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Prepared by
A. F. Grandt, Jr.
Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Purdue University
W. Lafayette, IN 47907
June 2001
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Objective
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Structural Failure Modes
Force
• Excessive Deformation
displacement
– Elastic
– Plastic
Force
• Buckling Yield
• Fracture Permanent
displacement
• Creep Displacement
• Corrosion
• Fatigue
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Fatigue Failure Mechanism
• Caused by repeated (cyclic) loading
• Involves crack formation, growth, and final
fracture
Fracture
Time
Elapsed Cycles N
• Note:
– life (number of applied load cycles)
depends on:
• applied stress amplitude
• component “quality” (notches, scratches, etc.)
– heat emitted >> plastic deformation
6
Characteristics of Fatigue
• “Brittle” fracture surface appearance
• Cracks often form at free surface
• Macro/micro “beach marks”/ “striations”
Beach marks Striations
20 µ m
0.3 in
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Fatigue is problem for many
types of structures
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Exercise
Describe fatigue failures from your
personal experience
– What was cause of fatigue failure?
– What was nature of cyclic load?
– Was initial quality an issue?
– How was failure detected?
– How was problem solved?
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Exercise
Estimate the fatigue lifetime needed for:
– Automobile axle
– Railroad rail
– Commercial aircraft components
• landing gear
• lower wing skin
– Highway drawbridge mechanism
– Space shuttle solid propellant rocket motor
cases
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Exercise
• Give an example of a High Cycle
Fatigue (HCF) application.
– What is the required lifetime?
– What are consequences of failure?
• Given an example of a Low Cycle
Fatigue (LCF) application.
– What is the required lifetime?
– What are consequences of failure?
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Fatigue Crack Formation
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Fatigue Crack Formation
Objective
– Characterize resistance to fatigue crack formation
– Predict number of cycles to “initiate” small* fatigue crack
in component
*crack size ~ 0.03 inch
= “committee” crack
Approach
Crack Formation
– Stress-life concepts
Crack Growth
(S-N curves)
– Strain-life concepts Elapsed Cycles N
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Stress-life (S-N) Approach
Concept: Stress range controls fatigue life
S ∆S/2
S
∆S
time
S
Log cycles N
Note:
• Life increases as load amplitude decreases
• Considerable scatter in data
• “Run-outs” suggest “infinite life” possible
• Life N usually total cycles to failure
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Model Stress-life (S-N) Curve
Log ∆S/2
• Se = endurance limit ∆S/2 = σf ’ (2N)b
for steels
– Se ~ 0.5 ultimate stress Sult Se
– Se ~ 100 ksi if Sult 〈 200 ksi
Log reversals 2N
• σf ’ = fatigue strength coefficient
• b = fatigue strength exponent
typically -0.12 < b < -0.05
Mean Stress
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S-N Curve: Other Factors
• S-N curves are very sensitive to
– surface finish, coatings, notches
– prior loading, residual stresses
– specimen size effects, etc.
• Many empirical “knock-down” factors
• S-N approach best suited for HCF (High
Cycle Fatigue) applications
– limited by local plastic deformation
– strain-life approach better for LCF (Low
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Cycle Fatigue)
Strain-life (ε - N) Approach
Concept: Strain range ∆ε controls life
Experiment ∆σ
ε
• Control ∆ε
∆ε
• Measure ∆ε
– “Reversals” (2Nf) time
to failure (1 cycle
σ
= 2 reversals)
– Stable stress range ∆σ ∆σ
needed to maintain ∆ε
Note: “stable” ∆σ usually occurs
time
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by mid-life (2Nf /2)
Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve
Relate stable cyclic stress and strain ranges
∆σ ∆ε
σ
ε σ
∆ε ∆σ
∆ε
time time
∆σ
ε
“Hystersis” loop
Cyclic stress-strain curve
∆σ/2
E = elastic modulus
∆ε/2 = ∆σ/2E + (∆σ/2K ’)1/n’ K’ = cyclic strength coefficient
n’ = strain hardening exponent
19 ∆ε/2
Plastic Strain-Life Curve
Relate “plastic” strain amplitude ∆εp/2
with reversals to failure 2Nf
Compute ∆εp/2 = ∆ε/2 - ∆σ/2E = total - “elastic” strain amplitudes
∆εp/2 = εf ’ (2Nf)c
Log ∆εp/2
∆εp /2 = εf ’ (2Nf)c
Note:
– Plastic strain dominates for LCF
– Elastic strain dominates for HCF
– Transition life 2Nt separates LCF/HCF
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Variable Amplitude Loading
• Load amplitude varies in many applications
• Use of constant amplitude S - N or ε - N
data requires “damage model”
• Miner’s rule* 2S ai
S
Σ(Ni/Nf) = 1 Ni
time
*Use with caution!
Ni = number of applied cycles of stress amplitude Sai
Nf = fatigue life for Sai cycling only
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Example Problem
Assume:
– σf’ = 220 ksi, b = - 0.1
– stress history shown (1 block of loading)
Find: number of blocks to failure
+ 100 ksi
S S + 80 ksi
2N = 1000
time
- 80 ksi 2N = 1000
S 2N = 100
- 100 ksi
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Solution
Σ(Ni/Nf) = 1 2Nf = {(∆S/2) / (σf ’ - Smean)}1/b
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Initiation Summary Cont’
• Notches increase local stress/strain and
often are source for crack formation
– complex problem leads to local plasticity
– characterize by fatigue notch concentration
factor Kf,, Neuber’s rule
• Load interaction effects result in local
mean stress
– can increase/decrease life
– invalidate Miner’s rule
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Fatigue Crack Growth
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Crack Growth Approach
• Assumes entire life
Crack size
– manufacturing
– service induced
– size based on
inspection capability,
time
experience, . . .
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Fatigue Crack Growth
Objective
– Characterize material resistance to fatigue crack growth
– Predict catastrophic fracture and “subcritical” crack
growth
Approach
a
(β(a) is dimensionless)
KI = σ πa β σ
β = 1.12
Note units: stress-length1/2
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Stress Intensity Factors
1 K = σ π aβ a
πa W
K = σ π a Sec
2
W
Many KI W
solutions h
2a a
available
σ σ
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Crack tip Stress Fields
Theory of elasticity gives elastic stresses near crack tip in
terms of stress intensity factor KI
= fracture toughness
• Criterion relates: σult σ
– crack size: a K c = σ πa β ( a )
Fracture Stress σ
– stress: σ
– geometry: β(a)
– material: Kc
• Plasticity limits small
crack applications Crack Size a
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Fracture Toughness Kc
Typical Kc values (thick plate)
Ματεριαλ 2024−Τ351 7075−Τ651 Τι − 6 Αλ−4ς 300 Μ στεελ 18 Νιχκελ
(τηιχκ πλατε ) Αλυµ ινυµ Αλυµ ινυµ Τιτανιυµ (235 κσι ψιελδ) (200 κσι ψιε λδ)
Κχ 31 26 112 47 100
(κσι−ιν 1/2 )
A B
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Fracture Example Solution
5 ksi
Edge crack
4.0 in
K = σ(πa)1/2 β(a) = Kc at fracture
2 3 4
a a a a a
β = 1.12 − 0 . 231 + 10. 55 − 21 . 73 + 30 . 39
2.0 in
W W W W W
41 σ=?
→ σf = 9.5 ksi
Fatigue Crack Growth
Goal: show cyclic stress intensity factor ∆K
controls crack growth rate da/dN
∆σ
Same material ∆P
Different loadings
2a
2a
σ P
∆σ = constant ∆P = constant
time time
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Measure Crack Growth
∆σ
∆ K = ∆σ√π a ∆P
2a
∆K = ∆P 2a
da
Crack Length (a)
a*
da
dN
a*
da
Log da/dN
dN
da
dN
Crack Length (a)
∆ Kth Kc
2a ∆P
∆K =
Number of Cycles (N) B πa
Log ∆ K
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da/dN Vs ∆K
Note:
• ∆K correlates fatigue
crack growth rate da/dN
• ∆K accounts for crack
geometry
Log da/dN
• No crack growth for
da/dN < ∆Kth
Kc
• Fractures when Kmax ∆Kth
in the ∆K range à Kc
• da/dN - ∆K curve is
Log ∆K
material property
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Sample Crack Growth Data
• da/dN - ∆K data for
7075-T6 aluminum
• Note effect of stress
ratio R = min/max
stress (da/dN ↑as R↑)
• Reference: Military
Handbook-5
• Other handbook data
are available
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Model da/dN - ∆K Curve
Fit test data with numerical
models such as:
da da
= F (K) Paris = C∆K m
dN dN
Log da/dN
da C ∆K m
Forman =
dN (1 − R ) K c − ∆K
Kc Here C, m, Kc are
∆Kth
empirical constants
R = min/max stress
Log ∆K (are many other models)
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Compute Fatigue Life Nf
da da
Nf = ∫
af
= F (K)
dN ao F ( K)
σ
dN
af da af da
Nf =∫ =∫
C ∆K
[ ]
m m
. ∆σ π a
ao ao
C 112
Nf =
1
[ af
1− .5m
− ao
1 − .5 m
]
( ) ( )
m
. ∆σ π
C 112 1−.5m
Overload
Time
Elapsed Cycle (N)
Variable amplitude
loading prevents
σn+1 simple life integration
Time (t)
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Design Philosophies
σ
Stress
Crack
• Infinite Life a
• Safe-Life
• Damage Tolerant σ Time
– Fail-safe
– Slow crack growth Crack Length (a) Fracture
Pre-Crack
Crack Growth
Elapsed Cycles N
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Infinite Life Criterion
Design Goal: prevent fatigue damage from ever
developing (i.e. infinite life)
• Usually based on endurance limit
• Could also employ threshold K concepts
• Leads to small design stresses/heavy members
• Limited to simple components/loading
• Often impractical/not achievable in practice
– Weight critical structure
– Complex loads
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Safe-Life Criterion
Design goal: component is to remain crack free for
finite service life
• Assumes initial crack-free structure
• Establish “mean life” by test/analysis
• Safety factors account for “scatter”
Problems: Desired life = mean/S.F.
Occurrence
• large safety factor predicted
mean
Failure
• no protection from
initial damage
1 2 3 4 Design Life
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Fail-Safe Criterion
Design goal: contain single component failure
without losing entire structure
• Assumes crack is present
• Provide alternate load paths, redundant structure, crack
stoppers, etc.
• Requires detection of 1st failure
Crack size
1st member
58 Time
Slow Crack Growth Criterion
Design goal: prevent initial crack from growing to
fracture during life of structure
• Pre-existent crack size specified by inspection
limits, experience
Desired Life Fracture
Crack size
• Crack growth life
> service life x S.F.
• Based on fatigue
crack growth
resistance time
inspect/repair
60 Time
Life Extension Concepts
Component
Inspection
Doublers
Patches
61
Summary
• Fatigue is complex problem that
involves many disciplines
• Fatigue affects design and operation of
many types of structures
• Fatigue may be treated by several
methods/philosophies
– Assume component cracked
– Assume component uncracked
– Probabilistic methods
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