once the drill bit entered a cavity, the serial data recorded through the cavity area
were remarkably stable at an equal resistance.

Table 1. Summary statistics of resistance amplitudes by species and wood class.

Statistics were generated for a sub-sample of five individuals of each species.
Quercus alba
Quercus velutina
Quercus coccinea
No. trees

400
1.5
0
4.9
1.1

367
2.5
0
4.9
1.3

1562
31.1
0.5
64.6
13.6

948
21.6
0.5
39.3
9.1

1829
61.5
35
98.1
17.1

3444
49.2
19.9
83
12.8

228
39.1
31.6
49.5
4.4

571
35.7
23.8
49.5
4.7

3560
27.0
14.6
52.4
8.2

2228
19.2
1.5
37.9
5.0

Bark
No. observations
Mean amplitude
Min. amplitude
Max. amplitude
St. dev. amplitude

332
2.2
0
8.3
1.4
Sapwood

No. observations
Mean amplitude
Min. amplitude
Max. amplitude
St. dev. amplitude

819
26.4
6.8
51.5
9.3
Heartwood

No. observations
Mean amplitude
Min. amplitude
Max. amplitude
St. dev. amplitude

3482
50.0
13.6
98.5
17.3
Woundwood

No. observations
Mean amplitude
Min. amplitude
Max. amplitude
St. dev. amplitude

297
28.7
15.5
45.1
4.8
Decay

No. observations
Mean amplitude
Min. amplitude
Max. amplitude
St. dev. amplitude

635
39.9
3.9
99
36.8

Conclusion
Results from this study
suggest that the
Resistograph could be used
to rapidly (< 1 minute per
drilling) identify injuries
and the internal extent of
wound-initiated decay. Fire
scar injuries may have
common resistance
signature that could aid in
their detection using the
Resistograph, however it is
not likely capable of
distinguishing from other
similar types of injuries caused by
Figure 3. Scatterplot of actual and
other agents. Resistances and
Resistograph detected cavity lengths
serial variation appear to be
(measured on the radial plane) for twenty-five
distinguishable between several
oak cross sections.
types of wood and decay. The
Resistograph allows managers to
make rapid measurements which, coupled with the information here, could provide
estimates for fire managers (fire effects), forest managers (log grade or value losses), or
wildlife managers (cavity size estimation). Prior to using the Resistograph consideration
should be given to the potential effects of drilling on wood quality and minimizing these
effects by drilling at levels below stump height.

Acknowledgements
Support for this research was provided by the Missouri Department of Conservation. We
appreciate the opportunity to utilize fire scarred trees at the Peck Ranch Conservation
Area for this study. Assistance in field work was provided by Mike Norris and John
Tuttle, and technical research and instrument support was provided by Jeremy Kolaks
and Tom Nichols. In addition, we thank three anonymous reviewers for providing helpful
comments on previous versions.

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