An Optimizing Compiler for Low-Level Floating

Point Operations
by

Lucien William Van Elsen

Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer
Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Computer Science and Engineering
at the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
June 1990
c Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1990. All rights reserved.

Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
May 18, 1990

Certified by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
William J. Dally
Associate Professor
Thesis Supervisor

Accepted by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arthur C. Smith
Chairman, Department Committee on Graduate Theses

An Optimizing Compiler for Low-Level Floating Point

Operations
by
Lucien William Van Elsen
Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
on May 18, 1990, in partial fulllment of the
requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Computer Science and Engineering

Abstract
In this thesis, I designed and implemented a compiler which performs optimizations
that reduce the number of low-level oating point operations necessary for a specic
task; this involves the optimization of chains of oating point operations as well
as the implementation of a xed point data type that allows some oating point
operations to simulated with integer arithmetic. The source language of the compiler
is a subset of C, and the destination language is assembly language for a micro-oating
point CPU. An instruction-level simulator of the CPU was written to allow testing
of the code. A series of test pieces of codes was compiled, both with and without
optimization, to determine how eective these optimizations were.
Thesis Supervisor: William J. Dally
Title: Associate Professor

Acknowledgments
This is the acknowledgements section. You should replace this with your own acknowledgements.

Contents

1 Introduction

13

1.1

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.2

Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

1.3

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

1.3.1

15

Report Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Background

17

2.1

Indian Power Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

2.2

The voltage drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

2.3

Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.3.1

Tap-changing transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.3.2

LDC system (Line Drop Compensation) . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.3.3

Compensation with reactive elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2.4

On Load Tap Changing Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2.5

Controllers Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

3 Modelling OLTC transformer control system

23

3.1

Voltage Regulator and Time-Delay Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

3.2

Motor Drive Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

3.3

Tap Changing Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

3.4

Measuring transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

3.5

Line-Drop Compensators (LDC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

4 Controllers

27

4.1

The Classical Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

4.2

Type-1 Fuzzy Logic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

4.2.1

Linguistic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

4.2.2

Membership Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

4.2.3

Fuzzy Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

4.2.4

Fuzzy Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

4.2.5

Defuzzication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

4.2.6

Type-1 Fuzzy Logic Controller for OLTC Transformer . . . . .

32

Type-2 Fuzzy Logic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

4.3

5 Experimental Results and Discussions

5.1

The Classical Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37
37

A Tables

39

B Figures

41

List of Figures
B-1 Armadillo slaying lawyer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

B-2 Armadillo eradicating national debt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

10

List of Tables
A.1 Armadillos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

39

12

Chapter 1
Introduction
The several components of a power system have a specic purpose. The generators
produce the power, the transmission grid makes it available all around the country
and the distribution grid links the transmission grid to the consumers. The last step
might seem the simplest but it raises lots of issues. An important one is the respect of
voltage limits: voltage is supposed to be within a range around the nominal value. A
voltage too low involves a bad functioning or no functioning of the appliances supplied
while a voltage too high might damage them permanently. It is thus very important
to keep the voltage within the limits not to disturb the nal consumers.

1.1

Background

In nowadays systems, due to existing load patterns and fast acting controllers on
the load level, fast and signicant changes of the load may occur. Also, because of
the growing number of renewable energy producers which are directly connected to
the distribution grid, producers tend to increase the voltage at their connection point
when they generate electricity, and in some scenarios of high production and low load,
the upper limit of the voltage might be exceeded. This may cause, in turn, fast and
signicant changes of the voltage magnitudes at the distribution buses. On the other
hand, there is a need to supply high quality electric power to the customers.
Since the voltage deviations at a distribution bus are together with the frequency
13

the most important factors dening the quality of delivered electricity, the distribution
grid needs thus new methods to be more exible and be able to deal with both the
new overvoltage problems as well as the usual under voltage problem in case of high
load in winter, which is not always handled well.
One of the possible solutions to this problem is the use of on-load tap changing
transformer (OLTC) in which tap changes are initiated automatically based usually on
the local measurements. Thus, the aim of our project is to design ecient controller
for OLTC to address the above mentioned problems.

1.2

Problem Statement

The literature review of the concerned subject is concluded by the problem description
listed below:
How to design an ecient controller to regulate the position of the tap of OLTC?
How to regulate the frequency of tap changes as much as possible?
How could tap-changer operation as a function of Voltage error (due to load
changes) and initial tap position?

1.3

Objectives

In this project, the main issue is to design the voltage controller for on-load tapchangers on the transformers regulating the voltage within the desired range of
operation. We implemented the Type-2 Fuzzy Logic Controller for the Tap
Changing Transformer and compared the results of its operation with the available methods in the literature.
Another objective of the project is to show the real time simulation of Voltage Control using dierent types of controller for tap change mechanism and
compare the results.
14

The proposed study method will be tested using the Simulink MatLab 2014 and also
implemented on Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS).

1.3.1

Report Outline

The organization of the report is as follows.

Chapter 2 gives a large background on Indian Power Distribution System, the
tap changing mechanism of the transformer and the state of the art methods
used for other tap changing control techniques.
Chapter 3 gives a detailed explanation of the modeling of the on Load Tap
Changing transformer (OLTC).
Chapter 4 discusses about various Classical and Fuzzy control techniques and
comparison with the proposed method of control for tap changing.
Chapter 5 discusses the simulation results of Simulink and RTDS.
Chapters 6 and 7 gives conclusion of report and the scope for future work.

15

16

Chapter 2
Background
Present distribution systems cover comparatively large geographic territories and have
numerous interconnections and distribution points of various voltages. At any point
where the change of the voltage level is required, distribution transformers are applied.
These transformers are equipped with tap changing mechanism to restrict voltage
uctuations at the consumer end.

2.1

Indian Power Distribution System

Electric power is normally generated at 11-25kV in a power station. To transmit over

long distances, it is then stepped-up to 400kV, 220kV or 132kV as necessary. Power is
carried through a transmission network of high voltage lines. Usually, these lines run
into hundreds of kilometres and deliver the power into a common power pool called
the grid. The grid is connected to load centres (cities) through a sub-transmission
network of normally 33kV (or sometimes 66kV) lines. These lines terminate into a
33kV (or 66kV) substation, where the voltage is stepped-down to 11kV for power
distribution to load points through a distribution network of lines at 11kV and lower.
The power network, which generally concerns the common man, is the distribution network of 11kV lines or feeders downstream of the 33kV substation. Each 11kV
feeder which emanates from the 33kV substation branches further into several subsidiary 11kV feeders to carry power close to the load points (localities, industrial areas,
17

villages, etc.,). At these load points, a transformer further reduces the voltage from
11kV to 415V to provide the last-mile connection through 415V feeders (also called
as Low Tension (LT) feeders) to individual customers, either at 240V (as single-phase
supply) or 415V (as three-phase supply). A feeder could be either an overhead line
or an underground cable.

2.2

The voltage drop

Voltage has a dierent value everywhere in the network. Both consumers and producers have an impact on voltage because they generate currents through the lines.
Consumption decreases the voltage and production increases it. This is valid for both
active and reactive power. A good way to illustrate it is Kapps formula. We
assume that the 3-phase network is balanced and work with the 1-phase equivalent.
The system is very simple: a transmission line with a constant voltage on one side
and a load (or producer) on the other side. The voltage variation becomes:
V R V cos + X L sin

(2.1)

where is the power factor of the load (or producer).

Moreover, the denitions of the active and reactive powers are
P = 3 V I cos

(2.2)

Q = 3 V I sin

(2.3)

V =

RP +X Q
3V

(2.4)

This approximate expression of the voltage variation shows what was said ear18

lier: any production, active or reactive, increases the voltage and any consumption
decreases it. Another conclusion that can be drawn is that the voltage drop due to
active production or load depends on the resistance of the line and the reactive one
on the reactance of the line. This is important because in distribution networks and
especially in the LV network, the resistances of the lines are greater than their reactances. The result is that active power, both production and consumption, has more
impact on the voltage variations than reactive power. This is actually the opposite
of the transmission grid where the resistance of the lines is small compared to the
reactance and it is even often neglected. In our case, the reactance is smaller but not
negligible, that is why it is still interesting to test the strategies using reactive power
such as capacitor banks.
When Low and high voltages occur?

2.3

Voltage Control

There are several methods to control the voltage in order to keep high quality electricity supply. Some of them are introduced below:

2.3.1

Tap-changing transformers

A tap changer can vary the number of turns in one side of the transformer and
thereby, change the transformer ratio. Normally, this can vary between 10-15% in
steps of 0.6-2.1%. There are several options to design the control of the voltage. One
of them is to set a nominal value of the voltage with a deadband in a point of the
line, and to control it with an integral controller.

2.3.2

LDC system (Line Drop Compensation)

It is based on calculating the voltage drop knowing the reactance and resistance of the
line and then, applying the set voltage based on these values with the tap changers
of the transformers.
19

2.3.3

Compensation with reactive elements

For mainly reactive networks voltage is correlated with the reactive power so, one way
to control it is to connect compensators and reactors in the nodes. In distribution
lines, there are several methods to control the power from the reactive elements like
switched xed capacitors/inductors, Static Var Compensator "SVC" or the static
synchronous compensator (STATCOM). They are based on measuring the line voltage
and comparing it with a given reference. So, we connect capacitive compensators if we
have to increase the voltage or we connect reactive compensation if we have to decrease
it. This method depends totally on the R/X ratio of the line. The compensation
with reactive elements is more useful with a low resistance cable, i.e. a cable with
a low R/X ratio, because the reactive power has a larger impact on voltage. In a
transmission network, that uses overhead lines and transformers, this R/X ratio is
usually low, around 0.1, so this would be a good tool to control the voltage. However,
in distribution lines frequently underground cables are used, with a higher resistance
and R/X ratio around 0.5-1. That means that reactive compensation is not as much
ecient as in transmission lines but these compensation methods are also used in
distribution systems.

2.4

On Load Tap Changing Transformer

Transformers are dimensioned for specic uses. There are very big ones able to
transmit great amounts of power such as the ones linking the large power plants to
the transmission network. Other ones used in domestic appliances are very small.
Their characteristics are of course very dierent. Focusing on the various MV/LV
transformers (20kV/400V), the ones with a higher rated value have lower impedances,
which means that the copper losses and voltage drop are smaller. On the other hand,
the iron losses are greater in transformers with higher rated values. Transformers
are chosen based on the power transmitted by them but these properties could be
interesting for our voltage problems.
The way a tap changer operates is straight-forward. As the transformation ratio
20

depends on the number of turns of the primary and secondary coils, changing one of
these numbers changes the ratio. For example, decreasing the voltage at the secondary
side can be done by increasing the number of turns of the secondary coil or decreasing
the number of turn of the primary coil because it increases the transformation ratio.
It seems technically simple but the constraints on the system are great. Most of these
transformers make the changeover mechanically, which creates arcing and deteriorates
the system. As a result, the device needs a lot of maintenance and even then the tap
changer is the main reason of faults happening in transformers. The best way to slow
down the deterioration and limit the faults is to make as few changeovers as possible.
The control of such devices is usually quite simple. There is a node in the network,
which can be the secondary side of the transformer or another one farther, where the
voltage is set to a desired value. If the voltage at this point becomes too far away
from this value for a certain 22 period (60 seconds for example), the tap setting is
changed until the voltage gets back close enough to the set value. This is a good
strategy when a bus can represent accurately enough the whole network, which is
often true in MV networks. However it does not seem to t very well LV networks
where the voltage might vary a lot depending on the busses, even consecutive ones.

2.5

Controllers Available

The main function of distribution voltage control equipment is to reduce the number
of tap changing operation which help in decreasing the error between the Sending End
Voltage (SEV) and the Sending End Reference Voltage (SERV) and hence improve
the characteristics of voltage signal. However, voltage control and frequency of tap
changer are in a trade-o relationship, so it is hard to nd solution which optimizes
the both parameter. Moreover, the conventional voltage control equipment lacks
intelligent judgemental skill, so they have the limitation of voltage control.
21

Articial Intelligence (AI) techniques for controlling the ULTC are mainly used
to handle this issue. The classical approach uses inverse-time delay between the tap
changes based on voltage error. In this approach, voltage error is taken as the only
input; however, time delay should also depend on other parameters such as the present
tap position etc.
Kojima et al.[4] uses approach of ANN to control transformer taps and shunt
capacitors simultaneously. In this method Articial Neural Network is rst trained
for this, they need many data for the training, and it is hard to get sucient input data
for the optimal training. The tap control can be treated as expert control problem,
which depends on a number of factors such as the direction of the last tap change,
the present tap position with respect to the limits, the last delay applied, etc. Fuzzy
logic implement non-linear mapping of these inputs to action and hence it suit well
for this kind of applications.

22

Chapter 3
Modelling OLTC transformer control
system
The components are used for OLTC control system help in changing the transformer
turn ratio and hence form voltage-reactive (or VAR) ow control .The main part
of the system is automated controller. The main function of this controller is to
detect voltage error by comparing voltage variation with the reference voltage value
at the controlled bus and it also gives command to motor drive unit associated with
tap changer system. Apart from controller and motor drive unit, this system also
includes measuring transformer (current and potential transformer), tap changing
transformer, tap changing mechanism and compensators. OLTC control system is
step by step control system which is slow, discontinuous and also electromechanical
in nature. Although OLTC control system consist of simple devices, which can be
modelled mathematically easily but overall system becomes complex because of nonlinearity and saturation.
The general block diagram of an OLTC transformer automatic control system
consists of the following dierent parts:
OLTC transformer with tap-changing mechanism
Motor-drive unit
Interlocking protective devices
23

 Voltage regulator (includes measuring element, time-delay element and linedrop compensator)
Measuring-current and potential transformers
Additional auxiliary equipment

3.1

Voltage Regulator and Time-Delay Elements

Voltage error is calculated as:

V = V2 r V2 m

(3.1)

where
V2 r is the transformer secondary reference voltage(in pu) V2 m is the measured voltage,
after compensating the line drop, (in pu)

3.2

Motor Drive Unit

Motor Drive unit is responsible for driving the tap changer mechanism of the OLTC
transformer so that it can take step by step changes. This integral component can be
represented as a time-delay relay element. Tap position is changed using the following
mechanism:

0,
if t Tm , b = arbitrary

n = 1,
if t Tm , b = 1

1, if t Tm , b = +1

New tap changer position can be determined using

ni = ni1 + ni
24

(3.2)

Transformer turn ratio becomes:

ai = 1 + ni a = 1 + (ni1 + ni )a

(3.3)

ai ,
if am ai am

a = +am , if ai >am

am , if ai <am

where

am = 1 + nM a is the transformer turn limit ratio

3.3

Tap Changing Transformer

The operation of tap changing mechanism is quite slow, thus OLTC transformers with
steady state eqautions are used to model the system.

xT (a)p rT (a)q
1
rT (a)p + xT (a)q
ja
V2 = v1 a

v1
v1
a

(3.4)

rT (a)p + xT (a)q
xT (a)p rT (a)q
V1 = av2 + a
ja

v2
v2

(3.5)

where
v1 , v2 are primary and secondary voltage phasors,
s = p jq is complex load of the transformer,
zT(a) = rT (a) + jxT (a) is leakage transformer impedance,

Equations 3.5 and 3.4 shows the non-linear dependency among v1 ,v2 , p, q and a.
25

3.4

Measuring transformers

Potential transformers and Current transformers, both, are assumed to be ideal lossless components:

mP T =

V2 r
V2 r

(3.6)

mCT =

I2 r
I2 r

(3.7)

where V2r and V2r are PT primary and secondary voltages in pu

and I2r
and I2r
are CT primary and secondary currents in pu

3.5

Line-Drop Compensators (LDC)

Since PT and CT measure secondary voltages and currents of the transformer, it

becomes necessary to accomodate the impedance losses that takes place in the transmission lines distributing power to the consumers. Thus the impedance losses are
subtracted for compensation of the voltage drop across the transmission line.
Line voltage drop Vc can be formulated as follows:
mP T Vc = Rc + jXc I2 mP T = k(RL + jXL )I2
where ZL = RL + jXL is the line impedance (in ohms).
For calculating the measuring voltage V2m ,

26

(3.8)

Chapter 4
Controllers
Goals that are essential for the control algorithm of any tap mechanism are as follows:
Keep minimum voltage deviations at the secondary terminal whose end users
are the customers. The target of the tap control mechanism must be to restrict
the voltage error limits to a pre-dened desired value, (this value is not the
voltage error at transformer secondary, but at some distance, near consumers).
This makes necessary for the control system to measure the load or transformer
current to accommodate for the compensation due to active and reactive losses
in the transmission line.
Under non-usual circumstances like the failure of motor drive unit, system
faults, overload of the transformer, tap changer failure, etc. operation of the
tap changer mechanism must be restrained to avoid any further losses.
Frequency of tap changes must be reduced as much as possible so that operation
of tap changer can be restrained at the time of sudden load changes.
Objective (1) is the primary target for any tap changer mechanism; Objective (2)
covers for any limitations, while objective (3) denes the optimum working conditions for the tap changer mechanism, which is still responsible for high percentage of
internal system faults in distribution transformers.
27

Tap Changer mechanism would normally function according to the given set properties:
Tap changing mechanism is slow acting (it can take from few milliseconds to
seconds for a single change in the tap position). Thus, whole cycle would take
around tens of seconds to bring voltage to desired range.
It is discontinuous (varied actions can be taken for same set of inputs making
the system more dynamic).
It takes action in steps (change in tap position is discrete, either +1 or -1 , not
continuous, thus, each change in tap position is equivalent to small percentage
of change in transformer turns ratio )

4.1

The Classical Controller

The classical controller works on the principle of inverse time characteristics of the
delay applied between the step changes of the tap. It has a conguration of a bangbang type controller with a specied degree of bandwidth set according to the desired
working range. Its results are discussed to show comparison with more advanced
controllers. In classical controller, time delay between the step changes should vary
inversely with the voltage variations. Higher time delay for low voltage deviations and
vice versa to reduce the number of unnecessary tap changes. Thus the mathematical
model for the time-delay relay element is as follows:

0,
if t Td , e = arbitrary

b = 1,
if t Td , e = 1

1, if t Td , e = +1

Where Td is the adaptive time-delay (in seconds). For some regulators, Td is

independent of any parameter ( Td =Tdo ), thus, it is a constant. For other regulators
with inverse time-delay characteristics, it is a function of votage error (V ), dead28

band, and initial time-delay setting Tdo . Normally inverse time-delay is assumed to
dependent on these factors as follows:

Td =

4.2

Tdo
v/DB

(4.0)

Type-1 Fuzzy Logic Control

A fuzzy logic system is a technique which is based on the non-linear mapping of

input variables to a set of output variables. In general, any fuzzy logic system (FLS)
is composed of these elements:
Fuzzier, (to fuzzify crisp values)
Inference block
Rules
Defuzzier, (to obtain crisp values)
The architecture followed by a general fuzzy logic system is given below
Explanation of fuzzy logic process:
Step 1: The input data is collected in the crisp form and converted to a fuzzy
set using fuzzier (which converts these inputs to set of fuzzy linguistic variables and
membership functions). This process is known as fuzzication.

Step 2: Set of rules are generated and inference is made from these rules using
membership function and the linguistic variables.

Step 3: In the defuzzication stage, crisp output is generated from the fuzzy
output after mapping on membership functions.

29

4.2.1

Linguistic Variables

These variables are generally words or sentences used for input or output variables,
and not the numerical values. Thus, the system becomes fuzzy when instead of crisp
inputs and outputs these linguistic variables are used.

4.2.2

Membership Functions

Membership functions are used to map crisp inputs (no fuzzy values) to a set of
fuzzy linguistic set and vice versa. Both important processes of fuzzication and
defuzzication use membership functions for mapping. Essentially, quantication of
fuzzy variables can be done using these functions and it is not just one function
which does that, but set of several membership functions are used for fuzziying and
defuzzifying input and output variables respectively. Thus, it is true that any value
can belong to more than one set at the same time.
Few shapes of membership functions that are commonly used are trapezoidal,
Gaussian and Triangular.

4.2.3

Fuzzy Rules

In a fuzzy Logic System, rules are designed to control the mapping of input variables
to the output variables. It is a set of simple IF-THEN rules with certain conditions
on input variables and conclusion in the form of desired output. These rules can be
presented in a tabular form for easy comprehension. It is important to note here that,
these rules are designed by the experts. It is an expert problem which can be a little
problematic for users with new problem denition.

4.2.4

Fuzzy Set Operations

Fuzzy set operations are used to combine results of individual fuzzy rules. The operations on fuzzy sets are dierent than the operations on non-fuzzy sets. Mostly used
fuzzy sets are of OR and AND operators generated using max and min operations.
30

NOT operation is also used according to the situations. After evaluation of the result
from each rule, the results are combined using dierent set of operators to form a
nal result. This process of combining dierent rules is known as inference. This
combining of individual rules can be done in dierent ways which is shown in the
accumulation methods in Table.

4.2.5

Defuzzification

Once inference is done, obtained result is the fuzzied value. This fuzzy value has
to be converted to a crisp value using a particular method. This processs is known
as Defuzzication. It is performed on the set of membership functions of output
variables. There are various methods of Defuzzication such as Centre of Gravity,
centre of gravity of singletons, Centroid calculation, left most maximum, right-most
maximum etc. Calculations for each of the methods is given in the table. For example,
let the results after inference from all the individual rules comes out as shown in the
gure, defuzzication approach will calculate a crisp value from the shaded region.
Algorithm for Fuzzy Logic Design
Dene the linguistic variables and terms.
Construct the membership function.
Construct the rule base.
Fuzzication: Convert crisp values to fuzzy values.
Evaluate the rules in the rule base.
Combine the results of each rule.
Defuzzication: Convert the fuzzy output to non-fuzzy values.
31

4.2.6

Type-1 Fuzzy Logic Controller for OLTC Transformer

The input and output signals

In this report we have considered the following input variables:
Voltage error, V ,
present position of the tap, n
and following set of output variables:

tap change direction, n,

time delay, Td
Linguistic Variables for the above mentioned input and output variables are taken
as follows:
Voltage error: highly negative (HNEG), negative (NEG), zero (ZER), positive
(POS), highly positive (HPOS);
Present tap position: low (LOW), Normal (NOR), high (HIGH);
Tap change direction: up (UP), unchanged (UC), down (down);
time delay: small (SM), Medium (M), Long (L), Extra long (EL);
The Control Rules
Number of control rules used for time delay to be applied and the direction of tap
change are taken as 15 for each case.
The concept behind designing of these rules can be summarized as follows:
When the voltage error is negative, transformer ratio is reduced to increase the
voltage.
32

 When the voltage error is positive, transformer ratio is increased to reduce the
voltage.
When voltage error is close to zero, Voltage is not changed.
When the control margin is high, short time delays are applied between tap
changes.
When the voltage error is high, short time delays are applied.
Defuzzification and other computations
Firing level is computed by ANDing the IF- and THEN- rules.
Center of Gravity method is used for the defuzzicztion process.
Thus, the entire fuzzy model can be summarised to following set of implications.
(Voltage error, tap position) (T imeDelay)
(Voltage error, tap position) (Directionof T apchange)
Rule Base for Time Delay of FLC
V
HNEG NEG ZER POS

HPOS

HIGH

SM

EL

EL

NOR

EL

LOW

EL

EL

SM

Rule Base for Tap Change Direction of FLC

V
HNEG NEG ZER

POS

HPOS

HIGH

UP

UP

UC

DOWN DOWN

NOR

UP

UP

UC

DOWN DOWN

LOW

UP

UP

UC

DOWN DOWN

33

4.3

Type-2 Fuzzy Logic Control

As discussed in the previous sections, the design of membership function in itself

is an expert problem. As the problem can be highly diverse, it is dicult for any
beginner to apply fuzzy logic systems (FLC) in the concerned eld of study. There
is uncertainty in the construction of fuzzy rules. Sources from where this uncertainty
may arise are as follows:
Words or sentences used in consequents or antecedents can be understood differently by dierent individuals;
Agreement of experts on a single consequent is a matter of concern as each
individual has dierent sets of comprehension skills.
Data used for training may be noisy which can deviate results.
The uncertainties in consequents and antecedents can lead to uncertain Type-I
fuzzy membership function which cannot directly handle the uncertainties in rules.
Thus a more robust system is needed which can accommodate uncertainties in fuzzy
rules. Type-II FLS is an extension of Type-1 FLS to cover fuzzy rule uncertainties.
Its description and detailed analysis is explained later in this section.
The theory behind type-II fuzzy logic system was given by Zadeh. This novel
method is an extension of the ordinary fuzzy logic, i.e., a Type-I fuzzy logic system.
TypeII fuzzy sets have fuzzy membership functions, i.e., crisp values of each membership function in type-I converted to fuzzy sets. Regular Type-II fuzzy logic system
is computationally very complex as membership function exist in three dimensions.
Thus, to make things simpler and reduce the type-reduction complexities, interval
Type-II fuzzy logic system is used in which secondary membership functions.
Fig. 2 shows the schematic diagram of an IT2 FLS. It is similar to its T1 counterpart, the major dierence being that at least one of the FSs in the rule base is an
IT2 FS. Hence, the outputs of the inference engine are IT2 FSs, and a type-reducer
is needed to convert them into a T1 FS before defuzzication can be carried out.
34

Type-2 FLS Theory

Rule base of IT2 FLS with N rules can be summed up as:
n
n
g
gn
Rn : IF x1 is X
1 and and xi is Xi , THEN y is Y

n=1,2,...,N

n
n
g
where X
= [y n , yn ] is an interval which can be
i (i = 1, 2, .., I) are IT2 FSs, and Y

assumed to be the consequent of IT2 FS.

Following are the steps for computing output from IT2 FLS:
For calculating membership of each input vector xi on Xi n , [Xi n (xi ), Xi n (xi )],
i = 1, 2, ..., I, n = 1, 2, ..., N.
Formula for computing Firing interval, F n (x ):
F n (x ) = [X1 n (x1 )....XI n (xI ), X1 n (x1 )....XI n (xI ), ] [f n , fn ], n = 1, 2, .....N
(4.0)
There are many methods of type reducing algorithms. One such method is KM
algorithm for computing the nal crisp output which uses center-of-sets as given
below:
Ycos(x )

[ P f nyn
P n = [yl , yr ]
=
f

(4.0)

Final defuzzied output is calculated as:

y=

yl + yr
2

(4.0)

Type-2 FLC for OLTC Transformers

Input variables for the type-2 FLC are taken as Voltage error and current tap position
and the output variables are Time Delay and the direction of tap change. (Same as
in case of Type-1 FLC for OLTC Transformers). The fuzzy rules taken in type-2
FLC are fuzzied to some degree to incorporate uncertainties present in the system.
35

However, linguistic variables and terms for the input and output variabls are kept
same as in Type-1 FLC. Figure shows membership functions for the Voltage error
and current tap position.

36

Chapter 5
Experimental Results and Discussions
To verify the derivations of the modelled distributed OLTC transformer control system, specications of the transformer are kept 63MVA, 110/36, 75 kV rating as an
example. Other specications and engineering data are given in Appendix 2. Various simulations were carried out in the study changing the input variables such as
disturbances in active and reactive load, reference voltage, initial conditions of the
tap and time delay etc. The above discussed models of Classical Controller (Inverse
time controller), Type-I fuzzy logic controller and Type-II fuzzy controller for OLTC
transformer are implemented in Simulink Library of Matlab.

5.1

The Classical Controller

37

38

Appendix A
Tables

Table A.1: Armadillos

Armadillos
our

39

are
friends

40

Appendix B
Figures

Figure B-1: Armadillo slaying lawyer.

41

Figure B-2: Armadillo eradicating national debt.

42

Bibliography

43