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Electronic Inventions and Discoveries
Electronic Inventions
Electronics from
its
and Discoveries
earliest beginnings
to the present
day
4th revised and expanded edition
W A Dummer
MBE, CEng,
FIEE, FIEEE,
US Medal
of Freedom
(former Supt. Applied Physics, Royal Radar Establishment,
Institute of
Bristol
Physics Publishing
and Philadelphia
UK)
G W A Dummer
1997
All rights reserved.
No
part of this publication
may
be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval
system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Multiple copying
with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing
Agency under
is
permitted
the terms of
in
accordance
its
agreement
with the Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals.
First edition
1977 published under the
title
Electronic Inventions 1745-1976
Second edition 1978 {Electronic Inventions and Discoveries)

Third revised edition 1983
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication
catalogue record for this book
ISBN
ISBN
is
Data
available from the British Library
7503 0376 X (hbk)

7503 0493 6 (pbk)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data are available
Published by Institute of Physics Publishing, wholly

Institute of
US
owned by The
Institute
of Physics, London
Physics Publishing, Dirac House, Temple Back, Bristol BS1 6BE,
Editorial Office: Institute of Physics Publishing,
South Independence Mall West, Philadelphia,
Printed in the
UK
by
W Arrowsmith Ltd,
PA
19106,
Bristol.
UK
The Public Ledger Building,
USA
Suite 1035, 150
Contents
Preface
vii
Acknowledgments
viii
1.
The Beginning of
Electronics
2.
The Expansion of
Electronics
3.
The Development
of
4.
Concise History of Audio and Sound Reproduction
18
5.
Concise History of Radio, Communications and Avionics
23
6.
Concise History of Radar and Sonar
7.
Concise History of Television
40
8.
Concise History of Computers, Robotics, Mechatronics and Information Technology
44
9.
Concise History of Industrial, Automobile, Medical, Educational, Office, Banking,
Components, Tubes, Transistors and Integrated Circuits
Consumer and Security
Electronics
by Subject
10.
List of Inventions
11.
12.
Electronics
13.
List of
Books on Inventions
269
14.
List of
Books on Inventors
273
Index
Concise Description of Each Invention in Date Order
Acronyms and Abbreviations
58
73
259
276
Histories on a Page
Components
Date Chart
1:
Passive
Date Chart
2:
Tubes, Transistors, Diodes and Integrated Circuits
17
Date Chart
3:
Audio and Sound Reproduction
22
Date Chart
4:
Radio and Communications
30
Date Chart
5:
Radar
37
Date Chart
6:
Television
43
Date Chart
7:
Computers
47
16
Preface
As
in previous editions,
it is
not intended that this book should be a learned treatise on a particular aspect of
wide summary of
historical electronics, but rather a
Because no one person can be an authority
wide variety of published sources,

full
first
dates in electronic developments over a very wide
both for interest and for ready reference.
field,
acknowledgment
is
i.e.
in all fields of electronics, the data
made. This present work covers inventions from Europe,
many
a survey such as this cannot be completely accurate because of, in

others, conflicting claims, but gives the opinions of those
where, because of incomplete data, a date
is
knowledgeable
USA
welcomes
summaries of well known inventions, some
little
whom
etc, to
and Japan. Obviously,
cases, the passage of time and, in
There are a few cases
in their fields.
given in the 'History on a Page' but not in the
well aware that conflicting dates are inevitable and

to the
given are extracted from a
books, patents, technical journals, proceedings of societies,
text.
The author
is
factual data to assist future editions. In addition
known
discoveries are included which may, one day,
be important.
In this edition, an attempt has
up
to the present day.
As
been made to trace the development of electronics from
far as the author
knows,
majority of main developments in electronics.
components, tubes,
transistors,
it is
The book
integrated circuits,
the only
book
in the
its
earliest
beginnings
world to describe concisely the
describes, in nine chapters, developments in electronic
audio and sound reproduction,
radio,
communication,
avionics, radar, sonar, television, computers, robotics, mechatronics and information technology, in addition
to industrial,
How
automobile, medical, educational, office, banking, consumer and security electronics.
does one define an electronic invention?
and operation of the
book
first
laboratory lash-up, the
the author has decided to use the
made on
'first
One can
first
consider the
prototype, the
first
'first
recorded use' as far as
it
idea or concept, the construction
in service' or the patent date.
is
In this
possible and the selection has been
the basis of simple language and explanation.
Throughout the book, the author has used the American term
The process of invention has changed from

which have the advantage of funds and
USA made
'tube' in place of the English
cross-fertilization of ideas.
Certainly the Bell Laboratories in the
the greatest contributions to semiconductor technology, not only by inventing a
but by producing materials (Si, Ge) of a purity previously unknown.
has created entirely
new
industries.
physicists, mathematicians, engineers,
term 'valve'.
the individual inventor to that of the large research laboratories
The complexity of modern

and others as the
fields
working
transistor,
This work, basic to microelectronics,
electronics has brought together chemists,
of development widen. Research, development,
and production are now more closely integrated.
Looking back
page
5.
They
are
at the history
three fundamental inventions on
induction from which the

today!); second,
third, the Bell
In
at
of electronics, there seem to be two periods of creativity
between 1800-1900 (100 years) and 1950-1980 (30
which others depend. They
dynamo was developed
to
are:
first,
shown by
the chart on
years). In the author's opinion there are
Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic
generate electricity (imagine a world without electricity
Lee de Forest's thermionic tube, opening up the
fields
of communications and computers; and
Laboratories transistor, because the modern 'chip', in fact, consists of multiple transistors.
the production of electronics,
reasonable cost:
the
two inventions stand out
printed circuit
as enabling devices to be
mass produced
with dip soldering and the planar photo-masking techniques for
microelectronics 'chip' production.

In preparing this book,
one major impression has emerged, instanced by chapters
to
how deep
the
become
penetration of electronics has

this
book, together with over
ever increasing tempo,
is
into every part of
modern
life
whilst
550 inventions described
the
in
100 additional references, form a background to electronics progress which, with
now changing
which we
the world in
live.
W A Dummer
Malvern Wells
UK
Acknowledgments
In this
in
book
chapter
Chapter
the author has attempted to
been
his task has
1,
1
has only been
that
made
Full
acknowledgment
is
made
for their permission to quote

help.
Where
'source'
in
is
from Science at
War
Acknowledgment
is
each case
their publications
is
made
to
is
many
The author would
all
are
due
many
to the
to 10 whilst,
Many books and

those detailed in
title
page.
authors and publishers
and also to the Patent Office and many
London, and the
libraries for their
Institute
of Electrical
Extracts
Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
The Book of Inventions and Discoveries (Associate Editor. Valerie-Anne Giscard
Acknowledgment
Paris) for permission to reproduce extracts.
New
Scientist.
Also
to
is
Van
York, for the use of data from one of their published books.
like to record his appreciation
Museum, London,
York, for permission to use material from their published journals.
Compagne DOUZE,
New
authors.
indebted to
IPC Magazines, London, for permission to publish extracts from
Nostrand/Rheinhold,
Science
to
chapters
of the extract and not that of the
that
Thanks
to all the authors quoted.
are used with the permission of the Controller of
d'Estaing, published by
made
New
in
quoted, the words and opinions are exactly those of the
Full credit is given to the Institution of Electrical Engineers,
and Electronics Engineers,
also
from
development of electronics
which are relevent and the author
The page number given
authors of the extracts.
the
possible because of the cooperation of so
technical journals have provided extracts

the 'source' following each abstract.
summarize
of a compiler rather than an author.
in
of the help given on
particular Dr B P Bowers,
K E Geddes
this
and previous editions by the
and Dr Denys Vaughn, and also the
following for their advice and assistance on the development of electronics in the various
W Bardsley, G Bayley, W Bowes,
Baxendall,
den Brinker, E Chowietz,
TA
Everist,
fields:
Hilsum.
Amos.
Jones.
H G Manfield, A L McCracken, T P McLean, J L Powell, E H Putley, D Sargent, K Thrower, D H Tomlin,

N Walter, P L Waters and Professor Dr Jun-ichi Nishizawa, Tohoku University, Japan. The author would like
to record the special help
to
John
given to him by Eryl Davies, acting as a consultant on the contents of the book;
R Guest and John K Oakley
for help
on the chapters on radio and computers;
Burns for help on the chapter on radar; to Mark Williams for data on
semiconductor data;
proofreading the
It is
hoped
Charles P
Dr P R Morris
for help
on
Sandbank for help on the chapter on television; and to Robert Winton for
final draft chapters.
that the data patiently collected for this
development from
Geoffrey
to
satellites; to
to Professor Russell
its
earliest
W A Dummer
book
will be
found useful, both as a review of electronics
beginning to the present day and as a source of reference on electronic inventions.
Chapter
The Beginning of
For hundreds of years, two phenomena have been
remained unexplained
known
Electronics
to exist:
static electricity
1700s when many practical experiments
until the early
and magnetism.
commenced on both
These
electrostatics
and magnetism. By the early 1800s, work by Galvani, Oersted and Faraday on galvanism, electromagnetism
and electromagnetic induction opened up a new
field
of experimental work which ultimately paved the
way
to
present-day electronics.
Electrostatics
1.1
Static electricity
had been known for many centuries as some substances, when rubbed together, produced
static
charges which could generate sparks and, in other cases, could attract small pieces of paper and other materials.
The Greeks knew

amber was
for
on amber material by
that friction
word
'electron', although the
discovered the electron as
we know
fur
gave
rise to these attractive forces
was not
'electron'
really
many
Early in the 18th century, static electricity was being studied by
rubbing could be of two kinds
positive
In
when
apart
a charge
Thomson
J J
and negative. The
was applied
to
When
it.
experimenters. In 1729, Stephen Gray
1730, Charles Fry discovered that electricity induced by

earliest
the gold-leaf electroscope, invented in 1787 by Bennet.
moved
and the Greek word
1897 when
until after
today.
it
distinguished between conductors and insulators.
was
used
method of measurement of
This consisted of two
a rod of ebonite
static electricity
strips
of gold leaf which
was rubbed with
a piece of fur, the
ebonite would have a negative charge and the fur a positive charge. Glass rubbed with silk exhibited a similar
phenomenon. Many ingenious methods of generating

experiments, showed the distribution of
the charges continuously.
The Kelvin
most important device of
the
this
static
replenisher
was developed
static
were developed. Faraday,
Many
first
capacitor
the
Leyden
in
jar
in his early
made
attempts were
as a rotary device to build
time was the Wimshurst machine, built later
problem of storing the energy was solved by the

produced
static electricity
charges in hollow conductors.
to collect
up the charges, but
1882 (see figure
invented
in
1.1).
1745.
charges and calculated the potential voltages available (these could be quite high
The
Having
Wimshurst
machines were used for working x-ray tubes), measurement was now becoming important and electrometers
of various types based on the earlier gold-leaf electroscope were developed, resulting
now
Electrostatics could
voltmeters.
and attention was focused on the other phenomena
1.2
also been
known
for centuries.
Asia Minor and termed 'magnetite'.
the material
that
when
In this
first
magnetism.
Magnetism
Magnetism has
in
in the first electrostatic
be generated and stored for short periods, but could not be further used
was suspended by
its
It
It
was exhibited
centre from a thread of
stroked along a piece of steel, the steel also
way
it
became
in lodestone,
found
in the vicinity
has the property of attracting fragments of iron and
magnet and aligned
itself
silk,
it
aligned itself north and south.
became magnetised and
north and south
a knitting needle
when suspended, becoming
of Magnetia
when
It
a bar
of
was found
magnetised
the basis of the
compass.
The Beginning of Electronics
Figure
1.1.
Wimshurst machine (The Science Museum/ Science
About 1780, Galvani of

nervous excitability
The problem of
was
storage
Society Picture Library).
and when performing experiments on
electricity
he saw that violent muscle contractions could be observed
in frogs,
were touched with metal instruments carrying
the frogs
and the Leyden Jar was limited

pile'
began experiments on animal
Italy
&
still
unsolved.
The Wimshurst machine could generate
in its storage capacity, but in
1800 Volta invented the
consisted of copper and zinc discs separated by a moistened cloth electrolyte.
paper discs,
to consist of
was soon followed by
was now
tin
the
one
first
side,
manganese dioxide on
the
lumbar nerves of
but not store electricity
electric battery.
The
pile
was
later
"Volta's
improved
the other, stacked to produce 0.75 volt.
accumulator or rechargeable battery
ripe for the integration of electricity
if
electrical charges.
and magnetism and,
1803 by Ritter
in
in
in
This
Germany. The time
1820, Oersted in Denmark, reported the
discovery of electromagnetism and led him to develop the Galvanometer, allowing accurate measurements of
currents and voltages to be made, and from this our present range of
In 1831, the
two
iron ring with
ammeters and voltmeters was developed.
most important discovery was made by Faraday of electromagnetic induction. He wound an

coils,
one connected
to a battery, the other to a
galvanometer.
On
connecting and reconnecting
the battery, a reading was obtained on the galvanometer, although there was no direct connection. The
was
application of this discovery
magnetic
to rotate in a
The
coil.
field
the static transformer and
current changed in direction as the coil turned,
The generation of
but the current
is
electric
power now became
through two right angles and an alternating current

a
commutator
possible.
An
to reverse
electric
passed through the armature, the force generated causing
time of great progress in invention.

put forward his atomic theory that
Infra-red and ultra-violet radiation

all
it
motor
one half of the alternating

is
to rotate.
similar in construction,
The
early 1800s
were discovered and,
in
was
1808, Dalton
chemical elements were composed of minute particles of matter called
atoms. Thermoelectricity, electrolysis and the photovoltaic effect were
low-pressure discharge tubes, glow discharges,

next 20 years.
first
a coil of wire (an armature)
so as to cut the lines of magnetic force, an 'induced' current was produced in the
was produced. Direct current could be produced by using

current.
dynamo. By causing
new
all
discovered before 1840.
Work on
types of battery and the early microphone took place in the
1873 James Clerk Maxwell was the
fields together
and
formulated his equations from which he predicted electromagnetic radiation on purely theoretical grounds.
He
predicted
succeeded
He
also
first
It
wave propagation with

in
a finite velocity,
first
to consider
which he showed
producing electromagnetic waves experimentally
added
a loop of wire
in
magnetic and electric
to be the velocity of light. Heinrich Hertz
1877 and confirming Maxwell's predictions.
and increased the distance over which sparks could be transmitted, becoming the
radio communication.
It
would be
true to say that the majority of basic physical
phenomena were discovered
in the
75 years
Magnetism
between 1800 and 1875, culminating
in the practical applications
of the telephone, phonograph, microphones
and loudspeakers. Towards the end of the century, wireless telegraphy, magnetic recording and the cathode-ray
oscillograph were
all
developed.
In 1911 Rutherford proposed the general
model of the atom consisting of
a nucleus of protons
and neutrons,
about which electrons rotated in orbits. In 1913, Bohr proposed that various stable orbits corresponded to various
permissible energy levels
The
early 1900s also
valve opened the
way
The advent of
field
saw
the beginnings of
to radio broadcasting
the
of applications.
many
present-day electronic technologies.
191418 war changed the pace of development and
'electronics'
New
for
radio tubes and
new
circuits
were developed
war, radio astronomy, xerography, early radar, and computer techniques, were
during the
93945 war. Under
in electronics research,
MASERS, LASERS,
the pressure of this second war, radar and
and both governments and private industry
silicon.
The
stage
was now
set for the next
invented by the Bell Laboratories in 1948, enabling

process invented in 1959 enabled
(known
as the 'chip')
set
solar batteries and, in particular, in the 1950s,
such as germanium and
was born.
many
The
three-electrode
and Campbell-Swinton put forward his theory of television.
transistors to
all
now covered
communications and
all
wider
ready to be further developed
computer work led
up large
after the
laboratories.
to a great increase
From
these
came
methods of perfecting ultra-pure materials,
major advance
in electronics
the transistor,
electronics equipment to be miniaturised.
The
planar
be manufactured simultaneously and the integrated circuit
Chapter 2
The Expansion
The
industrial revolution of the Victorian
heavy machinery,
etc.
of Electronics
age created large industries
Today, these industries are
later technologies, e.g.
electronics, has presented
of electronic inventions
now
in decline
steel,
ship building, textiles, railways,
and the changeover to
light industries
based on
re-employment and re-training problems. The exploitation
creates wealth for those nations
which take up the challenge, such as the USA,
New
Europe, Japan and, more recently, other Far Eastern countries.
up
electronic industries are being built
employing large numbers of people, as instanced by the world's semiconductor industry, now accounting for
4%
of the world economy and already larger than any other manufacturing industry.
many of
Whilst
the basic electrical and electronic inventions were
2.1), the early 1960s
saw
made
in the last
two centuries (see
figure
the greatest expansion of electronics technology, and the integrated circuit, together
with the computer, laid the foundation for the present-day world-wide expansion of electronic applications,
of which typical examples

tape recorders,
are:
world-wide communications,
microwave ovens,
satellites, television, interactive
and
educational electronics, industrial electronics, electronic cameras, medical electronics, robotics and
Two examples
virtual
TV,
calculators, microprocessors, data-processing systems, automotive electronics,
many
others.
and aeroplane bookings.
By
using electronics techniques and merely passing a bar-coded object over a detection device, a detailed
bill
of the present electronics age are the check-out counter
can be produced by an electronic computer
in a
matter of seconds.
till
The number of
seats in the 170 airlines
throughout the world, flying to different destinations, must run into millions, yet any particular seat in any
particular aeroplane
office,
due
from any destination
to electronics
to
any other destination, can be booked from any
Microprocessors and minicomputers have applications
machine
tool
control,
airline
booking
communications and computers.
and record keeping
filing
(in
in
accounting, banking, chemical process control,

police
hospitals,
and business firms), data analysis,
instrumentation, automatic testing, automatic justifying or printing, and countless others.

In addition, the field of
telecommunications and radar, both commercial and military, used
tanks, ships, missiles, satellites, etc,
these applications,
The
list
making integrated
of applications
is
being exploited. Certainly, the
is
very large.
circuits,
hybrids and
many
specialised devices.
ever-widening as new applications

field
in aircraft,
There are also the component manufacturers who supply
such
as the multimedia and Internet
of electronics will continue to expand into both
home and
business
are
life,
with interactive and television presentations, combined with data-processing systems, becoming more and more
widely adopted.
brief
summary of
the growth of electronics over the years
the possible effect of the 'brain drain' after the 1939/45 war.
is
given
in figure 2.1,
while figure 2.2 shows
The Expansion of Electronics
1996 Inter-Satellite Communication
1986 Scanning Tunelling Microscope; 1987 Digital Audio Broadcasting

1985
CD/ROM; WINDOWS; TACTILE SCREEN
MS/DOS; 1982 CAMCORDER

1979 COMPACT DISC developed
1981
1975
1971
computer developments
invented
LASER invented; 1977 Magnetic

MICROPROCESSOR developed
Resonance Imaging developed
1965 Electronic Typewriter invented; 1969
INTERNET
started
1961
TAPE CASSETTE
1958
1952
PACEMAKER developed; 1959 I.C. Planar Process developed

FORTRAN Computer Language
MASER invented
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT concept; SPUTNIK Satellite launched
1950
MODEM
1957
1953
developed
>.
20th Century
>
19th Century
>-
18th Century
developed
1943 Printed wiring system patented; 1948
First
TRANSISTOR
1935 Scanning Electron Microscope invented
1934 Liquid Crystals Display developed; 1937 Xerography invented

1931 First Electronic
1929
First
COMPUTER
developed; Cardiograph invented
Colour Television
1926 Electron-microscope invented; 1927

1924
RADAR
First cable
TV
invented
TELEVISION system developed

(SONAR) used; TELEX invented
1919 Electronic
1914 Asdic
1911 Superconductivity discovered
1906 Radio Broadcasting

1898
started;
Three electron tube invented
magnetic recording
First
1897 'Electron' defined

1895 Radio Telegraphy in use; X-rays discovered
1887 Electrocardiograph invented
1876
TELEPHONE
invented; 1897 First Phonograph
1865 Radio wave theory (Maxwell)

1857 Mercury Arc
1855
Glow
Lamp
discovered
discharge tubes developed
1847 Magnetostriction discovered

1
844 Telegraphy using the Morse Code
1843
FAX
machine invented
1839 Microfilming invented; Photovoltaic effect discovered

1831 Electromagnetic Induction; Electricity generated
1821 Thermoelectricity discovered
1820 Electro-magnetism discovered

1808 Atomic Theory (Dalton)
1801 Ultra-violet radiation discovered
1800
First
Dry Battery
(Volta); Infra-red radiation discovered
1787 Electrostatics measured (Gold-leaf electroscope)
1780 Galvanic action discovered

1772 Magnetism used; Navy Compass
1770's Experiments with electrostatic electricity
1
745
1730
Electricity stored;
Two
The Leyden
jar
kinds of electricity discovered; positive and negative
1729 Distinction between conductors and insulators
Figure
2.1.
The growth of
electronics.
The Expansion of Electronics
European
American
2000
1990
1980
19/0 =====
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^~
1960
1950
1940
1980
WX)
^^=
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1860
1850
1840
1830
1820
1810
1800
1790
1780
1770
1760
1750
1740
1730
1720
i>
Number of
Figure
2.2.
brief
summary of
the
USA
Number
inventions
brain drain' from Europe to the
growth of electronics over the years (showing the possible

in the 1960s).
of inventions
effect of the
Chapter 3
The Development of Components, T\ibes, Transistors

and Integrated Circuits
All electronic
equipment
is
composed of components
The development of such components
etc.
electronic techniques,
components had
were those developed for the

dry-battery, etc,
all
to
is
resistors, capacitors, tubes, transistors, integrated circuits,
the story of electronics itself as, with each
be developed and manufactured
electrical industry
the
Leyden
The
new
invention in
earliest
components
Jar, the resistor, the transformer, the relay, the
introduced between 1745 and 1900, originating mainly in Europe.
Radio telegraphy using spark transmitters towards the end of the
wave
in quantity.
generators, such as the Alexanderson alternator, but
when
19th century
was followed by continuous
the thermionic tube
was invented
1906
in
continuous oscillation and amplification of radio frequencies became possible. Special tubes, transmitters and
receivers were designed and built with the designer of the equipment constructing
all
the necessary
component
parts.
The 1914-18 war gave

of the three-electrode tube
marked impetus
in quantity,
development of radio communications, and with the advent
to the
components such
as resistors
and capacitors began to assume the form
we knew them up to the 1960s.

The BBC commenced programme broadcasting on 14 November 1922 and from that time, up to about 1930,
many component manufacturers began to specialize in individual components, from which the home constructor
roughly as
used to make radio receivers. Most tubes were made
initially
of glass blowing and vacuum processes were similar.
typical bright-emitter three-electrode tube of the period
lit
many an
is
shown
in figure 3.1.
Bright emitter tubes, in rows,
these were followed by dull emitters,
remember
some of
the early magic
by
electric
lamp manufacturers
as the techniques
enthusiastic amateur's living
seemed
to disappear.
room
and,
when
Amateur constructors may
the pungent smell of ebonite drilled at too high a speed although, with the introduction of the screen-
The
grid tube in 1924, a metal chassis rapidly replaced ebonite panels.

the breadboard to the screened chassis are
shown
in figure 3.2.
It
stages in construction of radio sets from
might be considered that
this
period (the early
1920s) saw the birth of the components industry. Resistors were produced in large quantities and used as grid
leaks,
and
anode loads,
etc,
and consisted of carbon compositions of many kinds compressed into tubular containers
with end caps.
fitted
Paper-dielectric capacitors were mainly tubular types enclosed in plain bakelized
cardboard tubes, with bitumen or similar material sealing the ends. Bakelite enclosed stacked-mica capacitors,
fitted
with screw terminals and with the bottom of the case sealed with bitumen, were also in
common
use.
Rectangular metal-cased and plastic-cased types were also used. Electrolytic capacitors were mainly wet types
in tubular
metal cases. Cracked-carbon film-type resistors were introduced from
by 1934 were being manufactured
in quantity in the
Germany
in
about 1928 and
United Kingdom.
Figure 3.3 shows a front and rear view of the tuner and detector-amplifier circuits of a four-tube receiver
built in 1923.
Point to point wiring
was used between
used with sharp right-angle bends to make
all
the components. Square section wires
to
round wires and the home constructor
construction of sets diminished and
many component manufacturers and

in quantities improved, and many
of some modern multi-layer printed wiring boards. This soon gave
grew remarkably adept
at
From 1930 onwards

radio-set
were sometimes
the wiring horizontal or vertical, reminiscent of the wiring patterns
way
wiring up simple radio receivers.

the
home
makers worked together. Techniques
for
component manufacture
millions of radio sets were in use throughout the world in 1939.
As
the standard to
which components were
The Development of Components, Tubes, Transistors and Integrated Circuits
a?S3gEWT -~~|"S-T
Figure
3.1. Early bright-emitter three-electrode tube (courtesy
BREADBOARD PLUS CONTROL PANEL
BREADBOARD
EARLY
Mullard Radio Valve Co. Ltd).
-1
^- ->
kJP^ b^l
0^)r
r -w
w-'
\1
V
V
V--
I
1
EARLY METAL CHASSIS

(SCREENED GRID VALVE)
METAL CHASSIS
COMPLETE SCREENING
EARLY COMPONENT LAYOUTS

Figure 3.2. Early contributions
breadboard
to metal chassis.
Figure
made were
3.3. Four-tube receiver built in
1923 (courtesy Science Museum, London
those of domestic radio, pan-climatic protection
of the radio tube
made wide
electrical engineering applications, telephone
military,
was unnecessary and
tolerances and poor stability generally acceptable.
&
Bumdept
Ltd).
the self-compensating action
With the exception of certain
companies, a few sections of the instrument industry and the
no very high standard was required of the component manufacturer.
The advent of the 1939-45 war had

in all climates of the
equipment had
to be
tremendous effect on components because now operation of equipment
world was essential.
The spread of
the
war from Europe
designed to withstand tropical climates, whereas the war
in
to the Far East
meant
that
Russia required equipment to
operate in arctic conditions, and the North African desert war exposed equipment to excessive heat and rapid
temperature cycling. The war
at
sea and
combined operations made
resistance to salt and sea spray necessary.
Vibration, rough handling and shock impact affected the mounting of
was the
effect of tropical conditions
due
to the
component
parts.
Particularly
damaging
high humidity which rusted metals, lowered insulation resistance
of plastics, grew fungus and swelled some moving parts, making them useless.
Directly due to
to
war requirements, many changes and developments were necessary
meet these arduous conditions. These changes are
Standardization
Miniaturization
briefly listed below:
increased production of fewer types

submarines, manpack
needed mobile
for
sets, for aircraft,
too
and
component
needed,
quick
replacement
by
Transport hazards
shocks and rough handling
Reliability
failures
Maintainability
costly
disastrous
often
transport
unskilled personnel
radios, etc
to
produce equipment
impact of
parachute
tanks and
components
equipment,
Storage long periods before
Low temperature use
conditions
conditions
High temperature use
Humidity use
conditions
High
Combined environments humidity/high temperature/vibration,

High powers increase range of
and radar
EM
withstand nuclear environment
Mechanical shocks
Vibration
landing, etc
shells,
ships affecting
in aircraft,
use,
particularly missiles
all
in arctic
in desert
in tropical
high-flying aircraft (arc-over, etc)
altitude
etc
radio
to
radiation resistance
to
These stringent environmental and operational requirements, due

in
major improvements
to
were replaced by metal-cased tubular types with rubber end
directly to the
Waxed
component design and manufacture.

seals.
1939^5
war, resulted
tubular paper-dielectric capacitors
Metalled paper-dielectric capacitors were
developed. Improved control of the temperature coefficient of ceramic-dielectric capacitors was introduced by
manufacturers and
new
types were
made
Many
high-permittivity ceramic mixes developed.
Work on
introduced into resistor production and testing.
manufacturing improvements were
was sponsored and many
sealed variable resistors
available. Transformers operating at higher temperatures, oil-filled
were developed and also
resin 'potted' transformers.
and sealed
in
metal cans,
Sealed relays and indicating meters were also designed
and produced to withstand the tropical conditions.

Following the war the commercial success of component companies was concerned with the mass production
of components for television receivers and radio
the total
sets.
Military requirements dropped to a smaller proportion of
components output but the lessons learned were valuable
improving the standard and
in
reliability
of
commercial components.
After the war, around 1946, the printed circuit was beginning to be used in conjunction with sub-miniature
many experimental
tubes and
The
circuits
were made using both additive and subtractive printing techniques.
crystal detector, invented in 1906, forerunner of the
The physics of
the invention of the three-electrode tube.
fundamental research was done by physicists
in the 1940s,
modern
transistor,
when
it
was used
for
many
was not understood
crystal detectors
was discovered
years until
until
some
that certain semiconductors,
such as germanium and silicon, contained mobile electrons and 'holes', so that a so-called p-n layer in the
crystal
would pass current
were used
In
in the
1950s as
in
one direction only as
in the
normal crystal detector, and many germanium diodes
rectifiers.
1948, Bell Laboratories' scientists found that amplification could be obtained by
was termed
contact to the normal p-n contacts in germanium. This

resistor'
and the contact points were
means of
Bell Labs
replaced by an alloyed construction junction transistor.
later
a third
a point-contact 'transistor' or 'transferred
then produced the diffused junction type of transistor, also in germanium, which replaced the point contact
Germanium had one drawback
transistor.
much
leakage and silicon, which had a
in that
temperatures higher than 75C caused excessive current
higher operating temperature, began to be used and
is
the standard
material today.
Field effect transistors were introduced in
were known as
MOSTs
which the metal oxide formed
part of the transistor action
and
(Metal Oxide Silicon Transistors), having a simpler construction and being considerably
smaller.
The
transistor
came
into very
volts instead of 250-300),
its
wide use because of
was very high compared with existing

were
first
used in
its
obvious advantages of low-voltage operation (6-12
low current consumption and

tubes,
which had
its
extremely small
a limited life
due
size.
In addition,
its
reliability
to evaporation of the cathode.
They
introduced into deaf aids and then into portable radio receivers; then into computers and were widely
all
electronics until being replaced by the integrated circuit or 'chip',
of transistors,
all
made
in
one operation, described
which
is in
effect a large
number
later.
In the early 1950s, glass-dielectric capacitors, metal-film resistors, castellated metallized paper capacitors
and subminiature relays were beginning
About
first
this
to
be used more widely.
time subminiature components for use in transistor circuits were being developed.
time, as high-tension voltages of
designed to withstand only 6-12
150-300
For the
were not required, components such as capacitors could be
and (with the low currents
at
which
transistors operated) resistors could be
designed for very small power dissipation. This size reduction progressed to the point where handling
difficulties
However, about
and soldering problems arose.
components such as
this time,
was
it
volume was
whilst in a plastic-moulded carbon film resistor only l/280th of the total
components led
Other developments affecting components
Machines
or encapsulation techniques.
and thin-film
to the early thick-film
In the case of a
total.
ceramic-dielectric capacitor fitted into a ceramic case only l/225th of the actual working
fabricate simple film
volume of
realized that the actual working
and capacitors was only a very small proportion of the
resistors
volume was
effective
Attempts
effective.
to
circuits.
1950s were automatic assembly techniques and 'potting'
in the
for the automatic insertion of tubular
components
into printed wiring
boards were developed. Axial lead tubular resistors and capacitors were loaded into special feed containers and
machine
in the
were bent over, inserted through holes
their leads
quantities
were rarely
make
sufficient to
up
This period saw the exploitation of the junction transistor and
diodes, both in frequency response and
was being used
made by
was
power
Washington,
made and
output, were being rapidly
in
miniature components into one solid block was

in
Extensions to the range of transistors and
equipment
transistorized
by the mid-1960s. Magnetic core storage using very
also used for computer information storage and retrieval about this time.
The next and most important development

Conference
a day, that production
use with subminiature components on a
its
dip-soldering.
for practically all electronic requirements
small toroidal components
10000 boards
to
use of them.
full
printed-wiring board, with the connections
board and dip-soldered.
in the printed wiring
Unfortunately the capacity of these machines was so high, e.g.
USA, on 6 May
components was
first
the integrated circuit.
in a solid
it
block with no connecting wires. The block
and amplifying materials the
insulating, conducting, rectifying
idea of integrating
at
Components
1952 in which he stated:
'With the advent of the transistor and the work in semiconductors generally,
envisage electronics equipment
The
put forward by the author in a paper read
seems now possible
may
electrical functions being
to
consist of layers of
connected directly by
cutting out areas of the various layers'.
This proposal followed several years work on miniaturization of components done by the author's Division
at the
Royal Radar Establishment, Malvern, UK.
was not possible with
It
author 'solid circuits'. Figure 3.4 (taken in 1957) showed for the
In spite of attempts
circuit.
by
the 'mesa' techniques of the time to
models were made and demonstrated for possible assemblies, termed by the
fabricate production methods, but
Kilby and others,
it
was not
until
first
time the possible size of the integrated
1959 that the invention of the planar process
Noyce and Hoeni enabled mass production of
with aluminium metallization by Fairchild's
circuits, starting the
electronics revolution.
Initially, digital circuits
were developed
were also being developed
circuits
The development of
the integrated circuit
MOSFETs
components now known
MOSFETs
1962 bipolar transistors were replaced by
Although
for use in computers, this being the
maximum
market, but linear
for general purpose amplifiers, etc.
were slower than bipolar
was extremely
as 'chips'
transistors, they
were smaller, cheaper and used
1963, Fairchild introduced a resistor-transistor-logic (RTL) chip,
known
as a flipflop,
An op-amp
less
power.
which contained
channels and buried layers which were forerunners of later chip developments, leading to the
amplifier in 1964.
rapid.
In
(Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors).
first
In
isolation
operational
could not only add and subtract incoming signals, but could also average,
integrate and otherwise manipulate them, enabling
them
to
be used for control, measurement and computer
systems.
In 1970, the
in
first
Random Access Memory (RAM) was produced by Fairchild (the 256-bit RAM), followed
RAM by the new company INTEL. Also produced in the same year by INTEL, was the
(the 8008). An Intel Pentium microprocessor of 1992 is illustrated in figure 3.5. Progress
1972 by the 1024-bit
first
microprocessor
in chip
design was rapid and, in 1975, the
was produced by INTEL. Also,

were about 0.25
About
In 1981,
RAM.
cm wide
this time,
IBM
in
and 0.5
first
1976, the
cm
4096-bit
first
RAM
in 1976, the
16 384-bit
RAM
long.
chips were being built into personal computers and, in 1977, the
entered the personal computer market with the
In 1987, the
was produced; and,
one-board computer was made by INTEL. All these chips
'PC
and, in 1984,
PC MACKINTOSH and the IBM PERSONAL SYSTEM
inexpensive software systems such as Microsoft

introduced in 1976, were improved each year.
MS-DOS became
In 1978, the
IBM
APPLE
2 was introduced.
developed a one million
bit
2 were introduced. Comprehensive,
available at this time.
CRAY Y-MP
Supercomputers,
was capable of performing 2000
million operations per second.
Present methods of chip assembly include plastic and ceramic sealing and the chips are mounted on printed
circuit
boards or ceramic bases.
The chips vary
in shape, e.g.
DIL
(Dual-in-Line) Flip-Chip, Leadless chip
12
SOLID
INSULATOR
CIRCUITS
Possible future IrcnJs in
CONDUCTOR
DIELECTRIC
RESISTOR
BASE
The model
sjoci.ted
represent* a composite flip

flop transistor with the
surf.ee.
It rm th,
component, deposited on lu
,.
lent of emitter follower output
semi conductor
to
rail)
the
(Rt. R2, Rj. nd R4).

rt.ij
uU
fp6
Hs
Hhrwv
W> ]'
ACTUAL
3.4. Integrated circuit
imiC
An
Intel
Ti
f
J-rHh
'
Uo
SIZE
Figure
Figure 3.5.
mil Utilise. I.r.dnc, of i,, L.i, re,

emitnne ind lollertine parr, of the unit
equivalent circuit shown below.
The
20
30
model shown
40
SO
in 1957.
60
Pentium processer of 1992 (The Science Museum/ Science
70
&

carriers,
metal
MCMs
bumps
(Multi-chip Modules),
TAB
usually surface mounted.
all
(usually gold) for connection between chip and base
is
now
VHSIC
13
(Tape Automated Bonding) using
widely used. These closely packed
assemblies use
VLSI
(Very Large Scale Integration) and also
whilst electron
beam
technologies are used to obtain the very high definition and accuracy required for these
assemblies.
(Very High Speed Integrated Circuits),
Close packing brings problems of overheating of individual LSI chips and miniature fans are
sometimes necessary.
A cross-section
illustrating the state-of-the-art
technology in the 1960s
integrated circuit of 1991, with four layers of interconnections,
Aluminum
N-
shown
in figure 3.6 whilst a bipolar
figure 3.7.
Si02 passivation
bonding pads
N+
is
is illustrated in
(emitter)
(base)
type substrate
(collector)
Figure 3.6. Cross-section of a bipolar integrated
Figure 3.7. Cross-section of an integrated
Over
the years
CMOS
technology, although
VHSICs, due
still
circuit
of 1991
technology has become the primary technology for fabricating ICs, whilst bipolar
used, has
become
to their small geometries,
have increased from approximately 20
ASICs (Application
circuit of the 1960s.
a smaller percentage of present day IC manufacture.
can be used
MHz
at
much
higher frequencies, and IC operating frequencies
clock rate in 1975 to approximately 200
Specific Integrated Circuits) and
VHSICs, now behave
like
RF
MHz
circuits
in
1995.
Digital
and need proper
transmission line termination, cross-talk protection and grounding.
The operating voltage
is
being reduced due to both the physical limitations of materials used to manufacture
ICs and the high levels of integration being achieved. The smaller geometries required for state-of-the-art ICs
(i.e.
storage 64
Mb, 256 Mb, and
Gb DRAM)
require lower
power supply
voltages, due to the dielectric
and metallization thickness and the transistor breakdown characteristics. The portable personal computer and
cellular radios are driving the trend towards reduced operating voltage,
from 5
to either 3.0 or 3.3
now,
14
and eventually to
However,
1.5
V. This change (5.0 to 3.3. V) will double the battery
as the voltage
reduced, the operating speed (frequency)
is
sensitive to static discharge handling,
Adding
package
to the
become more
and there are smaller noise margins.
style transformation is the rapid increase in the
There has been a dramatic growth
(or pins).
by reducing power dissipation.
life
reduced, the devices
is
in pin
number of
external package leads
count from 68 in 1980 to 512 in 1990. IC packages with
shown
pin counts of
900
in figure 3.8.
Larger package sizes (measured by the number of leads) are required to accommodate large die
to
1000
will
memories), and which make

years
is
in
production by the year 2000. This
is
in the pin
count illustrated
of application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) which are input/output (I/O) intensive (versus
sizes, especially
shown
be
less efficient use of silicon material.
The
size reduction of
DRAM
cells
over the
in figure 3.9.
MCM's
1500
1500
(multi-chip modules)
1200
1
900
Flat
600
200
900
pack
600
Pin grid
300
Circular
200
TQ5
'Si
-^
300
^A
1965
1960
1970
Figure
Generation
3.8. Pin count increase.
4M
1M
2000
1990
1980
1G
256M
64M
16M
0.13/ifTl
Cell Area
Vcc
3011m
35um
IQjim*
2
1
(Cell)
STC
II
(thick electrode)
FIN type
0.2ujt)
0.5(im^
3|im
3.3V
2.5V
cylindrical type multi-layered cylindrical type ferro-electric type
multi-layered FIN type

(rugged-surface pory-Si)
J
planer
stacked-cap.
in
trench type
ED
Figure
3.9.
Trends of
DRAM
cells
The progress of IC technology has been
number of
Over
relentless, with rapid
transistors fitted into a single chip has increased
the period
used to the
transistor,
(reproduced by permission from
full,
began
from about 1900
advances
in
Takeda, Hitachi Ltd).
processing and packaging. The
to several millions.
to the present day, various electronics technologies
and some have declined. Tubes were

to decline.
up
Eiji
at their
peak
in the
have been developed,
1950s but, with the advent of the
Similarly, potted circuits and automatic assembly technologies had peak periods

in the 1960s.
We
are
now
microelectronic devices of
The
active
history of
components
at
all
the stage
where TV,
Internet,
ST, Virtual Reality, mini- and microcomputers and
kinds are advancing rapidly.
components shows how the change from passive components

(transistors, integrated circuits) has affected electronics
of integrated circuits
in the
form of VLSI and
VHSIC
(resistors, capacitors, etc,) to
development. The present explosion
has been the most important development
in the history
of electronics.
The growth of
the semiconductor industry has been phenomenal.
It
is
estimated
that,
1995, world
in
semiconductor sales were of the order of 150 billion dollars, thus becoming one of the world's largest
manufacturing industries.
The
future of electronics, therefore, lies in the increasing use of microelectronic devices.
The
of microprocessors and minicomputers using VLSI are becoming wider and wider and
this will
home and business life for everyone in the 1990s and beyond.
A summary of developments in components is given in 'History on
and
'Passive
Components' and Date Chart
2, 'Tubes, Transistors,
a Page', charts
Diodes and Integrated
Circuits'.
2:
applications
affect both
Date Chart
1,
16
History on a page
Passive Components
1.
WIRES AND CABLES

Wire conductors (1729)
Cable insulation (1812)
1740
Metal sheathing (1845)

I
sodium cond. (1905)
Ins.
Polythene
ins.
CAPACITORS FIXED
(1933)
Leydenjar (1745)
PTFEins. (1938)
Mica
-1760
capacitors
Paper capacitors
874)
876)
Ceramic capacitors (1900)

Electrolytic capacitors (1922)
Glass tub capacitors
904)
Solid elec. capacitors (1956)
INDUCTORS
Iron dust
magnets (1772)
1780
Solenoid (1825)
Ferrites (1909)
Ferrocart (1932)
Ferroxcube (1955)
YIG
(1956)
1800
BATTERIES
Volta'spile (1800)
Accumulator (1803)
MAGNETIC TAPES
Fuel cell (1839)
Steel wire (1808)
Lead acid (1860)

Dry cell (1868)
Zinc merc-ox. (1884)
Mercury
Moving
(1954)
cell
Videotape (1958)
(1828)
Cassette tape (1963)
Astatic (1828)
TRANSFORMERS
(1957)
Invention (1831)
Sodium sulphur (1972)
Distribution (1885)
batts.
coil
Zinc-air cell (1968)
Lithium
Ferric oxide tape (1930)
Electromag. (1820)
Nickel-cad (1900)
batt.
Plastic tape (1920)
GALVOS
Nickel-iron (1900)
Solar
Steel tape (1898)
1820-
(1973)
Aluminium-air (1986)
-1840-
RELAYS
Power Tx (1885)
PLUGS AND SOCKETS
Telegraph (1837)
Pulse (1942)
Electrical (1840)
Strowger (1900)
Single pole jack (1878)
PO 3000 type
RF single
Polarised (1910)
(1900)
RESISTORS
Thermistor (1850)
Moulded carbon (1885)

Carbon film (1897)
1860
pole jack (1918)
Rect. multipole (1920)
Sealed (1940)
Circular multipole (1940)
Ferreed (1950)
MICROPHONES
Diaphragm microphone (1860)

Moving iron microphone (1876)
Nickel chromium film (1957) Carbon microphone (1877)
Condenser microphone (1917)
Tantalum film (1959)
Crystal microphone (1919)
Moving coil microphone (1922)
Ribbon microphone (1931)
Cracked carbon (1925)
Oxide film (1931)
LOUD SPEAKERS
1880
Earphones (1877)
Electromagnetic (1877)
Moving
VARIOMETERS
Ayrton-Perry (1886)
SWITCHES
1900
Toggle switches (1910)
Rotary switches (1920's)

Co-axial switches (1930)
Full frequency (1957)
WAVEGUIDES
Theory (1893)
Push-button switches (1915)
Micro switches (1920)
(1877)
Stereo (1930's)
~~
Step switches (1889)
coil
Electrostatic (1925)
Construction (1936)
I
CAPACITORS VARIABLE
Marconi (1906)
INSULATORS
General purpose (1914)

Precision type (1920)
Stand-off insulators (1910)
-1920-
Terminal boards (1920)
Trimmer (1920)
Gauged capacitor
METAL RECTIFIERS
(1920's)
Copper oxide (1920)

Selenium (1938)
orig.
Germanium (1952)
Silicon (1955)
817
History on a page
2.
Tubes, Transistors, Diodes
and Integrated
Circuits
1900
TUBES
TRANSISTORS
Two electrode
u 1910
(1904)
Crystal pulling (1917)
Three electrode (1906)

Retarded field oscillator (1919)
MOS
Negative resistance oscillator (1922)
Catswhisker diode (1906)

concept (1920)
anode magnetron (1922)
Field effect transistor (1935)
Split
Point contact transistor (1948)
Screen grid (1926)
Unijunction transistor (1950)
Pentode (1928)
Ge junction
transistor (1951)
-1920
Heil oscillator (1935)
Surface barrier transistor (1954)
Beam
Si junction transistor
Klystron (1939)
(1954)
tetrode (1936)
Diffused transistor (1956)
Cavity magnetron (1939)
MESA transistor
Travelling-wave (1943)
JFET
(1956)
Parametric amp. (1950)
(1956)
Carcinotron (1952)
Tunnel diode (1957)

Planar transistor (1959)
1930
MASER
New
Epitaxial transistor (1960)
(1953)
vistor (1956)
CATtriode (1974)
1940
DIODES
Junction diode (1941)
Tunnel diode (1957)

Zener diode (1962)
1950
(Zener effect 1934)
LED
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Thryistor (1965)
-I960
Patent (1959)
Planar process (1959)
RTL
TTL
(1961)
VP epitaxy
(1961)
LP epitaxy
MOS
(1962)
(1968)
LSI (1970)
VMOS
HMOS
VHSIC
(1972)
(1977)
(1979)
VLSI (1980)
ASICs (1989)
ULSI (1994)
MCM's
(1994)
(1963)
IMPATTdiode (1964)
Concept (1952)
CMOS
(1960)
GUNN diode
(1960)
(1961)
Si on sapphire (1963)
Coll. diff. iso. (1969)
X-ray
litho (1970)
Electron-beam fab. (1974)
-1970
lp. Chip 'TRW (1984)

0.5u 'IBM' chip (1985)
0.35U. (1994)
0.25u (1995)
0.1 u (Bell) (1996)
1980
-1990
TRAPATT diode
BARR ATT diode
LCD
(1971)
(1967)
(1968)
17
Chapter 4
basic electrical sound system needs a transducer (a microphone) to convert the sound into an electrical
waveform, a means
The
earliest
and a means for reproduction of the sound.
for transmission
microphones consisted of
a loose metal-to-metal contact
a stretched flat
membrane
(Reis used a sausage skin in 1860) actuating
which converted the sound vibrations into
Later microphones
electric currents.
replaced the single loose metal contacts by carbon ones (Edison, 1877) and by carbon granules (Hunnings, 1878).
The
intelligible
first
human speech was
transmitted over wires by Bell, however, in 1876.
developed consisted of a thin iron diaphragm which vibrated
in front
The microphone he
of a magnet with a coil
wound on
it,
thus
inducing an electric current which varied in sympathy with the voice sounds. This current was sent over a pair
of wires to a similar apparatus
other end.
at the
An
early Bell telephone used in 1878
Sound could now be transmitted and received by wire and,

it.
He wrapped
it,
turned a crank to rotate the cylinder and shouted into
was reproduced. Ten years
making many
before
it
Berliner introduced the
later,
About
transmitted, recorded and reproduced.
moving-coil cone loudspeaker, but
first
'Mary had
shown
in figure 4.1.
little
diaphragm
On
lamb'.
first flat-disc
in contact with
cranking the cylinder
record and also a method
shellac copies.
Sound could now be

invented the
it
is
Edison invented a method for recording
a sheet of tinfoil round a cylinder, set a stylus or needle attached to a
again, his voice

for
in 1877,
The
could be exploited.
electrostatic
it
was before
its
time (1877), Siemens in
this
Germany
time and had to wait for other developments
loudspeaker, introduced around
1925, failed to gain wide
commercial acceptance.
In 1924, Chester
Rice and Edward Kellog, both of General Electric, registered a patent for a voice coil
speaker as well as constructing an amplifier capable of providing power of
known
as the Radiola
Model 104 had
Ribbon speakers were invented
a built-in amplifier
in 1925.
which was concertinered and exposed

Boxed-in speakers were introduced
The standard cone was replaced by

magnetic
field.
They were brought
The speaker,
in 1925.
a very fine
aluminium ribbon
USA
out in the
in the
1920's.
about 1958.
in
Following Bell's invention, the
to a
watt for their device.
and came on the market
first
public telephone exchange
January 1878 to twenty-one subscribers. These
was opened
telephones were leased
first
in
New
Haven, Connecticut,
in pairs, the
in
two telephones being
permanently connected together.

1889, Strowger invented the
In
first
automatic switching system to allow one telephone to work with any
other telephone and, in 1919, the improved crossbar selector system was developed in Sweden.
first
experimental electronic exchange was
made by
Bell
Telephone Laboratories and, by 1958,
In 1952, the
fully
automatic
electronic exchanges were in use.
The spread of telephones throughout
the world
was rapid and
there are
now over 400
million telephones in
service.
1898 another method of recording sound was invented by Poulsen
In
found
past
that
it,
the wire
was magnetized
revived
when tube
to twist
and was replaced by a
18
Denmark
to varying degrees, thus recording the sound.
again and could also be wiped off and re-recorded.
tape broke
in
magnetic recording.
He
by feeding the current from a microphone through an electromagnet and drawing a piano wire rapidly
it
was
amplifiers
became
fiat
difficult to join,
This could be played again and
Poulsen's invention of the magnetized piano wire was
available and spools of thinner wire were used; but thin wire
was inclined
metal tape developed by Blattner (the 'Blattnerphone'). However,
and
Farben and
AEG
in
Germany produced paper and
when
the
plastic tapes coated
A Concise
Figure
An
4.1.
Science
early Bell telephone and terminal panel, as used at
Museum/ Science
with iron oxide
in the
&
Cassettes,
Osborne Cottage, 14 January 1878 (The
Germany, about 1940, introduced
a lacquer.
much improved
quality of sound reproduction
radio-frequency bias as in present-day tape recorders.

in./s).
19
form of
with improved tape and a
56 cm/s (22
History of Audio and Sound Reproduction
the 'Magnetophon' tape recorder,
the latter largely
plastic-based ferric-oxide tape
Later open-reel tape recorders usually operate
at
at
1.875
in./s.
to the use of
15 in./s and sub-multiples (7.5, 3.75,
which are now much more popular than open-reel tapes because of
(no tape threading), normally operate
due
was used, running
their
at
etc.,).
low cost and convenience
Recently, cassettes of half-size have been introduced, but
mostly for dictation purposes rather than music. Video recorder tapes can record up to 18 octaves of frequency
for colour television, as against 9 octaves for
Berliner's shellac
rpm
the 78
The
gramophone
disc playing speed
first
sound recording
was reduced
to
normal sound recording.
discs were later replaced by plastic discs running

to
accompany
films ('the talkies')
was produced
disc-recording machine called Vitaphone was synchronized to the film and the
was 'The Jazz Singer'
in
78 rpm, and, about 1948,
at
45 and 33 rpm, and opened the era of the long-playing record.
October 1927, with Al Jolson.
in
1926 by Warner Bros.
first
successful talking picture
Fox Movietone News improved on
this
system by
using a sound-on-film system in which the synchronism was automatic, using a variable-intensity light source
to record the
sound on the film negative. Similar systems are now used
the early
In
1930s Arthur Keller of Bell Labs
in
the
in
modern cinemas.
USA, and Alan Blumlein
of
EMI
in
Britain,
developed stereophonic disc recording systems quite independently. These gave directional and much improved
special
war.
a
effects,
but the business depression of those years prevented commercial
Surprisingly, the
first
Frenchman, Clement Ader,
practical demonstration of stereophonic

in 1881.
He
installed pairs of
exploitation before the
sound reproduction was carried out by
microphones
in the Paris
Opera House, connected
20
by telephone

earphones
lines to pairs of
in the
Exhibition of Electricity held that year in Paris.
when
three-channel system was used by the Bell Laboratories on 27 April 1933,
was reproduced
in
of stereophonic
hi-fi.
Washington with
Quadraphonic or surround sound has been introduced, which aims

present inside an auditorium
more
known
to give the listener the illusion of being
vividly than can be achieved using ordinary two-channel stereo.
typical hi-fi loudspeaker system consists of
smallest ones being
two or three loudspeaker
units of different
as 'tweeters' and the largest ones as 'woofers', with a crossover
band
direct the relevant frequency
each
into
cone
size, the
network to
filter
unit.
necessary to focus attention on the importance of the polar,
It is
the Philadelphia Orchestra
most impressive degree of realism. This may be regarded as the beginning
directional radiation characteristic
i.e.
of loudspeakers and the relationship between the loudspeaker and the acoustics of the listening room.
improvements
becoming of much greater
other parts of the audio chain, these aspects are
in
With
significance.
and electronic musical instruments have been evolved over a period of many decades. The major
Electrical
part of this effort has probably
been devoted to the electronic organ, but other instruments, such as electronic
pianos, have also been produced.
development
of creating sound electronically
in this field
This gives the user an unprecedentedly great ease and versatility
in the creation
is
the synthesizer.
and control of audio waveforms
with regard to harmonic content, envelope shape, repetition rate and random noise characteristics. Musical and
other sound sequences can be built up and controlled from a small keyboard.
The
BBC
Radiophonic Workshop
uses synthesizers and other techniques, and a well-known example of radiophonic music created by them
theme music from
is
the
Who'.
'Dr.
Electronic organs consist of a series of electrical tone generators controlled by keyboard(s) and stops fed to
amplifiers and loudspeakers.
and marketed
An
early
Hammond
and commercially successful organ was designed by Laurens
This employed a large number of synchronous-motor-driven alternators to generate the
in 1935.
many
tones. Since then very
different designs have been evolved, mostly of purely electronic nature.
The
best
of these simulate remarkably well the subtle sounds of a good traditional pipe organ, but the largest sales are of
smaller instruments aimed mainly
tonalities, often
'rhythm box'
popular music
at the
As
field.
well as producing a wide range of organ-stop
of cinema-organ character, these organs usually also provide various percussive effects, and
drum and cymbal sounds
frequently added to give repeated
is
at
Techniques based on the use of microprocessors are being increasingly employed

need for a high degree of performing
skill.
Fax machines, teleprinters or computers, the output
In
transmitted over a telephone line,
it
from an
3.6
by a
bits/s
to
to
converter which
This
is
required.
at
the receiving end. With a
is
As
this
done by
modern computer
cannot be
MODEM
a
modem
For good speech quality about 16
required than for music.
VOCODERS
(or voice coders) are used to reduce this to 2.4 or
Green,
H C
machine
aware of the assumptions made. This produces the Dalek-like speech which
speech-analysis devices and speaking machines,
based on the theory of visible speech, formulated
is
A Kopp
and
is
in turn leads to
Speech synthesis
first
MODEM
Is.
is
by making assumptions about the speech waveform, speech, synthesis. This can be converted back
just recognizable.
far
bandwidth
less
converter
0s and
INTERNET.
can be used to connect up to the

For transmitting speech
form
in binary
is
has to be converted into suitable audio tones. This
(Modulator and Demodulator) with a similar
bits/s
various selectable tempos.

to relieve the player of the
who showed how phenomes
to recognise ten
numbers was
built
in
is
synthetic speech.
i.e.
1948 by the Americans R
Potter,
(vocal sounds) correspond to graphic traces. In 1950, the
by Bell Labs
fewer theoretical problems than speech recognition,
is
in the
used
in
USA. Speech
synthesis,
many domains, such
which possesses
as industry, cars and
games.
The development of video recording techniques

fields,
for television, together with fast digital techniques in other
has had a large influence on sound recording.
An
early application
was
the
Army
Wireless Set No.
10
multichannel transmitter and receiver which used digital techniques and was designed in 1942 and introduced
in
1944.
further application of digital techniques to audio
Code Modulation' (PCM) system

to another.
In the
was not
for sending high-quality stereo
and
for recording, but
TV
1960s the instantaneous amplitude of the audio wave was sampled
and the sample amplitude expressed as a binary number of 12 or more

for
doing
this is called
an analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter.
reconstituted into an audio
waveform by
rapid succession of 0s and
Is,
D/A
converter.
the
BBC's
'Pulse
BBC
centre
bits,
i.e.
at
0s and
frequent intervals,
Is.
The apparatus
At the other end, the stream of 0s and
large
but the distortion of the system
was
sound signals from one
is
bandwidth
far
is
lower than
Is is
required to transmit this very

that of
normal landlines. For
A Concise
example, programmes can be sent from London
quality.
to
History of Audio and Sound Reproduction
Edinburgh and back with no perceptible degradation
These techniques are now being used for sound recording, the
digital bits
21
in
being recorded on a video
tape recorder or on video discs. There are several disc systems, the latest one using a laser spot focused on a
and modulated by a pattern of indentations on a
reflective track,
by the Philips Co, enabled
disc.
Digital
Compact
Discs, invented in 1978
one hour of stereo sound, with much lower distortion
a 5 inch diameter disc to carry
and background noise level than could be achieved by analogue methods. In addition, the sound reproduced
unaffected by dust, scratches and fingerprints on the record.
Diameter,
20
system
50
15
mm
mm
is
in figure 4.2.
-33 mm-*'
Lead-In
2
signal,
mm
Lead-out
__
signal. 0.5
Signal
surface
Clamping
area, 3.5
mm
tzsmrt^
beam
shown
Signal area
protective
Laser
is
mm
Plastic
film
CD
The
mm
Transparent
layer
Grating plate
Polarization beamsplitter
Spot lens
Detector
Figure 4.2. The
CD
(compact disc) system (courtesy IEEE Spectrum, March 1984, and Senri Miyooka, Sony
Corporation).
Conventional digital audio, as used for instance on compact discs, requires a large bandwidth for transmission
and enormous amounts of storage space. Developments

it
practical to reduce these requirements
redundant and irrelevant information
Over
in
high-speed digital signal processing chips have made
by employing sophisticated data compression techniques which reduce
in the
source signal.
the years the quality of sound reproduction has
reproduction
is
now
the digital
four speakers fed from a
A summary
CD
compact disc marketed
in
improved and
1983.
the standard of excellence in audio
In addition to
provides a stereo reproduction of excellent quality.
of audio development
is
given in Date Chart
3.
home
use, a
modern car with
22
History on a page
Audio and Sound Reproduction
3.
1760
1780
Speech synthesis
Kratzenstein (1779)
1800
Von Kemplen (1791)

Reisz (1937)
Magnetic recording
-1820
Steel wire (1808)
Steel tape (1898)

Plastic tape (1920)
1830
Ferric oxide tape (1930)
Videotape (1958)
Cassette tape (1963)
-1840
Video tape recorder (1977)

Bit stream recorder (1995)
1850
1860
Diaphragm microphone (1860)

Moving iron microphone (1876)
Carbon microphone (1877)
Condenser microphone (1917)
Crystal microphone (1919)
Moving coil microphone (1922) Phonograph (1877)
Ribbon microphone (1931)
Gramophone (1887)
Lapel microphone (1932)
Flat-disc records (1897)
Electromagnetic pickup (1910)
Crystal pickup (1919)
Moving-coil pickup (1932)

Long-playing record (1946)
Stereo record (1947)
Multitrack recording (1955)
Laser LP disc (1972)
Accutrac turntable (1976)
Vertical record player (1981)
-1870
Telephone (1876)
1880 Electomagnetic
loud speaker (1877)
LS (1877)
1890 Electrostatic LS (1925)
Moving
coil
Full frequency range

electrostatic
LS (1957)
1900
Telephone exchange
Strowger auto exchange
878)
( 1
892
PBX, Siemens (1909)

Cross-bar system (1919)
Metering (1923)
Vocoder (1936)
Pulse code mod. (1937)
MODEM
1910
(1950's)
Packet switching (1964)
Exp. electonic system (1952)

Electronic system (1958)
ASDIC
1920
(1915)
SONAR
Electronic organ (1918)
Hammond organ
Moog synthesizer
(1915)
(1935)
( 1964)
STD(UK)
PCM
(1958)
digital
audio (1967)
Digital systems (1975)
1930
Stereo sound (1933)
1940
Hi-Fi (1950's)
Quadraphonic sound
Film, sound-on-disc (1926)
Sound-on-film (1927)
(
97
Film, magnetic (1948)
1950
Transistorized hearing aid (1951
-1960
'Chip' hearing aid (1962)
DOLBY
noise-reduction system (1967)
-1980
Compact
disc (1978)
WORM
(1980)
Digital
DVD
CD
H970
(1982)
WALKMAN portable audio
(1980)
-1990
(1995)
2000
DAB
(digital
audio broadcasting) (1995)
Chapter 5
Concise History of Radio, Communications and

Avionics
At the end of the nineteenth century, the electron had been discovered and a great deal of experimental work
was being done on electromagnetism. Sparks produced by discharges from
transfer of
Many
man-made
electrical
for this
fields together to
jar through a coil of wire
velocity,
which he showed
waves experimentally
the distance over
in
to
phenomena, but James Clerk Maxwell was the
be the velocity of
light.
instance of the
first
to consider
In
1873 he predicted wave propagation with a
finite
Heinrich Hertz succeeded in producing electromagnetic
1877 and confirming Maxwell's predictions.
He
also added a loop of wire and increased
which sparks could be transmitted.
spark detector was produced by a French physicist, Branley,
filled
first
be responsible and formulated his equations from which he predicted
electromagnetic radiation on purely theoretical grounds.
with metal
filings,
which could be measured.
It
who
noticed that the resistance of a glass
normally high, became low when an electric discharge occurred
was now possible
coherer to receive the sparks over a distance.

in
Leyden
energy over a distance without interconnecting wires.
were put forward
theories
magnetic and electric
tube
with a spark gap were found to be reproduced in nearby metal objects. This was the
fitted
to transmit telegraphy
It is
in the vicinity,
by coding the sparks and using Branley's
interesting that Branley
was
the
first
to
use the word 'radio'
connection with his experiments.
Guglielmo Marconi was interested
in Hertz's
experiments and began experimenting
in
1895 with a spark
He
induction coil and Branley coherer, and succeeded in sending telegraph messages over a short distance.
travelled to Britain in 1896 to exploit his discoveries with
Preece, Engineering Chief of the
Telegraph Service, and Marconi demonstrated his apparatus to the Post Office
officials
Government
over a distance of 100
metres.
Similar work was being done in Russia and
was not published
until
Marconi patented
in
1897
to acquire
some
S Popov gave a demonstration on 12th March 1896, but
his invention in
June 1896 and the
Marconi's patents and
set
first
Radio Telegraph Wireless Company was formed
up the manufacture of spark transmitters and
manufacturers such as Siemens and Halske were, by the

aerials
this
thirty years later.
late 1890s, also
receivers.
making radio equipment. By
Other
this time,
had become long wires raised as high as possible.
Marconi continued
to
improve
his
1899, and later over longer distances.
equipment and succeeded
He
in linking
England with France by radio
also installed equipment on ships for
in
communication between ship
and shore.
To explain why
radio
communication was possible around the curvature of the
America proposed an ionized layer
and Kenelly
in
was
and was known as the Heaviside/Kenelly
in 1901
in the
earth,
Heaviside
in
England
upper atmosphere which reflected the waves. This
layer.
Spark transmitters were almost universal for radio telegraphy, but they were improved when rotary discharger
sets
were introduced, fed from alternators

In
1903, Steinmett built a
Kw
10
to give
KHz
more
transmitter
alternator,
power and
to radiate
continuous waves (CW).
which was used by Fessenden
in
experiments with
wireless telephony and in 1904, Alexanderson designed an alternator operating at a frequency of 100
KHz
(see
figure 5.1).
23
A Concise History of Radio, Communications and Avionics
24
Figure
5.1.
The Alexanderson
&
Museum/ Science
alternator (The Science
Atmospherics were a great enemy. Larger and larger powers were introduced, such as
operating in 1911 and
at the transatlantic station at
focused attention on radio-telegraphy
summoned by
as,
Poldhu
in
Cornwall,
Clifden in Ireland, in 1912, the sinking of the
TITANIC
although over 1500 lives were
lost,
at
some 700 were saved by
ships
wireless.
The Great War of 1914-18 produced
major change
technology with the introduction of the three-
in
electrode tube in quantity, which ultimately resulted in the ending of the spark transmitter era.
By
1919,
high-power transmitter tubes were being made and the Marconi Company spanned the Atlantic by telephony
in daylight.
The superheterodyne
was
receiver (see figure 5.2)
and particularly constant selectivity over a wide tuning range.

frequencies were made, such as the retarded
field oscillator
and the negative resistance oscillator by Gill and Morell
in
use and provided virtually constant gain
Attempts
to
make
oscillators at
by Berkhausen and Kurtz
in the
United
Kingdom
in
in
much
Germany
1922.
higher
in
1919
Crystal control
of frequency was introduced and the screened grid tube and the pentode improved the performance of radio
receivers,
which were mostly made by home constructors
Frequency standards were

line of
ammonia and
finally the
set up, first the
in the 1920s.
quartz crystal
itself,
then the atomic clock, using the spectral
caesium and rubidium beam magnetic resonance methods
intially
developed
in
1939.
The advent of
as the
R1155
National
HRO
the
for the
of the
1939-45 war introduced high-sensitivity communication receivers

Royal Air Force.
late 1930s.
components and high-quality

in
1933 aroused considerable
FM
The
first
production communication receiver
for military use, such

in
wide use was the
Post-war developments benefited from the research which had been done on
receivers and
interest
In the 1950s, frequencies in the
band 400
(PMR). Mobile handsets and vehicle
hi-fi
amplifiers
and Jodrell Bank was

to
500
MHz
became
available.
Radio astronomy, discovered
in operation in 1951.
were found
installations are intended to
to
be suitable for Private Mobile Radio
communicate with
a radio
Base Station, but
Figure
may
5.2.
superheterodyne receiver of the 1930s (The Science
Base Station
also 'talk through' the
to other mobiles.
The
Museum/ Science
radio Base
is
&
25
usually connected to an office or
Headquarters by land-line.
was developed
Cellular radio
to
provide access for mobiles into and out of the public network by direct
number of 'mobile'
dialling at the largest possible
sites.
This was achieved by providing a large number of
transmit and receive Base Station sites, each covering a small area or
large
group of
cells as a
honeycomb). The
cell sites
'cell',
(usually
drawn
were interconnected and connected
as a
hexagon and
to the Public
Switched
Telephone Network by mobile switching centres.

In the United
Kingdom,
the cellular Tactical
Access Communication System (TACS) commenced
in
1985
with two rival licenced organisations, which adopted the names Vodafone and Cellnet.
pan-European, 900
known
as the 'Global
MHz
System
cellular
for
system which has been under development since 1982 and
Mobile Communications' (GSM) (see
figure 5.3) should solve
is
technical problems experienced with current cellular systems and offer other advantages.
VLA
Hand
held
portable
Visitor location
register
Aerial
KAvr
MbO
BSC
Base-tranceiver
system
Subscriber-interface
/Telephony (PSTN)
Data & mobile
Networks
Base
station
controller
module
HLR
Mobile switching
mobile vechicle
Figure
5.3.
Arrangement of the European
centre
GSM
cellular radio system.
Home
now
many of
location
register
the
26
The invention of the
transistor revolutionized radio techniques, with
leading to cheap and reliable battery
power supplies
its
low voltage and current requirements,
for portable sets. In 1954, the
Regency
transistor set
Printed circuits were widely used with ferrite rod aerials in portable receivers.
introduced in America.
was
In
1957, the Russian Sputnik satellite was launched and carried a 1-watt transmitter, becoming the forerunner of
modern
satellite
communication. For low-noise amplification,
techniques were used, particularly in
satellite signals receivers.
the earlier oscillators and the travelling-wave tube
USA
launched
communication
for 13 days.
and
TV
EXPLORER
TELSTAR-1
countries, enabling
Bird',
is
Figure
Hughes
shown
5.4.
first
was incorporated
in
high-performance microwave
USA the SCORE
satellite,
launched as a passive communication
active repeater
communication
satellite
belt.
Also
sets.
which transmitted taped messages

satellite,
which relayed both voice
COURIER- IB was
also launched in 1960,
Since then a series of communication satellites have been launched by
in 1962.
worldwide coverage of radio and
TV
The
in 1958, the first
signals to be achieved.
Intelstat
I,
known
many
as 'Early
in figure 5.4.
Intelstat
I,
known
as 'Early Bird' (courtesy
Mark Williamson, Space Technology Consultant, and
Aircraft).
Inmarsat
is
an international organisation which used several geostationary satellites to provide nearly
worldwide coverage
for private
and business users.
and Fax services to and from ships at sea and

Integrated circuits were
now
more
techniques and
great reliability.
now
in
It
offers an extension to the public telephone, data, Telex
recently land mobiles.
being used in radio receivers, commencing in the early 1960s, with circuit
designs, which often used transistors in place of
etc, are
parametric amplifiers and cryogenic
Microwave systems were now developed from
1958 which discovered the Van Allen radiation
ECHO-1 was
signals and the
followed by
in
was launched by the
satellite
In 1960,
MASERS,
many
packing density and complexity resulted
resistors
in
and capacitors.
modern radio
Improvements
in
circuit
receivers of high performance and
LSI (Large Scale Integration), VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration), microprocessor devices,
used
in radio
systems.
27
Avionics
communication
Spread-spectrum
communications.
techniques
spread-spectrum system
increasingly
are
one
is
Various spreading techniques are used,
frequency band.
being
used,
particularly
which the transmitted signal
in
e.g.
is
for
satellite
spread over a wide
code sequences (DSN), frequency
digital direct
hopping (which can also be 'time-hopping' or 'time-frequency hopping'), and chirp or frequency sweeping.
Because the system
improved resistance
High-speed
by
fastest
based on coding, privacy
may be
There
obtained by selective de-spreading.
also
is
digital
now
signal processors (DSPs), are
being designed to translate analogue signals into
microprocessor based control systems such as high-frequency video, radar signal processors,
digital data for
The
is
to interference.
method
is
known
where
as parallel or flash encoding,
stray capacitances are reduced to a
etc.
minimum
micron lithography and other techniques.
The use of
paths
is
digital data
systems
in
which machines communicate
directly with other
machines over radio
increasing rapidly, often because of the improved bandwidth/information rate that can be achieved
(compared with human beings) and the trade-off
flexibility that
can be achieved between bandwidth and data
rate.
Digital
Audio Broadcasting (DAB)
the result of a standard devised and developed by a group of
is
European
broadcasters and consumer electronics industries and their research institutes to provide a reliable, multi-service
digital
sound broadcasting system for reception by mobile, portable and fixed receivers, using
a simple rod
aerial.
There are now
strict
OCIR
and very detailed international
(Comite Consultatif Internationale Radio) rules
governing the use of radio transmission from a few KHz. to tens of GHz. Developments
are
summarised
5.1
Avionics
The
first
in
Date Chart
use of avionics
4:
in aircraft
was probably D/F
back as 1905. He used a ring of inverted
(direction finding) initially developed
'L' aerials and,
the direction of the transmitting station could be found.

a directional
beam system using
runway approach, enabling the
the
morse
letters 'A'
aircraft to fly
down
ILS (Instrument Landing System) (see figure
first
in radio
communication
'History on a Page'.
by selecting the
When
short
wave
radio
became
and 'N' was transmitted from
beam by keeping
the
by Marconi as
far
aerial receiving the strongest signal,
available in the 1920s,
aerials right
the tone steady, thus
and
left
of the
becoming
the
5.5.)
Aircraft track
Runway
Figure
5.5.
ILS system layout and approach
path.
During the 1939-45 war, interlocking morse signals using a series of dots and dashes was used as a beam
navigation system by Germany,
developed.
USA
known
as 'Knickebein' whilst, in the United
hypobolic grid navigation system
known
as
GEE
Kingdom, radar systems were
gave position coverage up
to
350
miles.
The
developed a similar system under the name 'LORAN'. This was followed by a United Kingdom precision
navigation system
the ground
known
as
'OBOE' which used
below capable of being
fitted in
on
a dots
aircraft,
and dashes system.
known
as
high definition radar picturing
H2S was developed by
the
UK
for accurate
A Concise
28
bombing
History of Radio, Communications
and Avionics
raids.
After the war, intercontinental flying increased considerably and more aircraft were needed.
were
built, the
need for
a control centre.
air traffic control
In addition to the
identify each aircraft.
Measuring Equipment
to
112
5090.0
MHz,
MHz.
The
all
VHF
small airports,
whilst the
could have continuous control of
Ohni-range (VOR)
(DME)
As more
aircraft
was by radar from
is
in direct radio
all aircraft
communication with
to
the
movements.
used as a navigational aid
in
conjunction with Distance
Today's ILS systems operate on a frequency of 108.0
carried in the aircraft.
Microwave Landing System (MLS) operates on
a frequency
band of 5031.0
MHz
to
increase in aircraft production has been phenomenal and the variety of aircraft has expanded to cover
forms of
flying.
The use of
electronics has
flown by the use of computers (see figure

radars, cabin temperature
flap controls,
satellite
control
main radar system a secondary surveillance radar (SSR) was also used
Using the information from the radar screen and
aircraft's navigator, the controller
On
became paramount. The chief method of
and
become
essential as the
modern aeroplane
all
controlled and
air pressure, flight
data recorders, cockpit displays (in colour), engine monitoring,

to control
systems and geostationary
designed to reduce the workload of the aircrew.
Figure
In addition,
now
Several microprocessors control communications, multimode
onboard maintenance systems, including fly-by-wire linkages
navigation
is
5.6).
5.6.
Modern
civil aircraft electronics.
warfare electronics in military aircraft have created an entirely
new
field
of sophisticated
electronic systems, e.g. surveillance airborne radar, including sideways looking and synthetic aperature radars,
terrain
following radar,
fire
control systems, ground mapping, missile approach warning systems, thermal
imaging systems, jamming countermeasures against heat-seeking or radar controlled missiles, electronic head-
up display
in
the glareshield, digital
systems (GPS). All
moving map cockpit displays
this data is controlled
elements of a defensive avionics system
by microprocessors.
in a
modern warplane
An
is
in
colour and global position navigation
illustration of the offensive
shown
in figure 5.7.
and supporting
Avionics
29
OAT*
TRANSFER
SETS
12)
SENSOR
EOtMPMENT
L^l
MOOtFIED
Figure 5.7. Offensive and supporting elements of defensive avionics systems. (Reprinted with permission from
Jane's Avionics 1995/96, published by Jane's Information Group.)
A Concise
30
History of Radio, Communications and Avionics
History on a page
Radio and Communications
4.
rl820
Telegraph (1823)
1830
5 unit system (1832)
Morse code (1840)

1840
SYSTEMS
1850
Facsimile (FAX) (1843)

Wireless telegraphy (1876)
(Marconi)
1860
Radiobroadcasting (1906)
Single sideband (1915)
Medium-wave
broadcasting (1920)
1870
Crystal control (1921)
Amateurs -SW (1920's)

Long-wave
Maxwell's theory (1873)

Hertz aerial (1887)
Spark transmission (1888)
Radio tuning (1889)
Groundwave propagation (1895)
Ionospheric propagation (1899)
Heavyside/Kenelly layer (1901)
Alexanderson alternator (1903)
Appleton layer (1924)
-1890-
1900
First
army
Boer War (1899)
use:
Admiralty trials ( 899)

Royal Flying Corps (1915)
First
-1910
Direst digital
International
CIRCUITS
synthesiser (1980)
regulations
ELF radio
Regenerative circuit (1912)

Superheterodyne circuit (1912)
Neutrodyne
broadcasting (1922)
Autoplex (1925)
Diversity reception (1928)
Pulse code modulation (1930)
Troposcatter (1933)
Coherer (1890)
Frequency modulation (1933)
Electrolytic
detector (1903)
Microwave radio relay (1943)
Crystal detector (1906) Mobile radios (1950)
Waveguides (1936)
Radio paging (1956)
Optical fibres (1966)
Meteor scatter (1957)
Packet switching (1964)
(1912)
1920
Digital audio
Berlin (1906)
(extremely low frequency)
(1918)
Superregenerative circuit (1922)
Auto, volume control (1926)
Neg. feedback amplifier (1927)
Pulse circuits (1940)
Synch (1945)
Phase locked loops (1950)
Parametric amplifier (1950)
Bus control (1955)
Linear integrated circuits (1960)
broadcasting
1995)
circuit
FREQUENCY
-1930
STANDARDS
Quartz (1928)
Atomic (1934)
Caesium and
Nyquist
Sampling tech noise
levels
1928)
-1940
First
missionary radio station (1931)
Radio astronomy (1933)
Rubidium beams (1939)
-1950
Frequency
Shannon (1948)
synthesiser (1943)
(Information theory)
MOSICs (1962)
C-MOSICs (1968)
-1960
Transistor radio set (1954)
Error control code (1955)
Spread spectrum (1970)
Bucket brigade circuit (1969)

Microprocessor circuits (1972)
Uncommitted
DS
hop. chirp (1970)
logic array circuits (1974)
Digital signal processing
(DSP)
-1970
1994)
SATELLITES
Sputnik
(1957)
Explorer
SCORE
Echo
CELLULAR SYSTEMS
1990
Rabbit (1989)
Courier IB (1960)
Transit IB (I960)
Telstar (1962)
Syncom3
(1964)
lntelstar
(1965)
known
Skynet
as Early Bird)
(1969)
Marecs
(1981)
Immarsat
(1981)
1
Eutelsat (1983)
LEO Satellites
(Low
(1997)
earth orbit)
Vodaphone (1984)
Mercury (1984)
Cellnet (1984)
-2000
West Ford (1963)
(also
Infra-red remote control (1975)
(1958)
(1960)
1980
(1958)
GSM
(1992)
(Global system for mobile
communications)
Orange (1992)
PCN
(1994)
(Personal communications
network)
Chapter 6
Between
Concise History of Radar and Sonar
the 1920s and the 1930s,
were affected by
was noticed
it
from high-frequency radio transmitters
that signals received
when measuring
overhead. Appleton and Barnett
aircraft flying
the height of the ionosphere in
the United
Kingdom
this effect,
although Briet and Tuve used a pulse technique for their measurements. During the following ten
work on
years, experimental
in
developed the
Radar operates by sending out

any object
Kingdom.
1.5
Watson-Watt suggested
Sir Robert
effective radar system in the
first
summer of
for
more accurate
both noticed
a serious
of research
lines
1935.
some of which
main wavelengths were used
USA,
in the
make
back by
reflected
is
between the transmitted and received pulse on
the time interval
base, the range can be accurately calculated. Three
warning floodlight radars;
was done
sea by radio
a pulse of energy at radio frequencies,
By measuring
in its path.
at
1935, a committee was set up under Sir Henry Tizard to
investigation into the air defence of the United

scientists
and of vessels
the detection of aircraft
France and Germany. In Britain,
and with other
USA,
1924, and Briet and Tuve, in 1925, doing similar experiments in the
in
around
10
cm
positional radars and, later, around 10
time
for initial early
for pencil
beams
of high resolution accuracy.
Because the United Kingdom developed and used the
first
practical radar
descriptions are primarily of wartime developments in British work.
due
working
to the close
liaison
early warning radar stations
between the fighting forces and the
was constructed, using wavelengths
system
in the
world, the following
The success of United Kingdom

scientists.
in the
series of
6-15
band.
CH
The
towers, 360 feet high, and the receivers on 240 feet
750
kW
had a
was used with
DF
system
wooden
CH
transmitting aerials were
towers.
to give
aircraft
mounted on metal
peak transmitter power of 200
The
a pulse repetition frequency of 25 and 12.5 pulses per second.
Home)
1938, five stations
In
covered the East Coast and, by 1940, the whole of the East and South Coasts were covered against
flying at 15,000 feet out to a range of 120/140 miles.
was
radar
(Chain
kW
later
receiving aerials
approximate bearing. The complete co-operation between the scientists and the RAF,
ensured that fighter aircraft were able to be alerted with time to intercept enemy bombers, enabling the 'Battle
won
of Britain' to be
in 1940.
Low-flying enemy
was
set
Figure
up
6.
in 1939,
1
mines on these
aircraft
could avoid the 10
known
as
CHL
(Chain
m CH
Home
aerial
shows some low-flying enemy mine-laying
The
plots.
1.5
beam was
with the aerial rotation and the
first
in the
directional and
per minute, searching each sector of the sky in turn.
coverage so a chain of stations operating on
Humber
tracked by
was swept round on
The time was now
its
CHL. The Navy

turntable
in 1940.
The
posing a problem, and directing the fighter towards a bomber became a possibility with
was known
as
GCI (Ground
long afterglow
CRT
In 1936, a start
fitted in
a fully
an
Anson
developed
Also
in
series of
AI
was used
Controlled Interception) and a controller with a
ASV
1937, the
sets
in their relative positions
observed echoes from ships
system was installed

first
then swept
one or more times
GCI
station
and advise the
night
this
bomber was
equipment. This
was able
fighter pilot
to see the
by radio.
to 'hold' the signals.
was made on airborne radar and an experimental
aircraft
.5
ripe for a rotating time base to be linked
PPI (Plan Position Indicator) was installed
echoes of both fighter and bomber on the PPI
Low).
in
Coastal
AI (Air Interception)
and the AI Mark 4 was used
of the cavity magnetron (shown
at a
1.5
m ASV
(Air to Surface Vessel) radar
Command.
This was the
radar flew in a Battle aircraft.
in the early part
in figure 6.2) initially
1.5
range of 5 miles on 4th September 1937. By 1939,
first
of a
of the war with good success. With the invention
giving about 400
C W,
by
Randall and
HAH
31
A Concise History of Radar and Sonar
32
Figure
Boot
in 1940,
in radar
6.1.
both AI and
development.
Up
CHL
ASV
tracks of low-flying
later
became
to the discovery
enemy mine-laying
in the
centrimetric and the magnetron
Humber.
was one of the turning points
of the cavity magnetron, klystron oscillators were the only source
of high-frequency power. Using the same resonator principle, Randall and Boot developed the
high-power oscillator which was improved
to
produce hundreds of kilowatts
in short pulses at a
first
magnetron
wavelength of
around 10 cm.
Figure
6.2.
The
With a small
pilot
original cavity
reflector, a pencil
magnetron (The Science Museum/ Science
beam was now
with a picture showing the position of the
&
available for an AI set which could be scanned to present the
enemy
aircraft.
Two methods
of scanning were used: a helical
A Concise
and a
As an experiment,
spiral scan.
the spiral scanner
towns was seen on the PPI tube. Following

carrying the radar.
RAF's most
It
was
needed
to
was pointed downwards and
Halifax
this, a
was flown on 27th March 1942 and
It
bombing
successful blind navigation and
History of Radar and Sonar
bomber was
the
fitted
down our own
planes.
a recognisable picture of
with a perspex blister underneath
equipment was code named H2S.
It
became
the
aid.
some form of
realized soon after the development of the early radar system that
avoid shooting
33
beacon system was devised (IFF)
was
identification
identification Friend or
Foe', which automatically responded to small transmitted signals and returned a stronger coded signal on the
same frequency which
identified the aircraft as friendly. All
In 1941, the navigational
the invention of
GEE
By
The
one a master
referring the pulse positions to a
GEE
map marked
fitted
with detonators in the event of a crash.
Germany
in
for night
activate
two slave
on which the
station timing pulses
arrival of the pulses
in
The
first
1000 bomber raid was carried out using
GEE
navigation on 30
May
modified system (GEE/H) used two stations only and the aircraft transmitted to both. The signals were
was code named OBOE. This was so accurate

flares,
aircraft to fly
far,
(shown
was recorded.
with the hyperbolic curve lines, the navigator could find his
transmitted back with different delay times according to the aircraft's position.
marker
bombers was solved by
Dippy. This was a transmitted hyperbolic grid pattern from
which could
station
were
town
could guide hundreds of bombers simultaneously to a target 350 miles away
with an accuracy of about 2 miles.
target
aircraft carried a cathode-ray tube display
position and also the target.
1942.
(Grid Navigation) by
three pulsed transmitters,

figure 6.3).
problem of finding the
so that following
along a
beam
was used
it
bombers could unload
centred on the target.
the opposite side, a series of dashes
transmitter
that
was
If
heard.
their
to
were accurate
raids
from
to within
a height of
30 000
bombs.
It
6.3.
more accurate system
used two transmitters, one enabling the
feet, at a
Grid pattern of
if
too
continuous note meant the correct course. The second

the
bomb aimer
exactly
when
to release the
distance of 250 miles, controlled by 'Oboe' Pathfinders
150 yards.
Figure
still
too far one side, the navigator heard a series of dots;
measured the distance along the track and signalled
bomb. Bombing
guide Pathfinders to the target for dropping
GEE
navigational system.
A Concise History of Radar and Sonar
34
Many
consisted of thin tin
bombing
a large
made by Germany
attempts were
jam or render
to
foil strips
raid.
scattered
This was
first
from
British.
a single aircraft giving multiple
dropped
in
was modified
set
to imitate the
One was
1943 and was extremely successful.
echoes from a large formation of
raids and,
'WINDOW
which
echoes to create the impression of
with the invasion of France in conjunction with a further deception device called
IFF
bombing
ineffective the radar-guided
methods of confusing German radar screens were adopted by the
in turn,
It
was again used
'MOONSHINE',
aircraft, instead
in
in
1944
which an
of a single one. There
were also many deceptions towards the end of the war as radar equipment became more sophisticated.
RAF, and
After the war surface-to-air guided missiles were developed such as 'Bloodhound' for the
'Thunderbird' for the
Army and
homing heads which homed on

after the war,
such as
TV
carrying infra-red
sophisticated devices were produced
guided air-to-ground missiles, cloud- and collision-warning systems, terrain-following
Since the war, both in the
USA,
the
UK, and
France, there have been great advances in radar systems, and
techniques have been widely introduced.
digital
Many
to the engine exhausts of jet aircraft.
RAF, some
more sophisticated systems.
radars and even
first
small air-to-air missiles were designed for the
Video
integrators, displays
functions to be converted to digital techniques. This digitization
is
and ranging equipment were the
necessary to handle the large amount of
information collected by modern search radars. Digital computers are widely used and with an electronically
scanned or phased array antenna there are no moving
beam
scanning,
Array antennas have many advantages:
parts.
rapid
shaping, step scanning, so that radar aerials of this type can obtain multiple target capability
and function time-sharing.

In the
USA,
electronically scanned antenna arrays, together with
MMIC's
multichip
at
microwave devices using Gallium Arsenide
Ka band
band, have been developed and are being extended to millimetre wave
(35
GHz).
So
equipments described were used by the RAF, but
far the
parallel
developments were taking place
in the
Army and Navy.
Army Radar
6.1
Following the original optical sightings of
targets, the
AA
guns were aimed and fuses
predictors which were, in effect, mechanical analogue computers.
CD
the
(Coastal Defence) followed by the
could not be seen. The
first
radar set
GL1
The Army's
first
by information from
set
use of radar
to feed information to the predictor at night
GL1 (Gun Laying Mark
provided range and bearing only
1 )
1938/39 was
in
when
the target
which two
in
cabins were used, one containing the transmitter and one the receiver; the receiver cabin rotating to obtain the
bearing.
GL1
provided elevation by adding two more vertically displayed antennas and an extra display.
was an improved system with range, bearing and elevation
V2s under
the code
name BIG
BEN
Following the completion of the
(CMH Mark
was designed
1)
capability of a
although
tests
CH
was
on the early
all
and was
built-in
later
GL2
used to track the German
also used.
GL3
equipment, a centimetre height finding equipment
to give increased range of detection
on very low flying
aircraft
beyond the
CHL.
SLC (known as ELSIE) using Yagi transmit and receive antennas

cm or 150 cm searchlight), was also used in conjunction with Bofors
10 cm AA radar GL3 was deployed in 1943, leading to auto-follow, auto-gun-aiming,
automatic firing in later models. Close co-operation between the Army and the Radiation
the USA, resulted in an auto-following anti-aircraft fire-control radar, called SCR 584,
In 1940, the searchlight-control system,
(some mounted
directly
AA
first
The
guns.
auto-fuse setting and
Laboratory, MIT, in
on
to a
90
which was widely used.

In 1940, a
to
and,
VT
into a shell.
fit
when within
in the
UK,
in
ultimately shot
(Variable Timing) proximity fuse
was proposed by
S Butement
in the
a certain range,
exploded the
shell.
The
shells
75%
time to meet the VI flying-bomb attack.
down by
Radar was also used
AA
guns using
VT
were manufactured
of the
German
in the
USA, and were
Vl's approaching
With
cm
a 3
same way
pencil
beam, the ground ahead could
terrain.
shell splashes in the sea, the field artillery
could observe shell bursts on the ground, enabling
in
which
out.
its
Another type of
beam could
search.
field
fitted
London were
fuses.
for field artillery fire correction.
be scanned to give a rough picture of the
be carried
United Kingdom,
small radio transmitter and receiver inside the shell measured reflections from the target
army radar
set
In the
could locate
that the Coastal Artillery sets
'Watch Dog' allowed movement
'Watch Dog' used the Doppler effect
to differentiate
to
fire
correction to
be detected
in
any zone
between fixed echoes and
Naval Radar
35
moving echoes.
After the war, target-tracking radars for
radar
was developed
AA
guns were improved
Diamond', which used
called 'Blue
scan of 60, 20 times per second. The elevation scan

the
whole equipment formed
System called 'Yellow Fever'
part of a Fire Control
AA
medium and heavy
Mortar locators were developed about one year before D-day, the
to its point of origin,
a rapid
azimuth
Army
for the
AA
L70
guns. Other
for the tactical control
and
fire
guns.
the range, bearing and elevation angles of
back
light anti-aircraft fire, a
which produced
lower speed was done by a nodding arrangement and
at a
search and tracking radars were developed and put into service with the
control of
For
in accuracy.
a 'Foster' scanner,
so that
it
two points on the
first
being 'Green Archer', which measured
trajectory of the mortar shell in order to extrapolate
This was followed by 'Cymbeline' which was
could be attacked.
lightweight and improved version of 'Green Archer'.
To
known
one-man
deal with low-flying attacking aircraft or helicopters, a

as
RAPIER was
fire-control
and missile system equipment
developed. Four radar-guided missiles were mounted on a lightweight
trailer that
could
be towed by a Land Rover.
6.2
Naval Radar
Before the advent of radar, the Navy had to rely on good weather and high-power telescopes to detect enemy
planes and ships. This gave reasonable co-ordinates, but range was difficult to estimate, errors of 1000 to 2000
yards being
common
at
At the beginning of the war, Type 79 radar operating on 7
ranges of 20,000 yards.
metres and Type 81 on 3.5 to 4.0
were
to provide accurate range for fire-control against
Type 282 radar with Yagi

in capital ships
and
aerials
allowed ranges up
to
HMS
King George
The GL1 Army
cruisers.
For close ranges, multiple
aircraft.
6000 yards against dive-bomber

were used with
cruisers, multiple antenna systems
Direction Control tower in
and
fitted in battleships
Type 284
pom-poms
attacks.
radar.
It
was added
radar
with a
fitted
For surface
was
fire
on the
fitted
and gave ranges on cruisers of 20,000 yards and on destroyers
between 12,000 and 14,000 yards.
By
the end of 1940,
50
cm
radar range-finders were fitted in
HMS
Suffolk and Radar 281 was responsible
for tracking the Bismarck in June 1941.
About
this time, a
10
cm
set
Type 271 had been
Corvettes for anti-U-boat attack and Type 273 in
fitted in
most battleships and cruisers for surface warning.

Beam-switching was adopted
to
improve the accuracy and
for blind-firing the
guns
at night.
could provide tracking in bearing of ships and aircraft with an accuracy of about 1/2.
was used
in a
10
cm
blind-fire with twin
co-ordinates before
high angle set against
Bofors guns.
it
set, a special
Because the Navy
CVD
cm
to pick
first
up
radar set (Type 262)

a target at
Radar echoes could be obtained from
was provided
developed high-power tubes, such as the
Development)
SEACAT
and
deal with low-flying aircraft or missiles and
by
in all three
it
and
in a
is
tubes manufactured
low-angle
co-ordinated the requirements for
SEASLUG
all
Portsmouth
at
other tubes was allocated
SEAWOLF. SEACAT was
to the
Navy
three services.
using beam-riding guidance.
designed as a close-range missile to
controlled manually or by
TV
along a line of sight controlled
radar.
Missiles launched from submarines such as

is
silica
all
After the war, surface-to-air guided missiles were developed such as
Other marks followed such as
track
to provide
for the observation of 'fall-of-shot' echoes.
designing and producing transmitter and

for Valve
7000 yards and
shell splashes in the sea,
initially
(Committee
was developed
'out-of-sight' fighting using radar involved the sinking of
display
in 1939, responsibility for
and the
was designed
reached 5000 yards. The
the Scharnhorst in 1942.
gunnery
It
aircraft.
This technique
Conical scanning
a two-stage solid propellant missile with an
small rocket in the submarine;
6.3
Civil
its
own
POLARIS
inertial
first-stage
have ranges of a thousand or more miles.
guidance system.
motor
fires
only as
it
It
is
'shot'
from
its
POLARIS
launch tube by a
leaves the water.
Maritime Systems
Civil maritime radars normally operate at a frequency in the 9
GHz
range or in the 3
display giving information on the position of other ships, buoys or coastlines.

carried out by land-sited radars giving a picture of the
movement of
all
GHz
range with a
Harbour surveillance
is
CRT
also
ships in or approaching the harbours.
A Concise
36
Civil Aviation
6.4
Since the war, development of radar systems had also been applied to
approach (PAR), for
airfield control
(ACR),
civil aviation
movement
for airfield surface
and used for precision
indication and for air traffic control,
both long-range and terminal areas surveillance (TMA). Airborne cloud and collision-warning radars were also
developed.
IFF system was adopted and known
In addition, the
SSR
as
(secondary surveillance radar). Through the
agency of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), there
is
an internationally agreed spacing and
connotation for the civil system. This enables each aircraft to be identified.
Navigational Aids
6.5
Radio aids to navigation have progressed from early direction finding (D/F) and goniometer systems
NAVSAT.
navigation systems such as
Following D/F systems, the pre-war Lorenz system
OBOE,
dots-and-dashes guidance system similar to that described in
CW
but using
The war-time German Knickebein long-range navigation beams were
in
to satellite
Germany used
signals instead of pulses.
a long-range version of the Lorenz
system, with greater receiver sensitivity.

Inertial
from
navigation depends on a stable platform and high-grade gyroscopes in order to measure acceleration
known
starting point.
From an
accurate knowledge of acceleration in three planes and also of lapsed
time, position can be calculated.
The very long-range
navigational system
a grid system throughout the world.
system with high accuracy was
The
first
followed by the American system
in 1941,
The
The
DECCA
LORAN A system
LORAN C operated on
early
later
OMEGA
is
based on
positional system
LORAN
was
VLF
CW
transmitters radiating signals
the hyperbolic grid system
(Long Range Navigation)
in
1942.
The
GEE
first
on
invented
commercial
introduced in 1946.
operated on frequencies close to 2
MHz, and
100 kHz, and multipath (which arrives
late)
suffered from sky-wave effects.
by tracking only the early cycles
of each pulse. The system has recently been enlarged. Satellite navigation (Global Positioning Systems (GPS))
are
6.6
now
in use.
Meteorological Radar
Meteorological radar echoes were
of 7 miles by a 10
cm
first
noticed in February 1941
radar located on the English coast.
when
a rain
shower was tracked
to a distance
Since then, rain detection by radar of showers or
heavy storms has become a useful tool for the meteorologist.
6.7
Angels
Echoes from birds and insects are obtained

as 'Angel Echoes', as
6.8
no obvious
at
wavelengths of 20
aircraft or solid targets
Satellite surveillance radars operate at frequencies
6.9
MHz
known
between 200
to
5000 MHz; below 200
MHz
sky noise occurs
atmospheric absorption effects occur.
Radar Astronomy
Echoes from meteor

in
or less and in the early years were
Radars
Satellite Surveillance
and above 5000
cm
were present.
1946.
In
trails
were observed
in the early
1961 echoes from Venus were observed
Mercury, Mars and the Sun.
1940s and a radar echo was obtained from the
at its
closest approach to the earth and since then
moon
from
Radar Astronomy
37
History on a page
5.
Radar
1920
Appleton
&
1925
Barnett
Briet
Ionosphere measurements (1924)
& Tuve
Pulse measurements
925)
1930
Watson- Watt proposals (1935)
Tizard Committee (1935)
-r955I
GROUND RADARS
AIR AND SEABORNE RADARS
UK Air Force
CH (Chain home)
CHL (Chain home
UK
IFF (1935)
(Identification Friend or Foe)
(1935)
low) (1939)
1940
GCI (Ground controlled interception) (1940)

Blood Hound (Guided weapon) (1958)
-]
Radar
astronomy
Met. radar
UK Air Force
ASV
(Air-to-surface vessel) (1937)
AI (Air interception) (1937)
Window
UK Army
-1945
GLI (CD) (Gun laying) (1938)

GLI Star GL2 (Gun laying) (1939)
SLC
GL3
Moonshine
demonstrated
(1942) used
(1944)
(Searchlight control) (1940)

(
cm
radar) (Mortar locator) (1943)
Type 80 (Surveillance radar) (1953)

Orange Yeoman (Surveillance) (1957)
-1950
-1955
system) (1942)
H2S (Navigation and bombing)
BABS
1942)
(1942)
(Beam approach beacon system)

(1943)
(Sideways-looking radar) (1955)

collision
warning system
Terrain following (Radar system)
Air launched missiles
UK Navy
(
1967)
-I960
(1959)
Type 27
Type 273
Type 284
Type 262
1
(Tracking radar) (1939)

(Tracking radar)
Seacat (Visually guided)
Seawolf (Guided missile)

Seadart (Guided missile)
ground environment)
1970
(Airborne radar)
1975
1980
1985
1990
1941
Seaslug (Beam rider)
-1965
DEW (Distant early warning)

BMEWS (Ballistic missile early warning system)
AWACS
OBOE (Navigation
SLR
(1943)
AEW (Aircraft early warning)
system) (1941)
(Navigation system) (1942)
Cloud and
Rapier (Guided missile) (1970's)
SAGE (Semi-automatic
GEE/H
(Beacon system)
Yellow Fever (Fire-control system) (1957)

Green Archer (Mortar locator (1957)
Thunderbird (Guided weapon) (1958)
Yellow River (Weapon control) (1958)
Type 84 (Surveillance radar) (1961)
USA
SCR 584 (Gun laying)
SCR 16 (Surveillance)
GEE (Navigation
REBECCA/EUREKA
Blue Diamond (Tracking radar) (1957)
Cymbeline (Mortar locator) (1965)

Type 85 (High power surveillance radar)
(1942)
A Concise
38
Radar Imaging
6.10
Known now
as Surface Penetrating Radar,
it
is
waves
a non-destructive technique using electromagnetic
investigate the composition of non-conductive materials under the earth's surface.
The technique
is
to
now
being used to penetrate ground to some depth to discover buried objects. Interferometric techniques are being
developed to provide three-dimensional images of target scenes. Aerial survey

to discover traces
of early settlements.
the thickness of the
moon from Apollo
It
is
used
in archaeological studies
has been used to detect buried metallic mines, as well as for measuring
space missions. Technical improvements are being made to enable clearer
radar images of the internal structure of materials, enabling a wider field of applications to be developed for
the future.
Some, but not
all,
developments
and navigational systems are summarised
in radar
on a Page'. The dates given are those when the
first
in
Date Chart 5 'History
radars were demonstrated, not those in operational use.
Sonar
6.11
Prior to the
first
world war, hydrophones were used for the detection of submarines. They consisted of normal
microphones insulated from the water. Because of ship noise, they were often towed behind the
ship.
SONAR
(Sound Navigation and Ranging) was originally known as Asdics (Anti-Submarine Detection) during the 1914/18
The word
war.
SONAR
In the period
was invented by F
Hunt of the Harvard Underwater Sound Society
transducer housed in a streamlined
dome and connected
on an electro-acoustic transducer, which converts an

electrical signal into an electrical signal.
was 14
later
to
26
in 1942.
between the two world wars, the Royal Navy had an operational asdic system with a quartz
KHz
to a
chemical range recorder. All systems are based
electrical signal into an acoustic signal, or converts
The frequency range
for anti-submarine detection
an
by the Royal Navy
using a 15 inch quartz steel transducer. Initially the transducer was rotated manually, but
scanning transducers were developed.
typical
World War
II
Asdic installation for destroyers
is
shown
in figure 6.4.
Opanton
hut (pert tdt)
Tnnsmflttr lunng paral
Hul
Figure
Three types of Asdics were

sloops and one for trawlers.
in
Many
6.4. Typical
use
at the
technical
World War
II
Asdic
unit injujfflng
winch
installation.
beginning of World War
11:
one for destroyers, one for escort
improvements were made as the war progressed. The Type 144
Sonar
(shown
i.e.
was
in figure 6.4)
the
the transducer pattern
first
attempt
at
39
an integrated weapon system with a certain degree of automation,
was automatically tapered
in 5 steps.
Automatic recording of the signal was also
relayed to the bridge.

In
1919 the average echo range was about 500 yards (457
during the second World
War and
to several miles in 1944.
);
it
increased to about 1500 yards (1.2
km)
Asdic installations were also used for harbour
defence placed on the sea bed and connected by cable to the receiving gear on the shore to give warning of
submarine attacks.
Willem Hackman, of the Museum of History and Science, Oxford University and
London, on whose book 'Seek and
HMSO
(1984), this short
summary
Strike,
is
submarine's most important weapon,
were the most
SONAR,
based, says 'Of

its
all
Museum,
Navy 1914/1954',
the Science
anti-submarine warfare and the Royal
the techniques tried during the period to take
ability to hide in a
away
the
mass of water, those based on underwater acoustics
effective'.
Since the war Synthetic Aperture radar has been developed by the
floor with greatly
improved
detail.
The technique
US Navy
to
produce pictures of the sea
creates the illusion of a long aperture by
moving
the array
through the water and then combining the data from several snapshots taken from different positions. Whilst
still
experimental,
it
can pick out features measuring 90 cms from a range of up to 400 metres.
Chapter 7
The
heart of
up
are built
and
all
modern
in colour.
development
its
television receivers
It is
the cathode-ray tube, on
by Ferdinand Braun
into an oscilloscope
The
present-day television receivers.
in
is
A A
Although
and reception,
system which was demonstrated
it
was
in 1927.
was
other major development
Campbell-Swinton had proposed
By
Philip
by
William Crookes
Sir
camera tube
the 'iconoscope' storage
in 1919.
system of electronic television, using cathode-ray tubes
Famsworth with Zworykin who
developed
first
1929, television receivers were on sale in the
was
'Radiovisor' sets, and low-definition television broadcasting
established.
The
BBC
down
during the 1939-45 war,
a practical
USA, under
name
the
opened the world's
EMI
regular high-definition (405 line) television service in 1936 using a system developed by
Musical Industries) and, although the service was shut
1878
in
1897, to the sophisticated cathode-ray tube
in
scanned by an electron beam, originated by Valdimir Zworykin
for both transmission
which the transmitted moving pictures
a far cry from the initial discovery of cathode-rays
it
first
(Electrical
was resumed,
&
in black
and white, as soon as the war was over.
The
principle on
sweeps, whilst
at the
which television operates
same time moving down
The beam
has been completed.
is
that a
beam of
the screen until
it
electrons scans across the screen in horizontal
reaches the bottom,
when one
'frame' or
start the
next frame.
then deflected back to the top of the screen to
is
'field'
The
horizontal sweeps are slower than the corresponding fly-back strokes and are synchronized with the incoming
picture signals to produce light and dark shades and therefore build
are
made
by blanking out the beam.
invisible
625 horizontal
lines
and
in
up
a picture.
The
faster fly-back strokes
picture in contemporary British practice
is
built
up with
order to save bandwidth, normally several Mhz, but give acceptably low flicker,
successive frames are interlaced.
incoming signals from the
The
The
television receiver itself has signal circuits to amplify and detect the
aerial in order to
modulate the beam of electrons
in the tube.
sound channel and synchronizing pulses for triggering the horizontal and
The
signal also provides
vertical directions is
provided by
time bases, triggered by the synchronizing pulses, which generate currents in the picture tube yoke coils to
deflect the
The
for
it
NTSC
to
beam of
first
electronics.
public television service in colour
was transmitted
1951 in the
in
USA, and
it
was necessary
be compatible with black and white television. The colour system adopted was that specified by the
(National Television System Committee). In Europe, two systems were adopted in 1956; the
Alternation Line) and
SECAM
(Sequential and
Memory). These
three systems are
now used
PAL
(Phase
throughout the
world, digital converters being used to convert one system to another.

In colour, the visible
red.
An approximately
spectrum of
light starts at violet, passing
equal mixture of
the three primary colours red, green
in
is
terms of
known
its
red,
as chrominance.
colours gives white
and blue. The varying
as luminance, whilst in colour television
required
all
The
Any
colour can by synthesized by mixing
level of brightness
when hue and colour

television
through blue, green and yellow and orange to
light.
of the picture elements
saturation information
camera analyses the
green and blue constitutes by means of optical
light
filters.
The
is
is
known
added, the extra signal
from the scene
to be transmitted
transmitter separates the picture
information into two parts, a colour signal and a brightness signal. These are decoded in the television receiver
to give a colour display.
Television receivers are one to the greatest technological achievements of the age with their complexity of
circuitry, ingenious design, accurate
alignment and great
available in 1959 and the television set has
40
reliability. Transistorised television receivers
become one of
the most important items in the
became
modern home and
A
became more
useful with the introduction of
TELETEXT
systems such as
CEEFAX
in
41
ORACLE
1972 and
in
1973.
The
first satellite
television pictures
were transmitted across the Atlantic on 19 July 1962 by Telstar
by July 1963, sixteen European countries were exchanging television programmes with the USA.
the
first
of the internationally
communications have been

satellites is
shown
owned
satellites,
was launched
in use, relaying television
in figure 7.1.
in 1965,
and since then
programmes throughout
Recently introduced cable
TV
and,
1,
of television and
a series
the world.
offers an increased
Intelstat
The family of
number of channels,
Intelstat
less
use
of other space and the possibility of interactive communication.
Figure
Hughes
7.1.
The family of
Intelstat satellites (courtesy
The change from analogue

derives
its
origin from
of encoding signals.
the Pulse
to digital television took place at the
The production of
end of the 1970s.
Code Modulation System (PCM) invented
With the introduction of semiconductor
possible the transition
full
Mark Williamson, Space Technology
Consultant, and
Aircraft).
from analogue
circuits, the
of images from
The
special effects for television
ability to
digital stores,
draw
Digital television
1937 by Alex Reeves as a means
technology of digital storage made
to digital television.
due
to digital
technology was
screen image could be shrunk to occupy a small portion of the screen,
a variety of axes.
in
directly
on
now
possible,
i.e.
moved around and even
and paste' parts
to the 'screen' with an electronic palette, 'cut
combining drawings with
live actors, all
gave more
artistic
the original
rotated about
freedom
to television
producers.
In
1984, a 'Cable and Broadcasting Act'
Many towns now have cable TV,
DBS
but
it
was passed
to enable cable television to be further developed.
cannot be provided economically
in rural areas.
(Digital Broadcasting Systems) were internationally allocated and are
However, improvements
in receiver sensitivity
made
it
now
In 1977,
being used
in
channels for
some systems.
possible to use the channels intended for lower
power
A Concise
42
History of Television
point-to-point telecommunications services.
Many DBS
services using the conventional
PAL
or
NTSC
standards
on the telecommunication frequencies were introduced during the 1980s.
Improvements
in
technology are always subject to the restriction
possible, technical changes
During the 90s, world wide agreement was reached on
be introduced.
changes
that, whilst
which could cause obsolescence of the millions of television

a
in transmission are
can only rarely
sets,
means of encoding
the digital
bandwidth compression based on the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) algorithm.
signal using
standards for transmission of digital

digital broadcasting standards are
TV
by
satellite,
cable and terrestrial means.
being introduced in the
latter half
Services using these
of the 1990s generally with a
TV
This led to
'set
new
top box'
receiver converting the signals into a form suitable for existing receivers.
The new
digital
encoding standards made flexible provision for the service provider
conventional definition services, enhanced definition and high definition,
16x9
(compared
to the existing
4x3
all
to
choose between
with the option of a
format) depending on the preference for
programmed
new format of
quantity or picture
quality.
Experimental work
substantial archives of
is
being done throughout the world on High Definition Television
HDTV
programmes have been
built up.
It
is
generally accepted that
have twice the vertical and twice the horizontal resolution of conventional
Whilst the
new
digital transmission standards
displays which do justice to

services are
more
HDTV
are
still
make
systems using the
should
16x9
format.
provision for advanced or higher definition services, domestic
not available
at
consumer product
prices.
Thus, for the time being,
likely to use the standard or conventional definition, rather than the higher definition options
of the digital broadcasting standards.
A summary
TV
(HDTV) and
HDTV
of television developments
is
given
in
Date Chart
6.
A Concise
43
History on a page
6.
Television
-1895
Cathode-ray oscillograph (1897)
1900
Polar coordinate oscillograph (1937)
Double-beam oscillograph (1939)
Campbell Swinton
TV
1910
theory
1909)
Longtailed pair
1920
TV (1919)
Farnsworth electronic TV (1927)
Bell Labs. exp. colour TV (1929)
EMI electronic TV (1935)
BBC TV broadcast (1936)
Zworykin electronic
TV camera (1923)
TV camera (1934)
Iconoscope
Baird (1925)
Emitron
mech. system
RadiovisorTVsetUSA (1929)
TV (1939)
TV Japan 1959)
Large-scale
Transistor
TV
Pocket
(1977)
circuit (1916)
Time-base circuits (1919)
Transitron circuit (1926)
Scanning circuit (1932)
Linear Ic's (I960)
Multiplier phototube (1935)
1930 Photicon TV camera (1949)

Vadicon TV camera (1950)
Miniature TV camera (1952)
Plumbicon TV camera (1960)
CCD TV camera (1988)
-1940
TV (1939)
TV (1964)
625 line TV (1969)
1250 line TV (1988)
445
line
605
line
1950
NTSC colour system USA

PAL
& SECAM
953)
system (1956)
1960
Video tape recorder (1958)

Laser video recorder (1972)
TV (1962)
TV (1965)
WESTAR satellite TV (1974)
TELSTAR
satellite
INTELSTAT
satellite
-1970
I
Prestel (1972)
(Teletext)
Oracle (1973)
-1980
Digital
Cable
TV
TV
(1984)
experimental production (1979)
Digital production standard agreed
(CCIR Dec 601) (1986)
Analogue
HDTV
services Japan (1988)
1990
1995
Digital
TV
Broadcast
TV
Services (1996)
Chapter 8
Concise History of Computers, Robotics,
Mechatronics and Information Technology
There
the
almost a 300 year gap between the invention of the
is
first
mechanical computer and the invention of
first
electronic computer. In 1642, Blaise Pascal, in France,
who was
19 at the time, grew tired of adding
long columns of figures in his father's tax office and he designed a mechanical device consisting of a series
of numbered wheels with gears for decimal reckoning, capable of adding and subtracting the long columns of
Thirty years
figures.
later, a
German, Gothfried Wilhelm Leibniz, invented
the Leibniz wheel using similar
which could not only do subtraction and addition, but also multiplication and division.
principles
Almost
hundred years passed before
Babbage conceived
Sir Charles
the
first
design for a universal
automatic calculator. Again, a mechanical device using counting wheels, coping with 1000 words of 50 digits
each, but with one vital difference: he used punched cards similar to those used in a Jacquard
the
programme.
functions necessary in a
and an output
modern computer
an
own
its
in
years
denote age, sex,
Vannevar Bush
later,
in the
and analogue computers were

stage was now
The
etc.,
Almost
machine similar
early analogue
(e.g.
computer
The
in
first
pentode gates, and was 51
computer was the
feet long
and the numbers could be added
stores, to
each using
circuits,
8.1
developed up
and 8
in
Manchester University
Howard H Aiken of Harvard
ENIAC
feet high.
to this time.
punched cards
in
Another
in the
UK
forty
(1934)).
initially
University designed in 1937 an
IBM
and presented
same
to
Harvard
time.
in 1946.
It
used 18 000 tubes, mostly
The numbers used
in this
in
flip-flops
machine had 10 decimal
2300 microseconds,
Computer memories progressed from
this
techniques as they were developed,

until the present
i.e.
and
units
being the
tubes, mercury delay lines,
magnetic cores, tapes, drums and discs. From the middle 1940s, a series of computers were
later electronic
built
Hollerith, in
(Electronic Numerator Integrator and Computer) begun
200 microseconds and multiplied
each becoming smaller and smaller,
built
tubes to transistors, transistors to integrated
range of microcomputers was reached.
Computer Systems
A modern
computer comprises two basic
parts
manifestation and comprises the computer and
keyboards, mouse, printer,
Software
is
etc.
The software
the hardware and the software.
all
its
components and
The hardware
peripherals.
is
the physical
This includes the monitor,
are the 'instructions' to control the functions of the computer.
generally stored on magnetic discs,
'operating system' software which, in
44
bill.
relay-operated computer was built by Stibitz, of Bell Laboratories, about the
truly electronic
fastest calculator
Babbage's was
of a long line of electronic digital computers, although
first
1942 by the University of Pennsylvania and completed
CRT
the
for solving differential equations,
electromechanical automatic sequence-controlled calculator which was built by

later.
to
1890 census. Holes
statistics for the
by several universities
set for the
electromechanical rather than purely electronic.
7 years
all
unit, a control unit
forty years elapsed before
and the size of the cards were made the size of a dollar
USA, developed an
built
Sweden and
tables.
America, developed a machine for tabulating population

to
to control
unit.
1854, which was capable of printing out
were used
memory, an arithmetic
input unit, a store or
Improvements were made by Pehr Georg Schuetz

in
loom
Punched cards were also used as input and output devices. The machine contained
some form
CDs
or tapes.
or other
is
Software can be subdivided into 'control' or
present in
all
computers' and application software,
Computer Systems
which
is
specific to a particular task, e.g. word-processing. In small
'DOS' (Disk Operating System) or 'Windows'. Software
modern PCs,
the operating system
The
numbers
computer consists of an input device
architecture or arrangement of a basic
may be
not inexpensive.
is
All digital computers operate by adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing
speeds.
45
at
incredibly high
to feed in the data, a
device to hold temporary results until they are required (an accumulator), an arithmetic and logic unit to perform
calculations, a
memory
control unit
used to decode instructions from a predetermined schedule
is
arithmetic and
memory
powers of
numbers
0-10
10.
inary
ecimal
could equally be written (9 x 10")
It
as a 'program' to control the
Two numbers
x 10')
(6
(4
x 10 2 )
and
only are used
decimal system. In the decimal system, a number such as 469
made up of
are
therefore
in the
known
processes.
Calculations are normally effected by using binary arithmetic.

instead of
hold data and program as required, and an output device to display or print data.
to
is
made up
60
400
in binary
to successive
469. Binary
successive powers of 2 and can be compared with their decimal equivalents as follows:
2'
32
16
64
469 would be 111010101.
The operations
most computers are basically as shown
carried out by
in figure 8.1.
Programming
binary
stream
>
User data interface
User output data interface
Binary data
Input store
Binary data output
Calculators
(C.P.U.)
Figure
single binary digit
is
known
as a
8.1. Stages in
BIT (Binary
computer operation.
Groups of 8
Digit).
equivalent of a word or working length of the accumulator
typically
is
known
bits are
between
The binary
as 'Bytes'.
and 8 bytes depending on the
computer.
The use of
two
the binary code greatly simplifies the design of electronic computers, for basic circuits having
states only:
and
Transistors have
release
can be used throughout. Linearity and ageing are not problems.
two properties which make them
them when required,
i.e.
Because the computer operates
in binary code,
or instructions into suitable binary codes.

for
SUBTRACT;
ideal for computers.
memory, and they can
Initial
They
programming language
with these, every action of the computer has to be described
presented in a logical order a flow chart

as
FORTRAN (FORmula
for
commercial use and
is
TRANslation)
BASIC
computer
is
necessary to convert words
mnemonics such
in detail,
To make
but with
as
SUB
modern
sure that instructions are
used sometimes to specify the program. Programming languages such

for scientific use,
COBOL (COmmon
Business Oriented Language)
(Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) for teaching, were
developed to make the work of the programmer
When
is
low-level language used simple
high-level languages, a simple instruction can generate complicated actions.
known
are able to store charges and
also act as switches for manipulating codes.
all
easier.
switched on, a pulse generator produces a stream of millions of pulses per second
as clock pulses, for timing. Pulses representing
computer by gates which permit or
BITS of information
are operated
upon throughout
the
inhibit the passage of the pulses being distributed through the various stages
of calculations. In operation, instructions from a programmer are fed into the computer by means of compact
discs or floppy discs in conjunction with a keyboard.
These are then stored
rows of locations. The arithmetic unit then multiplies, adds,
in the
form of binary numbers
subtracts, etc., as dictated
the intermediate answers and finally after processing decodes the binary digits
in
by the processor, stores
and feeds
to a printer or
VDU
(Visual Display Unit) in the form of printed words and numbers.
Great advances have since been made
in the
storage or
systems such as magnetic tapes, cores and drums. Disc storage

locations.
Compact
discs use a laser spot focused
memory system
is
used
of a computer from the earlier
to give high access
on a reflective track modulated by
speed to
a pattern
number of
of indentations on
A Concise
46
the disc. Digital
Compact
Discs, invented in 1978 by Philips, are unaffected by dust, scratches and fingerprints
and are now widely used because of
The
memory
integrated circuit
when
a given pulse or bit
which
was being referenced and
cell
In the case
ROM
the
ROM,
of the
dictates, the
In 1970, the
in
The chip
required.
(Random Access Memory)

the
their high storage capability.
chip consists of
is
many thousands
composed of
of transistors.
number of
with each cell containing a byte (a number composed of eight
cells,
first
and Information Technology
History of Computers, Robotics, Mechatronics
bits),
eight separate lines for the data.
cells
able to store and extract
It is
and a chip with 256 individual
would have eight input
ROM
chips have a facility on the chip to deliver their stored programs
this data is fixed,
RAM
whereas the
RAM
lines to tell
RAM
(Read Only Memory) and
chip can be instructed to
when
remember
requested.
patterns
(i.e.
remembers).
Random Access Memory (RAM) was produced by Fairchild (the 256 BIT RAM), followed
RAM by the new Company INTEL. Also produced in the same year by INTEL was
1972 with the 1024 BIT
microprocessor (the 8008). Progress in chip design was rapid and,
first
was produced; and,
in 1976, the
16 384
BIT
RAM
in
1975, the
was produced by INTEL. Also,
first
RAM
4096 BIT
in 1976, the first
one-board
computer was made by INTEL.

this time, chips were being built into personal computers and, in 1977, the APPLE 2 was introduced.
IBM entered the personal computer market with the 'PC and, in 1984, IBM developed a one
BIT RAM. In 1987, the PC MACKINTOSH and the IBM PERSONAL SYSTEM 2 was introduced.
About
In
1981,
million
Comprehensive, inexpensive operating systems such as Microsoft Disc Operating System (MS-DOS) became
Supercomputers, introduced
available at this time.
Y-MP
1976, were improved each year.
In
1978, the
CRAY
Types of Computer
8.2
At
in
was capable of performing 2000 million operations per second.
the present
moment,
The Supercomputer.
not only
is
there are four general categories of
In the
first
computation done
computer which vary widely
in cost
and performance.
CRAY, where
and most expensive category are the 'super' computers such as the
at
very fast speeds, but
many computation
processes occur in parallel
hence
enabling a high throughput of work.
These computers are used for tasks where an extremely large number of mathematical equations need
to
be
solved numerically in a reasonably short time, often involving the simultaneous input of large volumes of data;
such a task
is
weather forecasting.
The Main Frame.

the
IBM
little
In the
and for
The Minicomputer.
reasonably
fast:
In these
scientific
machines computations are performed
the third category are the minicomputers;
In
for tasks of
to be
is
short, typically
in the
bits so that the
VAX
The Microcomputer (usually referred

processing unit of which
is
750,
to
GEC
4080 and
HP
management,
to
be solved.
steps.
still
accuracy of calculation
These machines are used
accounting, scientific and computer-aided design
are also used for controlling large chemical plants, steel rolling mills and other
are
with
fast but
calculations in these machines are
32
improved by using several programming
moderate complexity
Examples of these machines
tasks, factory
and design problems where a large number of equations need
however, the basic word length
some purposes has
main
ICL 2900.
These machines are used for large payrolls and other accounting
parallelism.
financial planning
for
second category are the so-called 'main frame' computers; examples of these are
3033, Univac 90/30 and
fields.
in the
They
complex continuous processes.
1000.
as the PC). In the fourth category are the microcomputers, the central
usually on a single chip. These computers have a wide range of applications, and
today both computers and microprocessors are widely distributed throughout businesses. Microprocessors are
the heart of
home video games, and
are used as the
as banking cash dispensers, store checkout
tills
main processing element
Computer Aided Design (CAD). Computer Aided Design

efficiently; for
circuits,
tracks.
example,
in the electronics industry,
and translate that design on
Computers
in
many automated machines such
and industrial robots.
is
using computers to aid the designer to do his job
computers are used
to a printed circuit
to analyse the
parameters of proposed
board including component layout and interconnecting
are used extensively in the design of integrated circuits and hence used to design themselves.
Types of Computer
47
History on a page
Computers
7.
1-1600
CALCULATORS
Mechanical calculating machine (1642)
1700
Wheel
calculating machine (1672)
Analytical engine (1833)
Boolean algebra (1847)

Difference engine (1854)
Tabulating machine (1854)

Portable calculators (1963)
1800
1910
Flip-flop circuit (1910)
Multivibrator circuit (1918)
1920
-1930
COMPUTERS*
Differential analyser (1931)
Universal calculator (1939)
Mark
digital computer (1939)

complex computer (1939)
Shannon
Colossus computer (1943)
Inf. theory (1938)
ENI AC computer (1943)
Whirlwind computer (1943)
UNI VAC computer (1944)
CRT storage computer (1946)
Turing
Stored program ( 946) EDSAC computer (1948)
SEAC computer (1948)
1950
Manchester mark
MULTIMEDIA
computer (1949)
Computer
IBM 650 & 701
graphics (1950)
computers (1950)
Image
LEO computer (1951)
animation (1951)
EDVAC computer (1951)
1960 Virtual
SAGE computer (1952)
reality (1965)
IBM 704, 707, 7090
1
Bell
1940
Von Neumann
Computer theory (1945)
DISKS
Floppy disc (1950)
Hard disc (1973)
Compact
disc (1975)
CD
PROGRAM LANGUAGES*
Digital
FORTRAN (1957)
COBOL (1959)
ALGOL (1960)
CD ROM
(1982)
(1985)
Diskette (1991)
DVD
Internet (1969)
(1995)
Information
APL (1962)
PASCAL (1970)
MICROSOFT (1974)
BASIC
ADA
tech.
1970
(1975)
LISP (1981)
NETTALK
ANSI-C
(1986)
(1989)
VIRTUAL BASIC
DYLAN
ADA 95
(1991)
(1992)
(1995)
ANSIC++
RAM
1024 bit RAM
4096 bit RAM
16384 bit RAM
1000000 bit RAM
4000000 bit RAM
16000000 bit RAM
100000000 bit RAM
256
(1981)
(1996)
bit
Web
(1984)
Compact
MEMORIES
(1979)
MS-DOS
(1974)
World Wide
disc
video (1987)
(1970)
(1972)
Digital versatile
(1975)
disc (1995)
(1976)
(1984)
M980
(1987)
(1989)
(1996)
JAVA (1996)
JAKARTA
(1996)
KRAKATOA
*
As
there
is
(1996)
much
controversy on
1990
first
computers (1953)
Leprechaun computer (1956)
CDC 1604 computer (1960)
Honeywell 800 computer (1960)
UNIVAC 80/90 computer (1960)
ATLAS computer (1961)
IBM 360 computer (1964)
Microprocessor computer (1971)
UNIX computer (1972)
Cray computer (1976)
Cray IS computer (1979)
Personal computer (1981)
Cray X MP computer (1982)
Apple Lisa computer (1983)
IBM PC AT computer (1984)
CRAY-2 computer (1985)
Apple Mackintosh-ll
computer (1987)
dates, these dates
must be regarded as approximate.
A Concise
48
History of Computers, Robotics, Mechatronics and Information Technology
For mechanical design, computers are used as drafting aids and for mathematically representing solid
They can
objects allowing such properties as mass, centre of gravity, etc, to be evaluated.
also be used to
analyse stresses in components and assemblies; for example, bridges, aircraft components and structures. Solid
modelling techniques also allow real-looking computer pictures to be produced which can be used for marketing
activities before a prototype has
been produced.
Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM). Computer Aided Manufacture
where computers are used
is
to aid the
manufacturing process; for example, the automatic programming of numerically controlled machines, such as
mask production,
The Date Chart 7
assembly,
drilling,
work plans
schedules, assembly instructions and
in
Programmes
two- or three-dimensional milling and drilling machines.
lathes,
circuit manufacture,
are also produced for printed
Computers can also produce manufacturing
etc.
for processes to be
performed manually.
('History on a Page') has been compiled as a useful quick reference on major developments
computers.
Robotics
8.3
Robotics has been the subject of science

but
it
is
systems were an early form of what

in aircraft
and
used
US
in a
fiction for
many
book and
years, e.g. the
film
'RUR' by Karel Capek,
only recently that the microcomputer has enabled more sophisticated devices to be made.
is
now termed
The
in industrial processes.
first
robot to imitate the grasping motion of the
nuclear plant in 1960 (known as 'Handyman').
general description
is
'a
The popular conception of an
programmed motions
in
microcomputer which
is
to
move
materials, parts, tools or
space for the performance of a variety of tasks'.
industrial robot is an articulated
achieved through a series of revolute and/or sliding joints.
human hand was
Definitions of robots vary considerably, but a
reprogrammable multifunction manipulator designed
specialised devices through variably
arm with
The
of 5 or 6 degrees of freedom
a total
position of these joints
is
controlled by a
capable of being variably programmed by the user of the robotic equipment.
arm made by Unimation (Europe) Ltd
is
shown
WAIST ROTATION
Servo
robotics, e.g. power-assisted steering in cars, servo controls
typical
in figure 8.2.
320'
SHOULDER ROTATION
200
ELBOW ROTATION
270
WPIST SENO 200'
'?
^~
FLANGE
POTATION
270'
GRIPPER MOUNTING
Figure
Each robotic application requires
its
spray gun or welding torch; this device
The
own
is
8.2.
typical robotic arm.
'endeffector' at the end of the arm, usually in the
also controlled by the
computer from
form of gripper.
a user-defined
robotics controller also has to be able to control the processes being performed by the robot,
programme.
i.e.
control
of welding current or paint flow. The arm power source for the larger robots, intended for the heavier tasks,
is
frequently hydraulic, with a few notable devices being electrically powered.
lighter tasks,
becoming
An
such as part sorting and assembly, are more
commonly
However, robots intended
electrically
powered and
for
are rapidly
the preferred device.
important part of the modern industrial robot
is
the software associated with the control computer. This
software consists of a suite of system programmes that enable the robot user to teach the required endeffector
49
Mechatronics
paths, operations
machines,
etc,
and the control of other external equipment such as welding
as a series of recorded steps in the computer's
plant, numerically controlled
The computer can then move
memory.
endeffector through these recorded paths, initiating endeffector and external equipment operations
The method of teaching
points of robot articulation.

for
the
required
at the
the robot varies considerably with the intended application;
example, teaching the current generation of paint-spraying robots entails moving the robot arm through the
required spraying motions at the proper speed, the computer recording these
during operation.
On
movements
the other hand, pick and place robots are taught the positions
be played back
to
where operations have
to
occur, usually with a few intermediate points to ensure collision free operation, leaving the robot to derive
the path
between these
move from
The more
points.
sophisticated robots have software refinements that allow the
endeffector; the simpler machines use joint interpolation
from point
powered source. One of

has a reach of just 0.45
the smaller
.25
mm
machines
and has a
powered. The operational speed of the industrial robot (the
of
Walking robots, such as
a six-legged walker
leg
was designed
mm,
this
Ohio
1.5 kg,
machine being
is,
the
and
electrically
controllable velocity of the endeffector

to do.
For example, a
fast pick
metres per second, whereas the welding robot will weld
to 1.5
movements, but
at the
of the largest
space with the
250 which can only handle
at a
of course, required.
used on the moon, have been developed. Attempts were
that
human
in
main problem was keeping an
first
made
to
produce
effective balance. In 1977,
which could climb over obstacles and up shallow
State University
one-legged robot was built in 1983 by Carnegie-Mellon University to study the problem of balance.
recent development in which a Canadian
that include display
as the
maximum
metre per minute; between welds, a faster speed
an exact simulation of
move
reach of 2.5 m; this machine has a hydraulic
PUMA
end of the arm) varies considerably with the task they are designed
maximum
stairs.
total
Unimation
the
is
with positional repeatability of better than 0.05
and place robot can achieve speeds of up
One
can handle loads of 102 kg and position them
this robot
required orientation, to within less than
at the
to
depending on the robot's geometry.
capacity, overall size and reach of these robots varies considerably.
the Cincinnati Milacron:
is
driving the joints at constant velocity) to
(i.e.
to point, the actual trajectory of the end-effector path
The load-handling
robots
arm
point to point along pre-defined straight or curved paths, possibly with a change in attitude of the
and control functions
will
Mobile Servicing System); one robot
company
will
design and build two
flight robotic
workstations
enable astronauts to operate the Space Station's robotics (known

will
other the Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator.
be the Space Station Remote Manipulation System and the
They
will
be used
in the
assembly and maintenance of the
Station.
Many
made
attempts have been
to reproduce a
programmed robot which can
carry out domestic tasks,
In the main, industrial robots are used for such tasks as loading, unloading, inspecti.>n,
but without success.
maintenance, welding, painting and precision manufacturing.

thought to be a key factor in the future of robotics. AI
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is
such a way that they perform functions normally associated with
in
human
is
the use of
computers
intelligence, such as learning,
adapting, self-correction and decision taking.
There
is
considerable controversy on whether, or
work focuses on game-playing problem solving,

'expert systems' of
human
soon, AI will
become commercially
computer programming. Expert systems may help
The technological
in the specialised intelligence
Present
used by
revolution brought about by the increasing use of robots, brings the problem of increasing
factories
become automated. This
is
problem
for society to solve.
Mechatronics
Just as the integrated circuit in electronics brings together transistors, passive

circuit design reliability, etc, in
systems.
components, heat dissipation,
one overall function, 'mechatronics' applies the same principle
Mechatronics brings together mechanical engineering, electronic engineering,
control engineering and

It
viable.
experts, such as a doctor diagnosing a disease.
unemployment, when
8.4
how
the use of natural language in controlling robotics and the
computer technology, covering
to
mechanical
electrical engineering,
wide range of manufacturing products and processes.
involves sensors, drive and actuation systems, control and measurement systems, behaviour analysis and
computer technology,
e.g.
microprocessors.
Examples of mechatronics can be seen

tools, robots
and many others.
recent
in the
example
design of cars, washing machines, automatic cameras, machine

is
the use of mechatronics in surgery
for orthopaedic applications; mechatronic techniques for
using automated
tools
minimal access surgery, and mechatronic methods for
A Concise
50
History of Computers, Robotics, Mechatronics and Information Technology
tool guidance, registrations
and control of processes during surgery. All these techniques have
as early as possible in order to design
more
flexible
to
be incorporated
and cheaper systems for production.
Information Technology
8.5
The
definition of Information
Technology (IT)
capture, storage, retrieval, analysis and
is
generally
assumed
to be: the
use of technology to provide the
communication of information, whether
in the
form of
data, text,
image
or voice.
With the invention and exploitation of the integrated
circuit or
1960s, the growth of
since the
'chip'
applications using electronics has been phenomenal. The modern electronic computer can process data, graphics
and speech
In the
hand
games,
extremely
at
it
digital
fast rates.
The microprocessor
is at
the heart of
what
is
known
as the IT revolution.
home computers, cameras,
controls washing machines, cookers, televisions, telephones,
video
watches and many other devices.
Offices and factories
now
use microprocessors in their everyday
control, railway signalling, police
life,
as
do
cars, fax
machines, aircraft
computer databases, including the Armed Forces with guided
flight
missiles, battle
control systems, submarine control and countless others.
The
steel
effect of this
and cotton
manage
IT revolution has been
industries,
large factories with mainly
The
transform labour-intensive work, such as mining, agriculture, iron,

etc, into
automated labour. The manufacturing labour force has largely transferred

to
increasingly possible.
influence of the Multimedia
is
part of the IT revolution.
enabled special effects to be developed, such as the original

to
an industry where a few highly-skilled workers
improved methods of rapid communications have enabled home-working
to the Service Industries, whilst
become
to
hardware manufacturing,
full
The change from analogue
to digital television
screen television image which could be shrunk
occupy a small portion of the screen, moved around and rotated about a variety of axes. Combining drawings
with live actors,
Compact
all
give
artistic
The development of IT
with
its
freedom
to television producers.
discs can record complete encyclopaedias, as well as providing
social implications
in its various
and
it
forms has meant a major change
has truly been
named
sound and
in the
the IT revolution.
working
pictures.
lives of the population,
Chapter 9
Concise History of Industrial, Automobile, Medical,
Educational, Office, Banking,
Consumer and
Security
Electronics
Industrial Electronics
9.1
The
earliest general use of electronics in industry
was
such as induction heating for
for control of processes,
the hardening of steels and setting of glues, electroplating, resistance welding for the joining of metals and
ultrasonics for cleaning castings, crack testing in metals, drilling glass, etc. Photocells
variety of devices, e.g.
many
small objects by colour, facsimile transmission of photographs and
Process control needs three functions
close valves, regulate power, etc, so that the required equilibrium
up.
transistor
and
obtained.
later the integrated circuit,
mechanism
control production processes with great accuracy and there
use electronics
in
one form or another. The
and even helped with
tea blends for J
&
open and
is
usual to
process control expanded and, with
Among
cement,
all
computers
to
is little
field
of control was
computer
were made. The computers can be used
limit to the type of industry
Lyons modelled
the
(Lyons' Electronic Office) stayed in service for fourteen

faster than a
human
clerk.
cope with process variations required
in controlling
production
the industrial applications are the metal industry, the mining, glass, pulp and paper,
textile, rubber, plastics
to
which can now
built for business use, calculated taxes, payrolls,
Co., a victuals purveyor in England.
computing employee paychecks three hundred times
Signal processors enable
tool,
first
Lyons
EDSAC. LEO
room-size system on Maurice Wilke's
outputs.
to
feedback system
Large masses of data could be accommodated by the computer and assessments could be made of
the effects of possible changes in production before actual decisions
years,
wide
pressure, flow, temperature,
in
development of computers, particularly minicomputers and microcomputers, a new
opened
for a
cine, sorting
amount of control necessary.
With the introduction of the

the
is
on film
others.
changes
a transducer to convert
colours, or levels into electrical voltages, a signal process or amplifier and a control
regulate the
were used
the automatic opening of doors, smoke-density control, sound
and chemical industries,
machine
and space applications,
in addition to aircraft
land and marine transport applications. Mini or microcomputers are used in automatic machines and systems
on the factory
floor to carry out
many
different processes.
For example, industrial robots are used for paint
spraying, spot welding, handling dangerous and difficult material such as hot glass and
processes, fettling, etc.
Computers
are also used to control automatic test
components coming
into the factory
position of a fault.
Another important area of use
and the completed products, and are able

is
making cores
equipment which
to isolate
for casting
tests the electronic
and report the type and
the transfer of parts between automatic machines in the
factory for automatic warehousing.
9.2
The
Numerically Controlled Machines

so-called numerically controlled
electronics, usually a microcomputer,
(NC) machines
are a special group of industrial
which receives commands
computer then reads the input sequence of commands, one item
in the
at a
form of
machines controlled by
sequence of numbers. The
time, then uses interpolation (the form
Industrial, Automobile, Medical, Educational, Office, Banking,
52
commands to precisely control the

commands in the sequence will,
of which depends upon the application) on the positional

of the axes to achieve the required tool path.
computer
to
control are
change the cutting speed, the
NC
lathes
Some
of the
NC
which normally have two axes,
velocities of each
of course,
Examples of machines having
tool type, shaft speed, etc.
Electronics
tell
this
the
type of
milling machines which have three, four or possibly
axes and automatic printed circuit drilling and routing machines which are three-axis devices. Numerically
five
controlled machines
The
come
machine
itself
many
in
control sequence or
different forms: lathes, mills, drills, routers, etc.
programme
machines can be created by
for these
a variety of
NC
methods: (a) the
can be used to create the programme sequence by moving the cutter to the required positions,
recording these and the type of interpolation to be used between this and the next point; (b) the sequence
can be programmed off-line by a production planner, using a human readable form of programme which
translated by the computer
later
computer-aided design
(CAD)
into a numerical sequence; (c) the
system.
design of high-power supplies has been influenced by the availability of
In induction heating, the
is
sequence can be generated directly from a
switching high-power devices, such as insulated gate bi-polar transistors, and metal oxide semiconductor
fastfield-
effect transistors.
Machine vision systems

used. Efforts are being
in
made
which optical sensing
to
used to control machine output, are increasingly being
is
apply neural networks to such tasks as pattern recognition and the control of
robot welding systems.
Whilst the production of heavy units
is still
computer controlled assembly of integrated

systems are being used
Image processing
now
which there
is
an enormous demand. Machine vision
production systems. The machine vision industry requires the manufacturer
in today's
to pinpoint an object, e.g.
necessary, production techniques are turning to the automatic
circuits, for
component on
rates for this are
now
extreme accuracy (of about
a printed circuit board, with
pixel).
of operations per second; the resultant assembly speeds are
in billions
considerably higher than would be thought possible a few years ago.
Automobile Electronics
9.3
The
electronic device to be fitted in cars
first
was
but the greatest impact of electronics
was
the car radio,
first
the use of the electronic
mass-produced by Motorola
computer
in
1930,
to control the car's functions.
Microprocessors, in conjunction with specialized sensors, today control automatic gear shifting, monitor fuel
consumption, ignition timing and duration, instrumentation, warning devices, airconditioning, anti-lock braking
(
ABS), suspension
modern
bags and car security systems. These are
characteristics, air
examples of the influence of
all
electronics.
In the
USA,
there are up to 12 microcomputers on
many of
the luxury cars,
which control
ride, handling,
transmission and air conditioning, in addition to engine management and control to meet stringent emission
requirements.
window
lift.
There are body control computers, as well as electronic control of

Cars
now
door locks and
lighting,
include facia liquid crystal displays of fuel level, water temperature, battery voltage,
oil
pressure, lights, etc.
Engine analysers used

ignition, cylinder leakage,
Using navigational
workshops electronically measure such
in service
combusion
satellites,
such as the
locate itself, using the dashboard video
(Global Positioning System),
map, with an accuracy of
into the car's navigational computer; the

traffic
GPS
characteristics as r.p.m., timing,
and many other engine-related parameters.
efficiency, dwell angle
is
it
now
possible for a car to
few metres. The driver enters
computer then chooses the
fastest route, taking into
his destination
account current
conditions and guides the driver with verbal instructions over the car's sound system and through the
car's video display screen.
The Irradium
satellite
Such systems are now available

network to be launched
in
1997
as standard
will
on some upmarket vehicles
comprise a network of 66
uninterrupted coverage of the globe for personal communication purposes.
in Japan.
satellites to
give
This will obviously revolutionize
mobile voice and data communications.
There
is
volts
AC;
systems
a trend to multi voltage
improve efficiency. For instance,

active suspension at
Matching the
electrical
it
350
the standard 12 volt battery
may
give
may
be advantageous to supply the electronics
volts
DC; and motors and
and electronic supplies
to the car's
activators at
42
volts
way
to other voltages to
at 5 volts
DC;
lighting at 6
DC.
requirements with the highest efficiency will be
a requirement in the near future.
Electric cars are also under
development
in
which
electric
motors are powered by
fuel cells
which generate
Medical Electronics
by combining hydrogen with oxygen from the
electricity
be electric by the year 2000. There
fleet will
are,
air.
It
is
5%
estimated that
however, many technical problems
53
of California's vehicle
to
be solved before the
electric car replaces the present system.
The trends
automotive
in
electronics
are
illustrated
in
figure
reproduced
9.1,
by
permission
of
Automobile Electronics by Eric Chowanietz.
Newnes/Butterworth/Heinemann, from the book
>r Or MANUrACTVU
Figure
Trends
9.1.
in
automotive electronics.
Medical Electronics
9.4
Heart sound amplifiers have been used for
waveforms.
Devices can
now
sense
when
many
years,
together with cardiograph displays of heartbeat
spontaneous beat arises and take appropriate action,
compete with the natural
inhibiting their output stimulus so as not to
displays brain rhythms and computers analyse their waveforms.

beats.
Since the introduction of the
in their use.
first
beat.
e.g.
The electrocardiograph records
the heart's
cardiac pacemaker in the early 1900s, great strides have been
Figure 9.2 shows a portable electrocardiograph
by
The electroencephalograph (EEG)
(ECG) operating
in 1947.
The
ECG
made
detects and
records the tiny electrical signals that co-ordinate the heart's beats and which can indicate the heart's disorders.
The
signals 'ripple' outwards and are picked
up by metal sensors stuck
1927) developed the
ECG
during the 1900s. Portable
pacemakers used
1962
is
in
Defibrillators,
shown
ECGs
William Einthoven (1860-
One
of the
first
implantable
in figure 9.3.
providing natural counter shocks to the heart and electrocardiographs observing blood
circulation and functional heart problems, are in use.

in
to the skin.
date from around 1928.
most hospitals and closed-circuit
TV
Intensive-care patient monitoring systems are standard
systems are also used.
Other electronic aids are laser
retinal
ultrasonic echo analysis and hearing aids. Fibre optics are used to illustrate areas
photocoagulators, radio
pills,
normally inaccessible.
Pressure-sensitive radio pills are used for measuring conditions in the gastrointestinal
tract.
major electronic technique
ultrasonic,
is
non-invasive diagnosis by computerized scanning,
fluoroscopic and x-ray equipment.
MRI
(Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
technique that relies on the response of hydrogen atoms to a magnetic
using nuclear,
medical imaging
is
field to distinguish
between various
types of soft tissue. Computerized axial tomography can provide 'slices' of patients anatomy and yield valuable
diagnosis, enabling physicians to visualize anatomic structures of live patients.
be made and the experimental model with which the earliest

Horley's Hospital
in
1970-71. Techniques developed with
this
trials
Figure 9.4 shows the
of patients were undertaken
at
first
to
Atkinson
machine established computed tomography (CT
scanning) as a key tool for studying the brain.
Telemedicine systems are used for transmitting data from one hospital
Spare parts of the
human anatomy
angioplasty, digital hearing aids, hip joints, pacemakers, and

artificial
limbs are
now
possible.
training; the fusion of virtual
to
another and for telesurgery.
are increasingly being used with implants, such as cardiac valves, balloon
Virtual reality
humans with
real
is
many
others.
Computerized
electrically driven
being increasingly used in three areas: virtual humans for
humans
in
performing surgery; the
decision environments for training of physicians, nurses and other professionals.
virtual
The
telemedicine shared
electronic artificial eye
54
Figure
9.2.
Figure
9.3.
portable electrocardiograph of 1947 (The Science
An
implantable pacemaker of 1962 (The Science
Consumer and
Museum/ Science
Museum/ Science
&
&
Security Electronics
Educational Electronics
Figure
9.4.
The
Museum/ Science
computerised tomography scanner (The Science
first
&
55
Society Picture
Library).
uses ocular implants for certain types of blindness, leading to all-silicon electrode arrays implanted directly into
the brain for the profoundly blind.
Computer analyses using expert systems
USA,
a software
Government records
together with computer link-up with

part played
by electronics
replacing parts of most of the
9.5
The
way
more medical applications and,
into
medical information and treatments can
detail recording of patients'
The
are finding their
package can include 2200 diseases and 5000 symptoms
is
human
in its
now be
knowledge
in the
Computerized
kept by medical practitioners,
for accurate record-keeping.
inceasing day by day and, eventually,
may
lead to
computer systems
brain.
Educational Electronics
electronic calculator
a course at that time
may be considered
to
be the introduction of electronics into education.
as an experiment,
computer
it
was
the introduction of
which revolutionized the teaching of electronics.
for every 17 pupils in primary schools
computers into schools,
In the United
and one for every 8
Kingdom today
acquired.
now
now
there
is
one
information Technology'
taught in schools; word-processing replaced typewriting, and data-handling skills were
Programmed
learning of foreign languages
taught. Experience
is
gained by assembling
is
kits
available.
'Electronic Technology' as a separate subject
of parts or modules to
transistor receiver, chips as operational amplifiers, logic gates, etc.
waves, magnetic resonance, electron spin resonance, gas

It is
it.
initially
in secondaries.
Basic programmes were taught and electronic games were not discouraged,
as a subject is
There was
on electronics of A-level standard, but very few teachers were capable of teaching
Television and videos found considerable use, but
is
base.
predicted that every secondary school will have
make up
More complex
kits
a complete oscilloscope,
can demonstrate standing
lasers, etc.
some form of
Internet connection in the near future,
allowing wider access to the information superhighway, whilst video-conferencing

allow link-ups with France, Germany, and other countries.
in
language lessons would
56
The
ability to
draw
pictures
on Graphic
TV
Electronics
enables students to learn directly without the necessity for
many
textbooks. Mathematics can be presented pictorially as algebraic equations or as large numerical calculations.
Computer programmes can be
written to cover
all
stages of learning, either as simulation and modelling
programmes, or more general application packages.

developed and many are available over the
Office
9.6
Synthetic software for educational purposes has been
Internet.
and Banking Electronics
Computers can now do
tasks such as cost accounting, ledger records
collection and storage on magnetic tape or
computers allowing multiple use,

are
now
used.
point the
all
The
returned with
is
way
typist starts
At the same time, a copy of the document

of the document
retrieval,
updating and
filing.
Data
visual
Telex systems with data printers, facsimile document transmission and time-sharing
displays or printout.
word processors
and
compact discs with data processing can present analyses or
is
to the electronic office. In the typing of letters or
by typing a draft document on to a
VDU
CD-ROM. When
also written on a floppy disc or
corrections, modifications, additions, etc, having been
all its
now
has only to type in the corrections or additions. The original copy on the disc,
automatically, at 175 words per minute, a perfect copy of the document.
documents,
(Vidual Display Unit).

the final version
made, the
typist
used
to type
The word processor makes
logical
corrected,
is
decisions such as automatically deleting, respacing and repositioning words and sentences, inserting hyphens,
determining line lengths and controlling format and tabulation.
The modern
now
can
office
provide normal and networked computers,
scanners and laser printers.
Spreadsheets are used for record keeping, etc, whilst graphics and desktop publishing are
in
an electronically assisted
facilities
now
available
office.
banknote counting and dispensing machines deal with both notes and cash, computers deal with
In banking,
cheque transactions, mortgages, loans, and dividend payments, credit-card systemization, security and customer
recognition safeguards,
all
data being sorted on magnetic tapes or
CD-ROMs.
Page-reading systems used flying
spot scanning of characters from a cathode-ray tube and a group of photocells picked up reflections and output
them
network
to a decision
to
make
out in different type and letter size.
and
reject those
cards
9.7
is
which are
visual
image systems, which can scan
print at high rates
and print
Electronic machines are available which can identify genuine banknotes
counterfeit. Electronic bill paying services are being
developed and the use of smart
increasing.
Consumer
Electronics
The microcomputer
is
being built into more and more customer products. They range from the very simplest
built as a single chip to
These are now
the white, black or grey decision (video processing).
replaced by modern computer systems using
more complex
dozen chips.
units with several
simple example of an application which uses a computer on a chip
programme
for this device
is
stored in an
RCM
which
is
programmed when
is
the electronic
the chip
is
door chime. The
made. Twelve different
tunes can be played, the tune depending an which door the chime was initiated from and on the tune selected.
Other applications are controllers for central-heating systems which may be programmed with different on/off
cycles,
home games and
More complex micros
teaching aids
are used in
good example
is
gaming machines found
the 'speak and spell' unit

in
and sound effects are generated as well as complex game
mundane devices
The change
high definition
as
which synthesizes speech!
arcades and pubs in which sophisticated graphics

strategies.
Micros now
find their
way
into such
washing machines, cookers and videotape recorders.
to digital
TV now
audio radio
(DAR)
in
1996
will affect
consumer radio and
television sets, whilst
being developed will mean more changes for consumers. Compact discs have replaced
most other forms of recording data and music and high density compact discs (DVDs) offer wider applications,
including movies.
For the
home
user,
camcorders are
now
widely used, including recently developed digital
camcorders such as the cybercam.
DVDs replacing CD-ROMs for games, many new improved games will be available,
Home automation, using modern communication techniques to close the curtains or
With the introduction of
some being
interactive.
switch the cooker on from afar will undoubtedly increase.
Security Electronics
9.8
and Surveillance
57
Security Electronics and Surveillance
Intruder alarms
now
use sound detectors, magnetic switches on doors, light beams, laser beams, pressure mats
and hoses, infra-red detection, microwave radar, surveillance scanners, security pass systems and
TV
coverage.
For surveillance, millimetre wave cameras can penetrate walls to see subjects from a distance. Digital video
cameras can pick out faces

hidden
in buildings,
Conversations
in a
even hidden
in a
crowd using computer-recorded information. Microphones

in steel girders or fed into the
room can be overheard from
water
to
lodge
(or
BUGS)
outside by bouncing a laser
beam
off a glass
picking up the sound waves. Surveillance satellites can watch over large areas of the world. There
which can be secret from prying eyes using electronics.
can be
in taps or drains.
window
is little
now
Chapter 10
by Subject
List of Inventions
1.
Assembly Techniques and Packaging
2.
Circuitry
3.
Communications
4.
Components
5.
Computers
6.
Industrial
7.
Microelectronics
and Medical
8.
Physics
9.
Radar
10.
Sound Reproduction
11.
Television
12.
Transistors and Semiconductors
13.
Tubes, Lamps, etc
Assembly Techniques
1.
1940
Thick film packaged
1943
Printed wiring
1945
Potted circuits
1947
Automatic
1949
Dip soldering of printed
&
Packaging
(Centralab)
circuits
(Eisler)
circuit
(Various)
making equipment
(Sargrove)
(Danco
circuits
&
Abramson)
Thermo compression bonding techniques
(Anderson
1951
'Tinkertoy' automatic assembly system
(Nat. Bur. Standards)
1953
Wire wrapping of connections
1953
Automatic assembly systems: Autofab, Mini-Mech,
1956
'Flowsoldering' of printed circuits
1958
Micro-module' assembly system
(US Army)
1960
Printed wiring multilayer boards
(Photocircuits)
1962
'Flat-Pack' integrated circuit
(Tao)
1964
DIP or DIL
(Rogers)
1964
Etch-back plated-through hole technique
(Autonetics)
1964
Beam
(Lepselter)
1966
'Flip-chip'
1971
Ceramic chip
1973
Dry etching technique
950
58
(dual in line package)
lead connections
bonding technique
carrier
et al
(Mallina et al
etc,
(General Mills et al
(Fry's Metal Foundries)
(Wiessenstern et al
(3
Co.)
(Mitsubishi)
List
2.
1826
1
843
of Inventions by Subject
Circuitry
Ohm's law
(Ohm)
Wheatstone bridge
(Wheatstone)
1848
Boolean algebra
(Boole)
1945
Kirchhoff s laws
(Kirchhoff)
1912
Regenerative circuit
(de Forest et al
1912
Heterodyne
1915
Filter
1918
Neutrodyne
1918
Shot effect noise
(Schottky)
1918
Multivibrator circuit
(Abraham
1918
Dynatron
circuit
(Hull)
1919
Retarded
field
1919
Flip-flop circuit
(Eccles, Jordan)
&
superheterodyne circuits
(Fessenden, Armstrong)
(Campbell, Wagner)
networks
circuit
(Hazeltine)
microwave
&
(Barkhausen
oscillator
Bloch)
&
Kurtz)
1919
Miller time base circuit
(Miller)
1921
Crystal control of frequency
(Cady)
1922
Negative resistance oscillator
(Gill,
1922
Super regeneration
(Armstrong)
1923
Squegger
(Appleton, Herd et al
1924
Linear saw-tooth time base circuit
(Anson)
1925
Johnson noise
(Johnson)
1926
Transitron oscillator
1926
Automatic volume control
circuit
Morrell)
(van der Pol)
(Wheeler)
circuit
1927
Negative feedback amplifier
1932
Energy conserving scanning
1933
Hard valve time base
1935
Constant
1936
Long
1939
Radio altimeter
(Bell Labs)
1942
Miller integrator circuit
(Blumlein)
1942
Phantastron circuit
(Williams
1942
Sanatron circuit
(Williams
1943
Magnetic amplifier
(A.S.E.A)
1947
High quality amplifier
1952
Darlington pair circuit
(Darlington)
1952
Digital voltmeter
(Kay)
1952
Negative feedback tone control circuit
(Baxandall)
1960
Neuristor circuit
(Crane)
1960s
Logic
(Various)
1960s
Linear circuits: microelectronics
(Various)
1967
Rotator circuit network
(Chua)
1968
Mutator
network
(Chua)
1969
Bucket-brigade delay circuit
1979
Satellite
1980
Fibre-optic laser driven superheterodyne
RC
(Black)
(Blumlein)
circuit
(Puckle)
circuit
(Blumlein)
stand-off circuit
tailed pair circuit
circuits:
circuit
(Blumlein)
Moody)
Moody)
(Williamson)
circuit
microelectronics
echo cancelling
&
&
(Sangster and Teer)

(Bell Labs)
circuit
3.
(Saito et al
Communications
1832
6-unit telegraph system
(Schilling and
1837
Telegraphy: Morse code
(Morse)
860
Microphone
(Reis)
865
Radio wave propagation
(Maxwell)
Cooke)
59
60
1866
1
876
879
List
Transatlantic telegraph cable
(T. C.
Telephone
(Bell)
&
M. Co.)
Diode detector
(Hughes)
Aerial
(Hertz)
Coherer
(Branley)
Waveguide: theory
(Thomson)
Wireless telegraphy
(Marconi)
1901
Radio: Heaviside/Kenelly layer
(Heaviside/Kenelly)
1906
Radio broadcasting
(Fessenden)
1906
Crystal detector
(Dunwoody)
1907
Crystal detector (Perikon)
(Pickard)
1912
Ionospheric propagation
(Eccles)
1915
Single sideband transmission
(Carson)
1916
Telex
(Markrum Co.)
1918
Alexanderson alternator
(Alexanderson)
1918
Ground wave propagation
(Watson)
1921
Short
1921
Crystal control of frequency
1925
Short
1925
Ionosphere layer
(Appleton)
1926
Yagi aerial
(Yagi)
1928
Diversity reception
(Beverage
1928
Frequency standards: quartz clock
(Horton, Morrison)
1929
Microwave communication
Meteor scatter (burst) systems
(Clavier)
1930s
1933
Radio astronomy
(Jansky)
1933
Frequency modulation
(Armstrong)
1934
Frequency standards: atomic clock
(Cleeton, Williams)
1887
1
890
1893
1
896
wave
radio (amateur)
wave
radio (commercial)
(Amateurs)
(Cady)
(van Boetzelean)
(Shanker
et al
et al
Waveguides
(Southworth
1937
Pulse code modulation
(Reeves)
1939
Frequency standards: caesium beam
(Rabi)
1945
Satellite
1948
Information theory
(Shannon)
1950s
MODEM
(MIT, Bell Labs)
1950s
Global positioning system
(Getting)
Transistor radio set
(Regency)
1956
Transatlantic telephone cable
(Various)
1956
Radio paging
(Multitone
1957
SPUTNIK
1958
EXPLORER
1958
VANGUARD
1958
PIONEER
1958
SCORE
1959
(USSR)
1959
LUNIK satellite
DISCOVERER satellite
1960
TIROS
(USA)
1960
ECHO
1960
COURIER satellite
TRANSIT satellite
VENUS satellite
936
954
1960
1961
communication theory
satellite
(USA)
satellite
I
satellite
(USA)
(USA)
(USSR)
1962
TELSTAR
(USSR)
satellite
(USA)
(USA)
satellite
1961
1961
(USA)
(USA)
satellite
VOSTOK satellite
MERCURY-ATLAS
OSCAR satellite
1961
(USA)
satellite
(Clarke)
(USSR)
satellite
satellite
el al
(USA)
(USA)
(USA)
List of Inventions
1962
MERCURY-ATLAS 6
OSO satellite
RELAY satellite
MARINER satellite
1962
MARS
satellite
(USSR)
1962
ARIEL
satellite
(UK)
1963
SYNCOM
1964
NIMBUS
1964
VOKSHOD
1964
Packet-switching
(Baron)
1965
PEGASUS
(USA)
1965
INTELSTAT
1965
1966
PROTON satellite
SURVEYOR satellite
1966
ESSA
1966
LUNAR ORBITER
1962
1962
1962
(USA)
satellite
(USA)
(USA)
(USA)
(USA)
satellite
(USA)
satellite
(USSR)
satellite
satellite
I
(International)
satellite
(USA)
(USA)
by Subject
(USA)
satellite
I
(USA)
satellite
1966
ATS
1966
Optical fibre communications
(Kao, Hockham)
1967
SOYUZ
(USSR)
1968
IRIS
1969
Internet
(Arpanet)
1969
Aerial matching unit
(Gordon)
1969
(UK)
1970
SKYNET A satellite
AZUR satellite
TUNG-FANG-HUNG
NATO satellite
1971
DSCS
1971
1973
SALYUT
LANDSAT
SKYLAB
1974
Information technology
(Various)
1974
WESTAR
(USA)
1974
1975
PRESTEL
VIKING
satellite
1975
RADUGA
1976
MARISAT
1976
Spread-spectrum techniques
(Dixon
1978
Integrated optoelectronics
(Yariv et al
1978
Tamed frequency modulation
(Philips)
1988
Fibre optic transatlantic cable
(DGT, BT, AT&T)
1995
Lasercom
1995
Inter-satelite
1969
1970
1972
(USA)
satellite
satellite
(ESRO
(USA)
I) satellite
(Germany)
(China)
satellite
(NATO)
(USA)
satellite
(USSR)
satellite
(USA)
satellite
(USA)
satellite
satellite
system
(Fedida)
(USA)
satellite
(USSR)
satellite
(USA)
et al
(Thermotrex, Motorola)
(US Air Force)
communications
4.
Components
1800
Volta's pile
(Volta)
1803
Accumulator
(Ritter)
1839
Magnetohydrodynamic generation
(Faraday)
1839
Fuel cell
(Grove)
1860
Lead-acid
1868
Dry
1870
Clark standard
(Plante)
cell
cell
(Leclanche)
cell
(Clark)
61
62
List
1884
Zinc mercuric-oxide
1891
Weston standard
1900
Nickel-iron cell
1900
Nickel-cadmium
1954
Solar battery
cell
cell
(Clark)
(Weston)
(Edison)
cell
(Junger and Berg)
(Chapin, Fuller et al
CAPACITORS
1745
Leyden
1874
Mica capacitors
(Bauer
1876
Rolled paper capacitors
(Fitzgerald)
1900
Ceramic capacitors
(Lombardi)
1904
Glass tubular capacitors
(Moscicki)
1956
Solid electrolyte capacitor
(McClean and Power)
1956
Semiconductor diode junction capacitor
(Giacoletto et al
(von KJeist
jar
et al
et al
FILTERS
1915
electromagnetic
Filters,
(Campbell and Wagner)
GALVANOMETERS
1820
Electromagnetism (galvanometer)
(Oersted)
1828
Moving
(Schweigger)
1828
Astatic
coil
(Nobilli)
GONIOMETERS
1907
(Artom)
Goniometer
INDUCTORS
1772
Iron dust cores
(Knight)
1909
Ferrites
(Hilpert,
1956
Magnetic material (YIG)
(Bertaut and Forrat)
1977
Anisotropic permanent magnet
(Matsuschita Elec.)
Snoek)
MOTORS
1837
(Davenport)
motor
Electric
1888
Induction motor
(Tesla)
1902
Synchronous induction motor
(Danielson)
RECTIFIERS
1926
Copper oxide
(Grondahl and Sieger)
RELAYS
1837
1950s
Telegraph
bell
and signal
(Cooke, Davy
et al
(Bell Labs)
Ferreeds
RHEOTOME
1868
Waveform
(Lenz)
plotter
RESISTORS
1850
Thermistor
(Faraday)
1885
Moulded carbon composition
(Bradley)
1897
Carbon
(Gambrell
1913
Sputtered metal film
(Swann)
1919
Spiralled metal film
(Kruger)
1925
Cracked carbon
(Siemens and Halske)
1926
Sprayed metal film
(Loewe)
1931
Oxide
(Littleton)
1957
Nickel-chromium
film
film
film
tAlderton
et al
et al
1958
Field effect varistor
(Bell Labs)
1959
Tantalum film
(Bell Labs)
SWITCHES
1884
Quick break
(Holmes)
1887
Quick make and break
(Holmes)
1950s
Ferreed switch
(Bell Labs)
List
63
TRANSFORMERS
1831
Transformer
(Faraday)
1885
Distribution
(Deri)
1885
Power
(Zipernowski
et al
WAVEGUIDES
1893
Theory
(Thomson)
1936
Waveguides
(Southworth
et al
et al
WIRES AND CABLES

1729
Wire conductor
(Gray)
1812
Cable insulation
(Sommering
1845
Metallic sheathing
(Wheatstone)
1847
Submarine cable insulation
(Siemens)
1905
Insulated sodium conductor
(Betts)
1933
Polythylene insulation
(ICI)
1949
Microwire
(Ulitovsky)
1965
Wiegand wire
(Wiegand)
1965
Smooth-surfaced wire drawing
(Olsen
5.
et al
Computers
1642
Calculating machine
(Pascal)
1672
Calculating machine
(Leibniz)
1833
Calculating machine
(Babbage)
1848
Boolean algebra
(Boole)
1854
Calculating machine
(Scheutz)
1889
Tabulating machine
(Hollerith)
1931
Differential analyser
(Bush)
1938
Information theory
(Shannon)
1939
Bell Labs
1939
Digital
1942
'Velodyne' analyser
(Williams
1943
COLOSSUS
(Newman, Turing
1943
ENIAC
(Moore School)
1945
Whirlwind
Computer theory
(MIT)
(Williams)
1948
CRT storage
ACE
EDVAC
UNIVAC
SEAC
EDSAC
1950
Computer graphics
(Burnett)
1950
(IBM)
1950s
IBM 650
IBM 701
Hamming code
APL language
1951
Microprogramming
(Wilkes)
1952
SAGE
(IBM, MIT)
1953
IBM
(IBM)
1956
Transistorised computer
(Bell Labs)
1957
Plated wire memories
(Gianole)
1960
Honeywell 800
(Honeywell)
1960
UNIVAC
(IBM)
1945
1946
1946
1947
1947
1948
1950
1950
complex computer
computer
computer
704, 709 and 7090
solid state 80/90
(Stibitz et al
(Aitken)
&
Uttley)
et al
(von Neuman)
(Turing)
(Penn. University)
(Eckert,
Maunchly)
(NBS)
(Wilkes)
(IBM)
(Hamming)
(Iverson)
64
List
1960
CD
1961
Minicomputer
(Englebert)
1965
The mouse
(Digital Equip. Co.)
1969
Semiconductor memories system
(Agusta
1969
Magnetic bubble memories
(Bobeck
1970
Charge coupled device memories
(Boyle, Smith)
1970
Floppy-disc recorder
(IBM)
1970
UNIX
(Bell, Univ. Cal.)
1971
Microprocessor
(Hoff)
(Control Data Corp.)
1604
random access memory
et al
et al
1972
1024
1973
Logic-state analyser
(House)
1973
Logic-timing analyser
(Moore)
1974
16 bit single chip microprocessor
(National)
1975
4096
1975
16 384
1976
One board computer
1976
Polysilicon resistor loaded
1977
CCD
1978
Integrated optoelectronics
(Yariv et al
1978
One megabit bubble memory
(Intel
1980
256
K dynamic RAM
MS-DOS
(NEC, Toshiba
1981
1984
Digital optical disc
(ATG)
1985
Hard disc card
(PLUS Dev.
1985
Digital video recorder
(SONY)
1985
CD-ROM
(Philips)
1985
Windows
(MICROSOFT)
1985
Tactile screen
(Zenith)
1991
Photonic crystals
1995
Biological
1996
Superfast switch
bit
(Intel)
RAM
bit RAM
(Fairchild)
bit
(Intel)
with programmable 1/0
(Intel)
RAM
(Mostek)
(GE
analog-to-digital converter
memory
Corporation)
&
Texas)
et al
(Eli
Corp.)
Yabionovitch)
(Mitsubishi Electric and Santory)
chip
(Argonne N. Lab)
Industrial
6.
and Medical
1839
Microfilming
(Dancer)
1843
Facsimile reproduction
(Bain)
Electrocardiograph
(A
1908
Geiger counter
(Geiger, Rutherford)
1912
Tungar
1913
Reliability standards
887
Waller)
(Langmuir)
rectifier
(ASDIC,
(AIEE)
SONAR)
(Langevin)
1914
Ultrasonics
1914
Thyratrons
1916
Reliability, control
1918
Induction heating
(Northrup)
1920
Ultra-micrometer
(Whiddington)
1926
Copper oxide
(Grondahl
1926
Electron microscope
(H Bosch)
1931
CRO
(Rijant)
1931
Reliability
1933
Ignitron
(Westinghouse)
1937
Xerography
(Carlson)
940
Cybernetics
1943
(Langmuir)
system
rectifier
cardiograph
Reliability
(Gates)
quality control charts
(Bell/Western Elec.)
Geiger)
(Shewhart)
(R Weiner)
sequential analysis
&
(Wald)
List
(ASIA)
1943
Magnetic amplifier
1944
Reliability
1950s
Ultrasound imaging
(Donald
1951
Quality control handbook
(Juran)
1958
Pacemaker
Computer aided design
(A Senning)
1960
1961
Electronic clock
(Vogel et Cie)
1962
Electronic watch
1962
Duane
1963
Ink jet process
(Sweet)
1963
Electronic calculator
(Bell
1964
Telemedicine
(Various)
1964
Word
processor
(IBM)
1965
Electronic typewriter
(IBM)
1967
Ion
1971
Electronic digital watch
(Time Computer Corp)
1972
Video games
(Magnavox)
Bar codes
(Dawson)
974
sampling inspection
reliability
beam
1975
LASER
1977
MRI
65
tables
&
(Doge
(USA
Romig)
et al
Military)
(Vogel et Cie)
growth theory
(Duane)
Punch Co.)
&
(Chopra
coating
Randlett)
(IBM)
printer
magnetic resonance imaging
(G Houndsfield)
(Hosiden Elec)
1978
All electronic clock face
1979
Seven-colour ink-jet printer
(Siemens)
1982
Bubble-jet printing
(CANON)
1986
Scanning tunnelling microscope
(IBM)
1991
Plastic electronics
(Philips)
1995
Glass laser
(Song-Tiong Hoctal, Northwestern

Univ.)
7.
(See also
12. Transistors
Microelectronics
and Semiconductor Devices)
1852
Thin film sputtering process
(Grove)
1913
Sputtered metal film resistors
(Swan)
1940
Thick film
(Centralab)
1949/50
Ion implantation
1952
Semiconductor integrated
1952
Zone melting technique
(Pfann)
1957
Nickel chromium thin film resistors
(Alderton, Ashworth)
1959
Semiconductor integrated
(Kilby)
1959
Tantalum
1959
Planar process
(Hoeni)
1960
Epitaxy: vapour phase
(Loor
1960
Digital and linear integrated circuits
(Various)
1961
Epitaxy: liquid phase
(Nelson)
1961
Minicomputer
(Digital Equip. Co.)
1962
MOS
(Hofstein
1963
Surface acoustic wave devices
(Rowen
1967
Laser trimming of thick film resistors
(Various)
1967
Ion
1968
C-MOS
1968
Aluminium
1969
Collector diffusion isolation
circuits
(Ohl
circuit
concept
circuit patent
thin film circuits
integrated circuit
beam
coating
integrated circuit
metallisation of ICs
&
Shockley)
(Dummer)
(Bell Labs)
et al
&
&
Helman)
Sittig)
(Chopra and Randlett)

(Various)
(Noyce)
(Bell Labs, Ferranti)
66
List
1970
X-ray lithography
(Feder et al
1971
FAMOS
integrated circuit
(Frohman-Bentchowsky)
1971
Bumped
tape automatic banding
(Lin and Fraenkel)
1971
Liquid crystal study of oxide defects
(Keen)
1972
Microcomputer
(Intel)
1972
1024
1972
Nitrogen-fired copper wiring
1972
Two-layer
1972
V-MOS
1972
Integrated injection logic
(Hart
1973
Dry etching technique
(Mitsubishi)
1974
16 bit single chip microprocessor
(National)
1974
Electron
1975
Thin film
1975
LOCMOS
bit
(Intel)
(Grier)
(Bell Labs)
technique
resist
(Rodgers)
technique
beam
&
Slob)
(Bell Labs)
lithography
direct
bonded copper process
(Burgess
et al
(Philips)
integrated circuit
(Reinhart, Logan)
1975
Integrated optical circuits
1975
4096
1975
Silicon anodisation
(Cook)
1976
Microelectronic versatile arrays
(Philips)
1976
One board
with programmable 1/0 computer
(Intel)
1976
16 384 bit
(Intel)
1977
1977
H-MOS
TRIMOS
1977
CCD
1978
Laser annealed polysilicon
(Texas Instruments)
1978
Integrated Schottsky logic
(Philips)
1981
Hydrogenated amorphous
1995
Atomic beam lithography
(Harvard, NI of Standards)
(NEC
bit
(Fairchild)
(Intel)
(Stanford University)
device
(G E Corporation)
analog/digital converter
1996
Atomic holography
1996
Electron
1996
Surface
1996
Direct laser writing
beam
flat
(Grasso
silicon films
projection System
et al
Japan)
(Bell Labs)
(IBM)
chips
(Mikroelektronik Centre)
8.
Physics
1780
Galvanic action
(Galvani)
1800
Infra-red radiation
(Herschel)
1807
Ultra-violet radiation
(Ritter)
1808
Atomic theory
(Dalton)
1820
Electro-magnetism
(Oersted)
1821
Thermloelectricity
(Seebeck)
1826
Ohm's law
(Ohm)
1828
Fourier analysis
(Fourier)
1831
Electromagnetic induction
(Faraday)
1832
Self-induction
(Henry)
1834
Electrolysis
(Faraday)
1839
Photovoltaic effect
(Becquerel)
1840
Thermography
(Herschel)
1847
Magnetostriction
(Joule)
1851
Relation between theory of magnetism and electricity
(Kelvin)
1858
Glow
(Plucker)
1878
Cathode rays
(Crookes)
1879
Hall effect
(Hall)
discharges
List
Piezo electricity
(Curies)
1882
Wimshurst machine
(Wimshurst)
1895
X-rays
(Rontgen)
1897
Electron
(Thomson)
1897
Cathode ray oscillograph
(Braun)
1900
Quantum
(Planck)
1902
Spontaneous atomic change
(Rutherford
1905
Theory of relativity
(Einstein)
1911
Superconductivity
(Onnes)
1911
Atomic theory
(Rutherford)
1912
Cloud chamber
(Wilson)
1915
Atomic
(Bohr)
1918
Atomic transmutation
(Rutherford)
1921
Ferroelectricity
(Vasalek)
1929
Cyclotron
(Laurence)
1930
High
880
theory
orbit theory
field
superconductivity
&
&
(de Haas
Soddy)
Voogd)
van de Graaf accelerator
(van de Graaf)
1932
Neutron
(Chadwick)
1932
Transmission electron microscope
(Knoll, Ruska)
1932
Cockroft-Walton accelerator
(Cockroft
1934
Liquid crystals
(Dreyer)
1934
Trans-uranian atoms
(Fermi)
1934
Scanning election microscope
(Knott et al
1935
Superconducting switching
(Casimir-Jonker
1937
Xerography
(Carlson)
930
1938
Nuclear fission
(Fritsch
1941
Betatron
(Kerst)
&
&
Walton)
et al
1947
Molecular beam epitaxy
(Sosnowski
Holography
(Gabor)
1953
MASER
1955
Infra-red emission
1955
Cryotron
1956
YIG magnetic
1958
LASER
1958
Mossbauer
1959
Intrinsic 10/1
1960
Sub-millimetre photoconductive detector
(Putley)
1961
Transferred electron effect
(Ridley, Watkins)
1961
Transferred electron device
(Hilsum)
1962
Semiconductor laser
(Hall et al
1962
Josephson effect
(Josephson)
1962
LED
(Holonyak)
1963
Ion plating
1963
Gunn diode
1963
Surface acoustic wave devices
(Rowen
1964
'IMPATT' diode
(Johnston
1970
X-ray lithography
(Feder
1972
X-ray scanner
(EMI)
1972
Automatic crystal growth control
(Bardsley
1972
Deep
(Dymeut
et al
&
(Townes
Meitner)
1948
from GaSb
67
Weber)
(Braunstein)
(Buck)
materials
(Bertaut, Forrat)
(Schalow, Townes)
effect
photoconductor
(Gallium arsenide phosphide)
(Mossbauer)
(Lawson
et al
also Nathan
&
Lasher)
(Mattox)
oscillator
proton-isolated laser
(Gunn)
&
et al
et al
Scanning acoustic microscope
(Quate)
1975
GYROTRON
(Gapanov)
1977
FLAD
(Inst.
1978
Light bubbles
(IBM)
de Loach)
)
et al
1973
display system
Sittig)
&
Appl. Solid State Phys.)
68
List
1978
OMIST
1979
Laser enhanced plating and etching
1979
Amorphous
1981
Plane-polarised light optical fibre
(Hitachi)
1982
Fission track autoradiography
(AERE)
thyratron
silicon
(Nassibian et al
(RSRE & Dundee
LCD
9.
1924
Radar systems
1937
Radar aiming
(IBM)
Univ.)
Radar
(Appleton, Briet et al
anti-aircraft
guns
(Pollard)
1938
'Gee' navigation
(Dippy)
1938
Klystron
(Hahn
1939
Magnetron
(Randall
&
1940
Plan position indicator
(Bowen,
Dummer
Skiatron
(Rosenthal)
1940
'Oboe' navigation system
(Reeves
1941
Radio proximity fuse
(Butement)
1941
'H 2 S' navigation system
(Dee, Lovell et al
1942
'Velodyne' analyser
(Williams
1942
LOR AN
(MIT)
1942
Phantastron circuit
(Williams and
Moody)
1942
Sanatron time base circuit
(Williams and
Moody)
1940
&
Varian Bros)
Boot)
et al
&
et al
Uttley)
1942
Miller integrator circuit
(Blumlein)
1943
Ultrasonic radar navigation training device
(Dummer and
1945
DECCA
(O'Brien and Schwartz)
1947
Chirp technique
(Bell Labs)
1971
Hologram matrix radar
(Iizuka,
navigation system
10.
Nguyen
Speech synthesis
(Kratzenstein)
1817
The optophone
(d'Albe)
1860
Microphone, diaphragm type
(Reis)
876
Telephone
(Bell)
877
Phonograph
(Edison)
1877
Microphone, carbon
(Edison)
1877
Loudspeakers, moving coil
(Siemens)
1878
Carbon granule microphone
(Hunnings)
1887
Gramophone
(Berliner)
889
Strowger auto telephone exchange
(Strowger)
896
Telephone
(Keith et al
dial
et al
Sound Reproduction
1779
Smart)
1898
Magnetic recording (wire)
(Poulsen)
1908
Electronic organ
(Cahill)
1912
Relay auto telephone exchange
(Betulander)
1914
ASDIC
(Langevin)
1915
Acoustic mine
(Wood)
1915
SONAR
(Hunt)
1916
Crossbar telephone exchange
(Roberts and Reynolds)
1917
Microphone, condenser
(Wente)
1919
Crystal microphone
(Nicholson)
1920
Plastic
magnetic tape
(Pfleumer)
List
1924
Reisz carbon microphone
(Neumann)
1925
Loudspeaker, electrostatic
(Various)
1926
Films, sound-on-disc system
(Warner Bros.)
1927
Films, sound-on-film system
(Fox Movietone News)
1930s
Radiophonic sound and music
(Grainger)
1931
Stereophonic sound reproduction
(Blumlein, Bell Labs)
1933
Stereo record
(EMI)
1936
Vocoder
(Bell Labs)
1937
Pulse code modulation
(Reeves)
1948
Films: magnetic recording
(RCA
1950s
MODEM
(MIT, Bell Labs)
1950
Floppy discs (patent)
(Nakamata)
1957
Full frequency range loudspeaker
(Walker)
1958
Video tape recorder
(Ampex)
1960
Telephore electronic switching
(Bell Labs)
1961
Tape cassette
(Philips)
1964
Packet switching
(Canon)
1965
Synthesizer
(Moog
1967
Audio noise reduction system
(Dolby)
1969
PARCOR
(NTT, Japan)
1972
Video discs
(Philips)
1973
Scanning acoustic microscope
(Quate)
1974
PRESTEL
(Fedida)
1978
Lightwave powered telephone
Bell Labs)
1978
Laser recording system
(Philips)
1979
satellite
1979
Compact
1982
Camcorder
1987
DAB
1991
Very high density diskette
(Insight, P)
1995
DVD
(International)
speech synthesis
system
et al
(Bell Labs)
echo-cancelling circuit
(Philips)
disc
digital
et al
(Sony)
(Eureka 147)
audio broadcasting
(digital versatile disc)
11. Television
1884
Nipkow
1897
Cathode ray oscillograph
(Braun)
1908
Electronic system: theory
(Campbell-Swinton)
1919
Electronic system
(Zworykin)
1923
Iconoscope
(Zworykin)
1925
Mechanical system
(Baird)
1927
Cable
1929
Colour television
(Bell Labs)
1932
Scanning
(Blumlein)
1933
(Puckle)
1936
Time base circuit

Long tailed pair circuit
1938
Shadow-mask
(Flechsig)
1950
TV tube
Large screen TV projector
VIDICON TV camera tube
(RCA)
(MIT)
1939
television system
TV
(Nipkow)
(Bell Tel. Co.)
circuit
(Blumlein)
(Fischer)
1951
Image animation
1957
PLUMBICON TV
1958
Colour video recorder
(Ampex)
1965
Virtual reality
(USA
1965
Integrated photodiode arrays
(Weckler)
camera tube
(Philips)
Military)
69
70
List
1968
TRINITRON
1968
High
(Sony)
colour tube
TV
definition
(Nippon)
Video cassette recorders
(Japan, Europe)
1974
PRESTEL
(Fedida)
1975
VHS
970
system
(JVC)
recorder
(Sony)
1975
Betamax video recorder
1977
Pocket
1979
CCD
1980
Large screen colour display
(Mitsubishi)
1987
Compact
(JVC)
987
1988
1
995
TV
(Sinclair)
receiver
colour
TV
(Sony)
camera
disc video
Programme control of video recorders
(Matsushita)
Video Walkman
(Sony)
VHS
(Hitachi,
bit
stream recorder
12. Transistors
(See also
7.
Thomson)
and Semiconductor Devices
Microelectronics)
1917
Crystal pulling process
(Czochralski)
1930
MOS/FET
(Lilienfeld)
1935
Field effect transistor
1948
Single crystal fabrication:
1948
Transistor
(Bardeen et al
1949/50
Ion implantation
(Ohl and Shockley)
1950
PIN diode
(Niskizawa)
1950s
Thermo-compression bonding
(Anderson
1952
Zone melting technique
(Pfann)
concept
(Heil)
germanium
(Teal and Little)

)
et al
1952
Single crystal fabrication: silicon
(Teal, Bueler)
1952
Alloyed transistor
(RCA)
1953
Surface barrier transistor
(Philco)
1953
Floating zone refining process
(Keck, Emeis et al
1953
Unijunction transistor
(GEC)
1954
Transistor radio set
(Regency)
1954
Silicon solar battery
(Chapin, Fuller et al
1954
Interdigitated transistor
(Fletcher)
1955
Infra-red emission
1956
Diffusion process
(Fuller, Reis)
Semiconductor diode junction capacitor
(Giacoletto and O'Connell)
956
from GaSb
(Braunstein)
1957
Oxide masking process
(Frosch)
1958
Pedestal pulling of silicon
(Dash)
1958
Tunnel diode
1958
Technetron'
1958
Field effect varistor
959
(Esaki)
FET
(Teszner)
(Bell Labs)
Planar process
(Hoerni)
(LED)
&
1960
Light emitting diode
1960
Epitaxy (vapour phase)
1961
Epitaxy (liquid phase)
(Nelson)
1962
LED
1963
Gunn diode
(gallium arsenide phosphide)

oscillator
(Allen
Loor
Gibbons)
et al
(Holonyak)
(Gunn)
1963
Silicon-on-sapphire technology
(Various)
1964
IMPATT
(Johnston, de Loach)
1964
Transistor modelling
(Gummel)
1964
Overlay transistor
(RCA)
diode
List
1965
Self-scanned photodiode arrays
1966
Nitride-over-oxide semiconductors
(Horn)
1967
TRAPATT
(Prager,
1968
Amorphous semiconductor switches
(Ovshinsky)
1968
BARRITT
(Wright)
1969
Magnetic bubbles
(Bobeck, Fischer
1969
Magistor magnetic sensor
(Hudson, IBM)
(Weckler)
diode
diode
Chang
1970
Charge coupled devices
(Boyle, Smith)
1970
X-ray lithography for bubble devices
(Feder et al
1971
Carrier-domain magnetometer
(Gilbert)
1972
Auto control of
1974
CATT
1976
Amorphous
1977
FLAD
crystal
growth
Cady
et al
(RCA)
silicon solar cell
display system
Appl. Solid State Phys.)
(Inst.
1979
FLOTOX
(Intel)
1980
Magnetic avalanche
transistor
(IBM)
1980
MCZ
growth
(Sony)
1981
Hydroplaning polishing of semaiconductors
(MIT)
1982
Amorphous photosensors
(Sony)
1982
Recrystallisation silicon process
(Texas Instruments)
process
silicon crystal
13. Hibes,
Lamps,
etc
1855
Cold cathode discharge tube
(Gaugain)
1856
Low
(Geissler)
1857
Mercury
1878
Carbon filament lamp
(Swan, Stearn
1901
Fluorescent lamp
(Cooper-Hewitt)
1904
Two
1906
Three electrode tube
(de Forest)
pressure discharge tube

arc
et al
(Quantronix)
978
(Bardsley et al
(Tu,
triode
et al
Laser cold processing semiconductors
71
lamp
(Wray)
et al
(Fleming)
electrode tube
1910
Neon lamp
(Claude)
1912
Tungar
(Langmuir)
1914
Thyratron
1919
Retarded
1919
Housekeeper
1922
Negative resistance oscillater
(Gill,
1926
Screened grid tube
(Round)
1928
Pentode tube
(Tellegen; Hoist)
1931
CRO
(Rijant)
1933
Ignitron
1935
Travelling
rectifier
(Langmuir)
fieid
microwave
oscillator
(Barkhausen, Kurtz)
(Housekeeper)
seal
cardiograph
Morrell)
(Westinghouse)
wave microwave
oscillator
(Heil)
1935
Multiplier phototube
(Zworykin
1936
Cold cathode
(Bell Labs)
1937
Polar co-ordinate oscillograph
(von Ardenne et al
1938
(Flechsig)
1939
Shadow-mask tube
Double-beam oscillograph
1939
Klystron
(Hahn and Varian Bros)
1939
Magnetron
1940
Skiatron
1943
Travelling
1941
Cold cathode stepping tube
(Remington Rand)
1950
VIDICON TV camera
(USA)
trigger tube
et al
(Fleming-Williams)
(Randall and Boot)
CRO
(Rosenthal)
wave tube
(Kompfner
tube
et al
72
List
1956
Vapour cooling of tubes
1957
1960
PLUMBICON TV camera tube

FEMITRON microwave amplifier
1968
TRINITRON
1975
Static induction thyristor
colour tube
(Beutheret)
(Philips)
(Dyke)
(Sony)
(Nishizawa)
Chapter
Concise Description of Each Invention in Date
Order
642
COMPUTER
(Mechanical Calculating Machines)
EDITOR'S NOTE: Although
non-electronic this item
Pascal (France)
included as an essential part of computer
is
history.
The invention of
the
first
been generally credited
on the basis of
mechanical device capable of addition and subtraction
to Pascal,
letters sent to
who
Kepler
built his first
machine
The
preserved in museums.
still
number wheels by
pin gearing.
two wheels on the extreme
the
sums read through windows
number wheels were geared
in their
covers.
which were coupled
for
to the
decimal reckoning but the
had twenty and twelve divisions, respectively for sous and deniers.
right
The
carry ratchet coupled each wheel to the next higher place.
now
which
His machines had number wheels with parallel, horizontal
horizontal telephone-dial like wheels
Most of
in
who at the age of 19 had wearied of

Rouen, made a number of calculators, some
positions of these wheels could be observed and
Numbers were entered by means of
manner has
Pascal,
adding long columns of figures in his father's tax office in
axes.
in a digital
This claim has been contested
1623 and 1624 by Wilhelm Schickhardt of Tubingen,
in
the latter describes the construction of a calculator.
of which are
in 1642.
stylus-operated pocket adding machines
widely used are descendants of Pascal's machine.
SOURCE: 'The evolution of computing

IREp 1041 (May 1962)
machines and systems' by
Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson
and Pyre
Proc.
SEE ALSO:
10,
'The inventor of the
first
desk calculator' by
V P
Czapla Computers and Automation vol
p 6 (September 1961)
The Computer from Pascal
to
von
Neuman by H H
Goldstine (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press)
p 7 (1972)
The Origins of Digital Computers edited by B Randell
1672
COMPUTERS
(Berlin: Springer) (1973)
(Mechanical Calculating Machines)
W Leibniz (Germany)
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz invented the 'Leibniz Wheel' which enabled
machine which surpassed Pascal's
in that
it
him
to build a calculating
could do not only addition and subtraction fully automatically
but also multiplication and division.
SOURCE: The Computer from
Pascal to von
Neuman by H H
Goldstine (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press) p 7 (1972)
SEE ALSO: The
Origins of Digital Computers edited by
Randell (Berlin: Springer) (1973)
73
A Concise
74
1729
WIRE CONDUCTOR
It
He found
was well known

Gray found
paper.
He used
that electricity
that
that
a metal ball
some
some
would flow along
when rubbed,
materials would,
such as pieces of
attract light objects
materials held the attractive charge and
some
did not.
suspended from a charged rod by means of a thin wire. This 'conducts' the charge
identified conductors (metallic substances)
SOURCE:
wires.
which thus picks up the pieces of paper.
to the ball,
Gray
S Gray (UK)
Stephen Gray (1696-1736) discovered the difference between electrical insulators and
1729,
In
conductors.
1745
Description of Each Invention in Date Order
and insulators (non-metallic substances).
British Library
CAPACITOR (LEYDEN JAR)
von Mushenbrock and Cunaeus
(Germany) and von
Kleist
(Pomerania)
was discovered almost simultaneously by Dean von
Kleist
of the Cathedral of Camin, Germany, in October 1745 and Peter von Muschenbrock, Professor
in the
According
to the literature, the
Leyden
Jar
University of Leyden, in January 1746, over 200 years ago.

or vial with inner and outer electrodes of various things
As described by them,
it
was
water, mercury, metal foil etc.
a glass
jar
The modern
miniature glass dielectric capacitor differs in form and structure from the 200-year-old Leyden Jar, but
the principle of operation
SOURCE:
IRE
is
the same.
and future developments of electronic components' by P S Darnell
'History, present status
Trans, on
Component Parts p 127/8 (September 1958)
SEE ALSO: Janus C Dorsman
and
C A Crommelin,
'Observations on the manner in which glass

R. Soc.
vol 77, p
is
vol 46, p
274 (1957)
charged with electric
fluid'
by E
Gray
Phil.
Trans.
407 (1788)
'Residual charge of the Leyden jar-dielectric properties of various glasses' by
Phil.
Mag.
moulded and
fired.
Hopkinson
Part 5, vol 4, p 141 (1877)
1772
IRON DUST CORES
Iron dust cores consisted of iron filings churned in water,
They were used
in a
Navy compass.
Knight (UK)
bound with linseed
oil,
Apparently, Knight was a secretive person and details of his
process were not actually published before 1779.
SOURCE:
Note from British Science Museum.
SEE ALSO:
B Wilson
1
779
'The early history of the permanent magnet' by Andrade Endeavour p 27 (January 1958)
Phil.
Trans, vol 69, p 51 (1779) (giving details of the process).
SPEECH SYNTHESIS
One of
the earliest
Kratzenstein (Russia)
documented attempts
at
speech synthesis was made
in
called Kratzenstein constructed a set of five acoustic resonantors which,

reed,
a
1779 when a Russian
when
scientist
activated by a vibrating
produced imitations of the vowels. In 1791 Wolfgang Von Kemplen, a Hungarian, constructed
more elaborate machine which could be made
a large bellows
tube (resonator).
much more
which supplied
stream of
to
air to a
speak whole words and phrases.
It
consisted of
reed which, in turn, excited a hand-held rubber
Extra tubes and whistles were added to imitate the nasal and fricative sounds.
recent mechanical speech synthesiser
the speech articulators
was constructed by Reisz
was simulated by pressing keys
to vary the
in
1937.
The motion of
shape of mechanical vocal
tract.
It
could produce connected speech when operated by a skilled person.
SOURCE:
Signal Processing of Speech by F
Owens
(Basingstoke: MacMillan
New
Electronics) p 88
(1993)
NOTE: A comprehensive
history of speech synthesis
may be found
in the
book by Linggard (1985).
A Concise
1780
GALVANIC ACTION
Galvani
75
(Italy)
Luigi Galvani began his studies on the subject of animal electricity in
When
1780.
performing
experiments on nervous excitability in frogs, he saw that violent muscle contractions could be observed
if
lumbar nerves of the frog were touched with metal instruments
the
presence of distant electrical
in the
discharges.
The word
'electricity'
von Humboldt
was reserved
word 'Galvanism' was proposed by
for static electricity and the
for direct (continuous) current.
SOURCE: 'From
torpedo to telemetry' by
& Power
Hill Electronics
pp
10-1
(27
November
1975)
1800
DRY BATTERY
Volta (1800),
Zamboni
Volta' s invention of the electric battery
was announced
of the Royal Society and described his 'Volta's
by a moistened cloth
These were
electrolyte.
manganese dioxide on
Pile'
later
in a letter to Sir
De Luc
(1809)
and
(1812) (Italy)
Joseph Banks, the President
consisting of copper and zinc discs separated
improved
the other, stacked to produce 0.75
to consist
between
of paper discs tinned one side.

in
diameter discs.
Note by Science Museum, London:

Scyffer described experiments with dry cells carried out by Ludicke (1801) Einhof, Ritter (1802)
Hachette and Desornes, Biot and
to
his
many
have been achieved by De Luc

paper was entitled:
analisi
1800
de
in 1809.
the best performance before
Zamboni (1812) himself ascribed
priority to
Zamboni
De Luc
since
'Descrizione della colonna elettrica del Signore de Luc e considerazione
Fatta della pile Voltiana'.
lui
and ascribes the
others. Scyffer regarded these as experimental
Marechaux but considered
effective pile to Behrens and to
first
Work on
early dry batteries was, therefore,
sull
done from about
to 1812.
SOURCE:
'On the
Phil. Trans,
electricity excited
vol 90, p
SEE ALSO: A
by the mere contact of conducting substances of different kinds'
403 (1800)
Biographical Dictionary of Scientists by
Williams p 535 (London:
Adam
and Charles
Black) (1969) (Volta)

Scyffer Geschichtliche Dartellung der Galvanisms pp 135-48 (1848)
1800
W Herschel (UK)
INFRA-RED RADIATION
William Herschel, during research into the heating effects of the visible spectrum, discovered
In 1800,
that the
maximum
concluded
heating was not within the visible spectrum but just beyond the red range. Herschel
sun emits certain invisible ones. These he called infra-red
that in addition to visible rays the
rays.
SOURCE:
Electronics Engineer's Reference
Book (London:
Newnes-Butterworth) chapter
4,
p 4-2
(1976)
1801
ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION
In 1801 the
German
physicist Ritter
with silver chloride and placed

a prism. After a while he
most
just
beyond
SOURCE:
it
made
a further discovery.
on top of
a visible
examined the paper
He
took a sheet of paper freshly coated
spectrum produced from sunlight falling through
in bright light.
the violet range of the spectrum.
W Ritter (Germany)
These
It
was blackened, and
it
was blackened
invisible rays Ritter called ultra-violet rays.
Book (London:
Newnes-Butterworth) chapter
4,
p 4-2
(1976)
1803
ACCUMULATOR
Ritter's charging or
W Ritter (Germany)
secondary pile consists of but one metal, the discs of which are separated by circular
pieces of cloth, flannel or cardboard, moistened in a liquid which cannot chemically affect the metal.
A Concise Description of Each
76
When
the extremities are put in
Invention in Date Order
communication with the poles of an ordinary
and can be substituted for the
electrified
SOURCE:
and
latter
it
voltaic pile
becomes
it
will retain the charge.
&
Biographical History of Electricity and Magnetism by Mottelay (London: Charles Griffin
Co) p 381 (1922)
1808
ATOMIC THEORY
Dalton (UK)
Dalton conceived the idea that the atoms of different elements were distinguished by differences in
particles of matter called
All
propounded the theory
In 1808, he
their weights.
atoms and
atoms of one element, he
The atom of hydrogen was

were compared with
said,
chemical elements are composed of minute
that all
atoms, as the
that these
name
implies, cannot be cut
up any
further.
were alike but atoms of different elements had different weights.
the lightest
atom (1.66 x 10~ 24 of
gram) and the weights of
other atoms
all
it.
SOURCE: New
System of Chemical Philosophy by
SEE ALSO: A
Dalton (1808)
Adam
Williams (London:
and Charles
Black) p 128 (1969)
1812
UNIVERSAL ELECTRONIC CALCULATOR
C Babbage (UK)
(DIFFERENCE ENGINE)
Charles Babbage (1791-1871)
and print mathematical tables
first
conceived the idea of an advanced calculation engine
wanted
in 1812, as he
to
eleminate
all
with compiling mathematical tables by hand. The engine was built
Joseph Liement, a skilled toolmaker and draughtsman.

a
number represented by
the position of toothed wheels
of Charles Babbage's Difference Engine
SOURCE: The
1812
was
was
in that
year (1812) that
the objective
first
was
development was
SOURCE:
'cable'
Sommering and
in
was
front detail
(See also entry of 1833.)
(SCM/CCM/C1001
&
Schilling
1ZH).
(Germany)
submarine telegraphy.
feasibility of
For
at
least another
in a
Curiously
sense a power cable as
50 years, however,
practically
all
be concerned with telegraphy.
by S
E Goodall
Proc.
1EE
vol 106, Part B,
E E
is
1832 by
used for insulating wire, following a suggestion made
1795 concerning the
OPTOPHONE
Stroud, Limited,
in
the value of
marked with decimal numbers. The
developed by Sommering and Schilling was
'Electric cables'
The instrument
Schilling conducted a series of experiments in which a
first
the detonation of mines.

to
1824 and assembled
Sommering
by a Spaniard, named Salva,

this
in
decimal digital machine
Science Museum/Science and Society Picture Library
soluble material, said to be indiarubber,
enough,
in figure 11.1.
CABLE INSULATION
It
1817
shown
is
It
to calculate
the sources of inaccuracy associated
the invention of
Glasgow
No
25, p
(January 1959)
Fournier d'AIbe (UK)
Dr E E Fournier d'AIbe, and has been developed by Messrs Barr
(see figure 11.2).
It
of selenium, a chemical element (discovered
depends
in
for
its
action
upon
a very
&
remarkable property
1817 by the Swedish chemist Berzelius) which,
in its
grey crystalline form varies greatly in electrical conductivity in accordance with the amount of light to
which
it is
exposed, though the resistance
is
always high.
Instruments can therefore be constructed that can detect pulsations of light of periods corresponding to
those of the vibrations in audible sounds.
a battery
properly prepared selenium bridge connected in series with
and a telephone receiver and exposed to illumination and eclipse alternating some hundreds
of times per second, causes corresponding pulsations of current through the telephone, and produces
audible sound of corresponding pitch and quality.
SOURCE: The
British Encyclopaedia vol 7, p
498 (Gotham Press) (1933)
A Concise
Figure 11.1. Front
detail
of Charles Babbage's difference engine (The Science
Picture Library).
Optophone
tn uie
Figure 11.2. The Optophone.
Museum/ Science
77
&
Society
A Concise
78
1820
ELECTROMAGNETISM
In
HC
(Galvanometer)
Oersted (Denmark)
1820, Oersted reported the discovery of electromagnetism, and this led him to develop the
galvanometers.
was John Schweigger who constructed
It
the
(1828) an Italian physicist, developed a sensitive astatic galvanometer and compared

that
first
moving-coil instrument and Nobilli
first
sensitivity with
its
of the most sensitive galvanometers then available.
SOURCE: 'From
SEE ALSO:
Hill Electronics
& Power pill
(27
November 1975)
'Experiments on the effect of a current of electricity on the magnetic needles' by
H C
Oersted Annals of Philosophy vol 16, p 273 (1820)
1821
THERMOELECTRICITY
The discovery of
although there
Cummings
is
thermoelectricity
some evidence
is
J Seebeck (Germany)
usually attributed to Professor
that he
Seebeck of Berlin
might have been anticipated by Dessaignes
of Cambridge also discovered the effect independently and published his findings
Following Seebeck's work,
C A
Pettier
completed Seebeck's discovery by showing
in
1821,
Professor
in 1815.
in
1823.
that the passage
of electricity through a junction of two different metals (antimony and copper) could produce a rise in
temperature
at the
junction
when passing
in
one direction and
drop
in
temperature when passing in
the contrary direction.
The
introduction of the
first
successful thermopile in the sense of an array of thermocouples (analogous
to the galvanic pile) is attributed to Nobilli. Nobilli's thermopile
SOURCE:
1828
Note from British Science Museum, London
(1st
was subsequently improved by Melloni.
and 3rd paragraphs), author (2nd paragraph)
FOURIER ANALYSIS
J-B-J Fourier (France)
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier laid the basis for the analysis of complicated waveforms more than 150
years ago
when he showed
Scientists
and engineers have learned
that
provides great insight into the
any waveform
way
is
the
sum
of single-frequency, or sinusoidal, components.
that looking at the
frequency spectrum of a signal's components
The
signals behave with time.
analysis
is
possible only with a
powerful Fourier transform, which maps a time-varying signal into the frequency domain and thus
causes the spectral distribution of
its
sinusoidal
components
to
become
visible.
See figure
1.3.
2000
1500 -
Discrete Fourier
transform
1000 -
500
20
Number
of
30
samples
Figure 11.3. Fourier analysis.
Since the Fourier transform requires evaluation of the integral of the input waveform,
performed exactly on a waveshape with a known equation. But

too
complex
to
in real life,
it
can only be
most waveforms are
far
be readily defined. The discrete Fourier transform, however, approximates the actual
transform by sampling the waveform and operating on each point.
It
can therefore be computed
digitally.
A Concise
but the numbers of operations
it
requires
Description of Each Invention

so huge
is
Date Order
in
number samples
the square of the
79
even a
that
reasonable approximation taxes the largest computers.

In 1942, a
method was devised
was before
the days of high-speed digital computers and
for reducing the
number of operations from

few people cared
N\nN
to
but as this
DFT
through the
to grind
by hand, the work of Danielson and Lanczos lay dormant for nearly twenty years.
Then
J
1960s interest
in the early
came
be known as the
to
fast
Fourier transform again picked up.
in the
Cooley on the development of
a transform algorithm suitable for the
the graph shows, the difference in the
enormously
SOURCE:
1826
that requires
N\nN
number of operations required
'The ubiquitous FET' by
R Capace
Electronics (16
the
Department of Mathematics and Physics
the law bearing his
and the FFT grows
Ohm
at the
(Germany)
Polytechnic Institute of Cologne
name.
E = IR
R =
E
-
E
= -
SEE ALSO: Die
DFT
March 1978)
was Head of
Galvinische Kette Mathemalisch Gearbeitet by
Ohm
(Berlin: Springer) (1827)
1828
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER
J Schweigger (Germany)
1828
ASTATIC GALVANOMETER
C L
Nobilli (Italy)
him
In 1820, Oersted reported the discovery of electromagnetism, and this led
galvanometers.
It
was John Schweigger who constructed
the
SEE ALSO: 'Comparison
entre
les
W Hill
& Power
Electronics
deux galvanometres
les
plus
pp
its
(27
sensibles,
multiplicateur a deux aiguilles, suivie de quelques resultats nouveaux' by
sensitivity with
C L
la
November 1975)
grenouille
et
le
Nobilli Chim. et Pins.
pp 256-8 RS( 1828)
vol 43,
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
SELF INDUCTION
(see also
In 1831
the iron ring
was
on the opposite side of the ring was
current. Thus,
SOURCE: A
Faraday (UK)
1832)
Faraday wound an iron ring with two
the primary vibration

coil
first
most sensitive galvanometers then available
SOURCE: 'From
1831
develop the
to
moving-coil instruments and Nobilli
first
(1828) an Italian physicist, developed a sensitive astatic galvanometer and compared

that of the
As
referred to as the FFT.
is
for the
numbers of samples.
for large
when he discovered
Tukey worked with
computer, and the result
variations exist on the original
operations
OHM'S LAW
Ohm
many
Fourier transform. Today, though
Cooley-Tukey algorithm, any transform
coils: one,
connected to a voltaic battery, was
to concentrate the lateral vibrations

to convert these
from
this
to create
and
another
secondary vibrations into another electric
on 29 August 1831, Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction.
Williams (London:
Adam
and Charles Black)
(1969)p 174
1831
TRANSFORMER
A
Faraday (UK)
contrivance was used by Michael Faraday in his experiments on electromagnetic induction.
device
'Expts.
is
described
in his diary
on the production of Electricity from Magnetism,
iron) iron
round and 7/8 inch thick and ring 6 inches
wire round one half, the coil
is
This
under the date of 29 August 1831:

etc.
etc.
Have had an
in external diameter.
iron ring
Wound many
made
coils of
(soft
copper
being separated by twine and calico there were three lengths of wire
80
each about 24
By
long and they could be connected as one length or used as separate lengths.
feet
with a trough each was insulated from the other. Will

separated by an interval was
wound
On
of the ring A.
call this side
trial
the other side but
wire in two pieces together amounting to about 60 feet in length,
the direction being as with the former coils: this side call B.
Charges a battery of 10
pr.
plates
4 inches square. Made the
on
coil
one
side
and connected
coil
its
extremities by a copper wire passing to a distance and just over a magnetic needle (3 feet from iron
ring).
effort
Then connected
on needle.
the ends of
oscillated
It
one of the pieces on
and settled
side with battery; immediately a sensible
On
at last in original position.
breaking connection of
side
with battery again a disturbance of the needle.
Made
much
on
the wires
all
from battery through the whole. Effect on needle
side one coil and sent current
stronger than before'.
multi winding transformer and a transformer experiment are described
by these words of Faraday's.
SOURCE:
'History, present status and future developments of electronic components' by
IRE
on Component Parts p 125 (September 1958)
Trans,
SEE ALSO: Faraday's

& Co) pp52^t (1949)
Discovery of Electromagnetic Induction by
P S Darnell
Martine (London: Edward Arnold
Note by British Science Museum:

'The word 'transformer' was
rotating
first
first
used
two
to link
electric circuits
power appears
by a magnetic
No
be Jablochkoff's patent
to
really the first practical 'transformer'
1832
in the electrical
machines (motor generators). Previous
and
it
sense
circuit.
The
Henry
is
reported to have discovered the
to publish, priority
REFERENCE:
was given
to
Joseph Henry by
SEE ALSO: A
May
1877).
This was
'
which had existed since 1831.'
Henry (USA)
1831)
phenomenom
Michael Faraday
transformers and
earliest application of the device to transfer
utilized a piece of apparatus
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
static
had been used. Faraday was the
1996 (date of application 22
SELF INDUCTION
(see
1883 for both
in
to this 'induction coil'
to
of self induction
1830
in
but,
through his failure
Henry's great mortification.
Coulson (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press) (1950)
Adam
Williams (London:
and Charles
Black) (1969)p 250
1832
FIVE-NEEDLE TELEGRAPH SYSTEM

In 1832,
Baron Schilling demonstrated
Schilling
a telegraph using five
system of
SOURCE:
1833
Cooke (1808-70) saw
was so
in 1836.
In that
same
year, William
inspired that he determined to invent
British Library
C Babbage (UK)
(Calculating Machines)
1833 Babbage conceived his analytical engine, the
He worked on
a
& UK)
own.
his
COMPUTER
In
Schilling's telegraph, and
Cooke (Russia
magnetic needles. Had Schilling not died,
he might have installed a system for Emperor Nicholas of Russia

Fothergill
&
it
with his
modern general purpose
The memory was
to hold
own money
digital
until his
first
1000 words of 50
form of
the elements of
digits each, all in counting wheels. Control
cards.
The very important
calculation according to the intermediate results obtained

in the
all
computer, namely: memory, control, arithmetic unit and input/output.
means of sequences of Jacquard punched
be incorporated
design for a universal automatic calculator.
death in 1871. Babbage's design had
now
ability to
was
called conditional branching
a procedure for slipping forward or
backward
to
be by
modify the course of a
a specified
was
to
number of
cards.
1
Jablochkoff's patent covered a lighting system which includes a mention of a transformer transferring power supply to a
number of lumps
A Concise
SOURCE: The
Date Order
in
81
evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
Pyne Prog. IRE p 1042 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO: The Computer from
Pascal
Neuman by H H
von
to
'On the mathematical powers of the calculating engine' by Charles Babbage, 26 December 1837
(in
Randell's book p 17)
1834
ELECTROLYSIS
Faraday announced his two laws of electrolysis
amount of
required; for a given
1834 which made explicit the amount of force
in
electrical force,
chemical substances
equivalent were released at the electrodes of an electrochemical
was
electrical force acting
SOURCE: A
on the molecular
Faraday (UK)
in the ratio of their
chemical
put another way, chemical affinity
cell,
level.
Adam
Williams (London:
and Charles Black)
p 175 (1969)
1837
RELAYS
F Cooke, C Wheatstone and E

Davy (UK)
Telegraph Bell Relay

Telegraph Signal Relay
The
first
was taken out by Edward Davy
patent
No
1838 (British Patent
in
7719) i claim the mode
of making telegraph signals or communications from one distant place to another by employement of
No 7390)
relays of metallic circuits brought into operation by electric currents'. In 1837 (British Patent
Cooke and Wheatstone described an electromagnetic

sound an alarm
distant station into action to
relay device for bringing a local battery at the
bell there,
However, Davy was described by Fakie as
working on telegraphy as early as 1836 and entered an opposition

application for a patent, but the patent
(US Patent No 1647) which
SOURCE: Note
SEE ALSO: A
1837
granted.
Morse
in the
Dictionary of Scientists by
in the
Year 1837 by
credited with a patent in 1840
Williams (London:
Fakie (London, 1884)
Adam
and Charles Black) (Sir
Cooke) p 114 (1969)
TELEGRAPHY MORSE CODE

of Samuel
B Morse
develop the
to
electrical
B Morse (USA)
electrical telegraph principles,
1837-38 and put
it
with Washington
DC,
telecommunications.
into practice in 1844, after he obtained a

a distance
It
met
a real
SOURCE:
'Telecommunications
resume' by
Everitt Proc.
This was the
communications and spread
fast
first
No
9, p
system
his
in
connect Baltimore
to
development of
practical
the resource not depleted by use.
vol 64,
took the genius
demonstrated
first
need for
ELECTRIC MOTOR
earliest
He
government grant
of 37 miles.
IEEE
it
hardware and also recognise the essential elements for
a simple code adaptable to his on-off (binary) telegraph system.
The
is
by British Science Museum, London.
While Cooke and Wheatstone of England had proposed
1837
Cooke and Wheatstone's 1837
to
USA
apparently similar to Davy's patent.
History of Electric Telegraphy
A Biographical
Fothergill
is
was
electrical
rapidly.
and philosophical
historical
1293 (September 1976)
T Davenport (USA)
known examples of a patent for an electric motor is US

Thomas Davenport, of Brandon, Vermont, entitled:
February 1837 to
Patent
No
132 granted on 25
improvements
in
Propelling
Machinery by Magnetism and Electromagnetism'.

According
to the description contained in the specification, the motor,
by a 'galvanic battery',
is
which
constructed on sound electromagnetic principles.
is
intended to be driven
82
SOURCE:
Patents for Engineers by
L H A Carr and
C Wood
Chapman and
(London:
Hall) p 87
(1959)
1839
MICROFILMING
Dancer (UK)
Shortly after the publication of Daguerre's invention of making photographs in
England photographs of documents of strongly reduced
The knowledge of
to store
839, Dancer produced in
prompted
the possibility to produce reduced-size photographs
astronomer John Herschel to suggest,
mm.
having a side length of about 3
size (1:160)
documents of general concern
1835 the English
in
reference works) in a
(e.g.
reduced form, provided the reduction does not involve any hazard for the original documents. The same
idea
was advanced
beginning of
at the
SOURCE: 'A brief

No 1, p4 (1976)
1839
BATTERY
century by
this
many
old handwritings or prints accessible to
members of
review on microfilming' by
historial
Scharffenberg and
(Magnetohydrodynamic)
The idea of producing
electricity
was proposed by Faraday

electromotive force
pumps and
is
in
839.
produced
from a moving
conducting
at right
a Belgian library, in order to
make
people. Unfortunately, this idea has never materialized.
which
fluid,
fluid is
angles to the
Wendell Jena Review
Faraday (UK)
MHD
the basis of an
is
passed between the poles of
field.
This principle
is
generator,
magnet and an
also used in electromagnetic
induction flow meters for conducting fluids. In recent proposals by Kantrowitz and Spron
(1959) the working fluid
is
a conducting gas at high temperatures.
The gas moving
at a
high velocity
is
passed through a magnetic field at right angles to the direction of florid electrodes placed on opposite
sides of the channel extract the
SOURCE:
power and
are connected to the external load.
'The magnetohydrodynamic generation of power' by
AEI Engineering p 62
Phillips
(March/April 1964)
SEE ALSO:
Experimental Researches
'Application of the
MHD
by
in Electricity
concept to large scale generation of electric power' by
Sporn (American Electric Power Service Corsoration and
839
Faraday (London, 1839)
AVCO
PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
The photovoltaic
Smith
first
was discovered by Edmond Becquerel
effect
photoemissive effect of ultraviolet
SOURCE:
light
Kontrowitz and P
Becquerel (France)
as early as 1839.
observed the photoconductivity of selenium. In 1887,
Research Laboratory) (1959)
finally,
Willoughby
In 1873,
Heinrich Hertz described the
on metal electrodes.
'Beam-deflection and photo devices' by
Schlesinger and
Ramberg
IRE
Proc.
p 991
(May 1962)
SEE ALSO: 'On

Paris vol
9,
'Effect of light
5,
839?
electric effects
under the influence of solar radiation' by E Becquerel C.
Acad.
Sci.
J. Sci.
vol
p 561 (1839)
on selenium during the passage of an
electric current'
by
W Smith American
p 301 (1873)
BATTERY
The
W R Grove (UK)
(Fuel Cell)
fuel cell principle
that
the conversion of chemical energy to electric energy by a path that
is,
can avoid the thermodynamic limitation on efficiency imposed by the Carnot relation
scientists
the
first
produce
same
and engineers for more than a century.

fuel cell.
electricity.
catalyst,
He used
It
is
Langer made
has intrigued
1839-42, Sir William Grove probably invented
platinum-catalyzed electrodes to combine hydrogen and oxygen so as to
interesting to note that almost 123 years later the
though probably
that its voltage fell off
In
badly
in different
physical form.
when an appreciable
hydrogen-oxygen
cell
One major
current drain
was
Gemini
fuel cell
used the
trouble with Grove's cell
was
Mond
and
put
on
it.
In
1889,
with perforated platinum-sheet electrodes, catalysed by platinum
black. This cell produced 1.46 watts at 0.73 volt at about 50 percent efficiency.
However,
it
contained
grams of platinum and required pure hydrogen and oxygen. Thus,
1.3
buy
In addition, to complicate things,
as an electric generator.
it
capital cost
its
83
made
it
poor
ran well only on pure hydrogen and
oxygen.
SOURCE:
'Hydrocarbon-air fuel
SEE ALSO: 'On
voltaic series in
C G
systems' by
cell
Peattie
IEEE Spectrum p 69
combination of gases by platinum' by
(June 1966)
W R Grove Phil.
Mag.
vol 14,
p 127 (1839)
'On a gaseous voltaic battery' by
NOTE. The
in
R Grove
Mag.
Phil.
principle of electrochemical fuel cells
is
by no means new,
1839 by Sir William Grove. This was a hydrogen
fuel
fuel cell
was
a 5 kilowatt unit
employed hydrogen-oxygen
development of
the
Pratt
&
this cell
in
at a
development
'Fuel cells and their
a modified version
UK' by
in the
first
Bacon, and
and sintered nickel electrodes. Rights
were obtained by Leesona-Moos Laboratories
from NRDC and
The
very small current.
1959 by the English engineer, F
fuel with an alkaline electrolyte
Whitney Aircraft Corp.
SOURCE:
demonstrated
was described
in fact the first cell
device with a sulphuric acid electrolyte and
blacked platinum electrodes, generating approximately one volt
power
417 (1842)
vol 21, p
was used
to
a research subsidiary of
in the
Apollo spacecraft.
Mitchell Design Electronics p 34
(February 1966)
1840
THERMOGRAPHY
J Herschel (UK)
William Herschel's famous experiment with thermometers and a prism
Sir
in
1800 showed the existence
of energy beyond the red end of the visible spectrum. As long ago as 1840 his son John demonstrated
thermal imaging and saw images in the dark.
Considering the sophisticated techniques
in
use today,
John Herschel's methods were both embarrassingly simple and successful. He took a blackened sheet
of paper, soaked
it
and focused radiation from a hot source onto the sheet. The infra-red
in alcohol
radiation selectively heated parts of the paper, evaporating the alcohol and lightening
its
colour to form
an image.
Variations on this
theme took place over
the next 100 years but not until 1940, with the pressing need
for military systems with real-time infra-red tracking,
detectors, amplifiers, signal processing
infra-red systems can
now produce
all
significant progress
made. Since then optics,
to the extent that
high-performance
television-quality pictures of a scene (at several kilometres' distance)
which contains temperature differences of only

resolution and frame time have
was
and displays have improved
a fraction of a degree.
Thermal resolution, angular
been improved by a factor of ten or greater, representing an overall
performance improvement of three or more decades.
SOURCE:
infra-red imaging systems' by
Blackburn Systems Technology (Plessey)
No
26, p 15 (June
1977)
843
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone described
C Wheatstone (UK)
his bridge circuit
comprehensive paper on
electric
would have merited publication

which
it
which he
called the 'differential resistance measurer'
measurements presented
in Proc.
Royal Society
to the
in
IEE, had there been such a journal then, for the
presented solutions to electrical-engineering problems.
of electromotive force, current strength and resistance
at
The problems were
a time
the
in a
That paper
1843.
way
in
measurement
when galvanometers were
unstable
instruments and there was no sound method of calibrating them. Wheatstone found the theoretical basis
for solving these
there
The
was
problems
a simple
in
an obscure
German
publication of 1827 in which
Ohm
showed
that
mathematical relationship linking e.m.f. current and resistance.
basis of Wheatstone's
method of measurements
is
the use of a calibrated variable resistance to keep
the current constant and so avoid any need for calibration of the galvanometers
Wheatstone remarked
to make
'rheostat')
Ohm's work showed that the resistance of a conductor of uniform section was proportional to
length. He showed how to determine the value of an unknown resistance by a simple substitution
that
it
was easy
a calibrated variable resistance (for
which he devised the term
because
its
method. The unknown resistance
is
included in a circuit with a galvanometer whose reading
is
noted
84
and then replaced by a rheostat which
The
on the rheostat gives
scale
SOURCE:
is
adjusted so that the galvanometer reading
is
unknown
resistance and hence the value of the
its
B P Bowers
'Wheatstone's contribution to electrical engineering' by
same
the
as before.
resistance.
Electronics
& Power
p 295 (May 1976)
1843
FACSIMILE REPRODUCTION
For the purpose of
review facsimile
this
is
Bain (UK)
considered to be a method by which printed, handwritten
and graphic data may be transmitted over communication channels and received
copy.
Its
when
origin dates back to 1843,
form of
in the
a hard
the Scottish inventor Alexander Bain patented an 'automatic
came Frederick Bakewell's
electrochemical recording telegraph'. Next
cylinder and screw arrangement
on which many of the present-day facsimile systems are based.

In
Europe facsimile equipment has been commercially available since 1946,
technology advances
electronics and
in
the
drastic
fall
in
recent years the
In
semiconductor prices have led
to
the
replacement of bulky separate facsimile transmitters and receivers by small transceivers
SOURCE:
vol 46, No
1845
'Facsimile
by
a review'
Malster and
Bowden The Radio and
METALLIC SHEATHING OF CABLES

The
earliest attempts at metallic sheathing
around the cable core and then joined

interesting similarity to a
it
modern method
C
were made
in
end and subsequently sinking the pipe
Wheatstone (UK)
in
who
1845 by Wheatstone,
with a longitudinal soldered seam.
which aluminium sheathing
The method was superseded by one which involved
strip.
Electronic Engineer
2 p 55 (February 1976)
soldering 50
into contact with the cable core
is
ft.
folded lead strip
This method bears an
applied using pre-formed
lengths of lead pipe end to
by means of a
die.
This again
has an interesting parallel in a present day method for aluminium sheathing.

In
1879 the
direct extrusion
first
pre-heated to 120 C.
possible thermal
It
on
was made from
to cable
was not then considered good
damage
to the insulation, so the process
of lead sheathed cable has since gone hand
in
Different types of press have been designed to
which technique
as
will ultimately
is
was limited
to a
one
billet
Development
charge.
overcome defects experienced with cable
By
in service but
contrast, the present
proceeding along three different lines and
it
development
hard to predict
is
prove most successful. The greater difficulty of extruding aluminium
compared with lead has undoubtedly favoured
SOURCE: The
billets
hand with the development of the lead extrusion process.
extrusion in one form or another has been universally adopted.
of aluminium sheathing processes
hollow
a Borel press using solid
practice to recharge with molten lead because of
metallic sheathing of cables' by
this
AV
more varied approach.
Garner AEI Engineering p 248 (September/October
1962)
1845
CIRCUITS KIRCHOFF'S LAWS

Two
laws that express the behaviour of an electrical network.
circuits,
1st
law:
In
Kirchhoff (Germany)
1845 he gave the laws for closed
extending these to general networks (1847) and to solid conductors (1848)
The
total current arriving at
2nd law: The sum of

drops around the
1847
GR
any point
in
an electric network must be zero.
the electromotive forces around any closed circuit
is
equal to the
of the IR
W Siemens (Germany)
SUBMARINE CABLE INSULATION
Telegraphic instruments had been developed, notably by Schilling, Morse and

for the transmission of signals over land lines;
Royal Society of Arts
in
London by Dr Montgomerie
properties of gutta percha, especially
Cooke and Wheatstone,
and a suitable material for insulating the conductor had
already been introduced into Europe. This was gutta percha, the
at the
sum
circuit.
when immersed
in
gum from
1843.
in sea water,
The
Malayan
electrical
were such
that
it
tree,
exhibited
and mechanical
had no
rival for
A Concise
over 70 years as an insulant
formed
in
1845-6
to exploit
85
Moreover, the Gutta Percha Company had been
submarine cables.
in
Date Order
in
use, and primitive extruders had been constructed for the production of
its
rods and tubes.
many
Before 1849,
attempts had been
made
underground
to find a suitable insulant or protection for
and underwater cables, including tarred rope, glass tubes,
impregnated cotton and rubber,
split rattan,
but none of these lasted long in the sea. In 1847 Werner Siemens used gutta percha for an underground
line in
In
Germany, and some was
America
in the
same
1848 for the purpose of detonating mines.
laid in the Port of Kiel in
Armstrong experimented with gutta percha covered wire
year,
River, where Ezra Cornell had previously connected Fort Lee with
which worked
847
p4
is
J Joule (UK)
well-known phenomenon
altered as the magnetisation
dimension
as the
Hudson
Story of the Submarine Cable booklet published by Submarine Cables Limited (AEI,
Magnetostriction
is
in the
a rubber insulated line
(1960)
MAGNETOSTRICTION
material
York by
for several months.
SOURCE: The
London)
New
changed.
is
is
varied,
which the mechanical dimension of
in
and
in
Thus, an alternating current applied through a
specimen can induce mechanical vibrations
in
specimen can transform the mechanical energy
set
up
energy in a coil wound around
into electrical
magnetic
altered
is
wrapped around
coil
and alternately, mechanical vibrations
it;
which, conversely, the magnetisation
in
such a
Electro-
it.
mechanical interactions were observed as early as 1847 with Joules discovery of magnetostriction.
SOURCE:
'Solid state devices other than semiconductors'
by B Lax and
Mavroides Proc. IRE
p 1014 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO: 'On

Mag.
1848
vol 30, p
the effects of
226
magnetism on
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Formal
logic, so necessary for the
workings of
mathematically before George Boole.
logic.
digital
With the theories expounded
very simple algebraic systems.

algebra and has only
of
this binary
SOURCE:
1850
steel bars' J
P Joule
Phil.
or
computers could not be
answer
in
Laws of Thought',
in these writings,
X2 X
The equation
as an
Boole (UK)
satisfactorily explained
1848 the English logician published 'The Mathematical
In
Analysis of Logic' and in 1854 'An Investigation of the
now symbolic
and
the dimensions of iron
(April 1847)
for every
it
the foundation of
was possible
system
in the
what
is
to express logic in
is
basic to Boolean
numerical terms. Thus modern computers can make use
system, with their logic parts carrying out binary operations.
Electronics p 69 (17 April 1980)
THERMISTOR
The temperature-sensitive non-linear
resistors are
the Bell Telephone Laboratories (of the
known
USA). They
Faraday (UK)
generally as thermistors, a
are,
name coined by
however, over 100 years old, for Faraday
discovered that silver sulphide possessed a high negative temperature coefficient (although
the conduction
is
ionic and not electronic, and the material therefore suffers
Uranium oxide was used
A magnesium
in
Germany, but with
titanate spinet
was introduced
this
in
to possess negative temperature characteristics.
devoted many years of intensive research
to the
The
is
also ionic and operation
USA
From 1930 onwards
problem and showed
and nickel had valuable properties, They also found

nickel varied these properties
conduction
1923, and in the
unstable.
Telephone Laboratories
combined oxides of manganese
that varying the ratio
effects of adding small
is
case
effects).
about 1912, boron was found
the Bell
that
in this
from polarisation
between the manganese and
amounts of copper, cobalt and iron were also
investigated.
Today, these oxides, treated to become uniphase, are
in general use,
and are made into beads, rods,
blocks, etc.
SOURCE:
Affixed Resistors 2nd edition by
A Dummer
(London: Pitman) p 147 (1967)
A Concise
86
1851
in
Date Order
RELATION BETWEEN THEORY OF MAGNETISM

AND ELECTRICITY
Introduced for the
first
time the vectors
Lord Kelvin (UK)
termed magnetic induction and magnetic force by Maxwell.
later
In a fundamental papers he derived a result expressing the energy of a system of
temporary magnets
SOURCE: A
in
permanent and
terms of a volume integral throughout space.
Adam
Williams (London:
and Charles Black)
p 512 (1969)
1852
THIN FILMS
W R Grove (UK)
(Sputtering Process)
Although the use of cathodic sputtering as

evaporation by
evaporation
is
some cases
SOURCE:
many
vacuum
for the deposition of thin films predates
been received
more widespread application because
far
materials and generally gives high deposition rates. In recent
has been found that certain materials are more conveniently deposited by sputtering.
it
impossible to deposit materials by any other means.
is
it
for
method
years, the latter has
more convenient
years, however,
In
many
'Thin-film circuit technology' by
A E
Lessor,
Maissel and
R E Thun IEEE
Spectrum
p 73 (April 1964)
SEE ALSO:
1
854
W R Grove
COMPUTERS
Trans. R. Soc. London. Series
Phil.
vol 162, p 87 (1852)
(Calculating Machines)
Scheutz (Sweden)
Pehr Georg Scheutz built a difference engine in Stockholm inspired by Babbage's ideas and displayed
it
in
London
in
The machine had
1854 with considerable help from Babbage.
fourteen places of figures and
was capable of
Pascal
printing
own
its
H H
von Neuman by
to
tables (Scheutz
four differences and
was
a printer).
1855
COLD CATHODE DISCHARGE TUBE
Experiments with low-pressure glow discharges started very early
were
in
the fact that such a
glow tube having
from an induction
its
coil
two electrodes of
With the
was
as light sources.
availability of the rare gases
work function cathodes, glow tubes were developed
SOURCE:
for
'The development of gas discharge tubes' by
SEE ALSO:
Gaugain
C. R.
different size
Acad.
1856 Heinrich Geissler, an
artist
Sci.
and
was capable of
Most of them
recognition of
rectifying the
The
early
glow lamps
all
required
neon and argon and by means of low
Cobine Proc. IRE p 972 (May 1962)
Paris vol 40, p 640 (1855)
skilful glass
pressure discharge tubes that were to bear his name.

tubes, usually shortened
first
low voltage applications.
LOW PRESSURE DISCHARGE TUBES

In
The
appears to have been that of Gaugain in 1855. However, for
years, the only use for these discharges
high voltage excitation.
1856
in the electrical art.
small diameter glow tubes, often in the form called Geissler tubes.
oscillating current
many
Gaugain (France)
Geissler
(Germany)
blower of Bonn, Germany, originated the low
The Geissler tubes were
by the use of many coils and bends, which were
low pressures and originally excited by high-voltage alternating current.
long, small-bore glass
with various gases
filled
Many
at
beautiful effects could
with different gases and they were often used for decorations. As,
be produced by Geissler tubes
filled
for example, a display used to
commemorate Queen
of the electrodes together with gas clean-up resulted
Victoria's
Diamond
Jubilee.
in a short life for the tube.
However, sputtering
The
principal use
was
for spectral analysis and lecture demonstrations.
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
(1949)
'The electric-lamp industry' by
A A
Bright Jr
(New
York:
MacMillan) p 218
et seq.
W
1857
DeLaRue, H
W Spottieswoode Proc.
Muller and
R. Soc.
MERCURY ARC LAMP

The
first
was
electric arc
T Wray (UK)
No
21
London on
Two
September 1860.
for illumination.
T Wray
British patents
used commercially for illumination
first
were used
arc 'tubes'
Patent
in
87
356 (1875)
vol 23, p
public demonstration of a mercury arc lamp was by Professor
Suspension Bridge
The
on the Hungerford
were issued
Much
in Paris in 1863.
him
to
later,
1879 John Rapieff described mercury arc lamps
In
but there appears to be no evidence that they were built. Peter
in 1857.
low-pressure
in British
Cooper Hewitt showed
in
public his mercury-arc lamp on 12 April 1901. Georges Glaude, a French inventor, demonstrated the
first
in
Neon
sign, an
improvement of
the Geissler tube, at the
luminous tube discharges were made by Moore
Grand
Developments
Palais in Paris in 1910.
Since these tubes did not have a high light
in 1920.
output, they were largely confined to sign applications.
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
1858
British Patents issued
1857
P Pleucker (Germany)
1858 Pleucker investigated experimentally the luminous effects of
In
low pressures. He observed
SOURCE: A Biographical
p422 (1969)
MICROPHONE
that the
glow was deflected
Dictionary of Scientists by
contact.
stretched
to
membrane made of metal
flat
microphones. This diaphragm
any desired tension by a threaded
SOURCE:
is
clamped
similarity to the
to actuate
at its
B B Bauer
Proc.
'Ueber Telephone durch den galvaniscen strom' Jahnesbericht
am
was
is
used
in
present-day
ci.
Physikalischen (Vereins
Main, Germany) p 57 (1860-61)
(Secondary)
Plante (France)
battery business dates back to Plante's discovery of the lead-acid system in 1860.
Secondary or storage
cells are electrochemical cells
which
after discharge
original chemical state by passing the current in the reverse direction.
of basic components as primary
the
eardrum
loose metal-to-metal
IRE p 720 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
requirement,
periphery by a ring and stretched
zu Frankfurt
The secondary
and Charles Black)
ring.
'A century of microphones' by
BATTERY
Adam
or very thin metallized plastic
typically
field.
P Reis (Germany)
among microphone diaphragms perhaps because of its

flat membrane (actually a sausage skin) used by Reis
electrostatic
magnetic
Williams (London:
(Diaphragm type)
through gases
electric discharge
in a strong
stretched
Earliest
1860
GLOW DISCHARGES
at
1860
in that the
cells, the
can be restored to their
Although they have the same
anodes and cathodes of secondary
cells
set
have a more stringent
electrode reactions have to be reversible. This requirement immediately limits
number of electrode
At present,
materials available for secondary cells.
lead,
cadmium,
iron and
zinc anode materials, and lead dioxide, nickel dioxide and silver oxide cathode materials are the only
ones used
SOURCE:
in
commercial secondary
'Batteries'
by
C K
cells.
Morehouse, R Glicksman and
S Lozier Proc. IRE p 1474/5 (August
1958)
1865
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

In his
first
C Maxwell (UK)
paper on electromagnetism 'On Faraday's Lines of Force' (1855-56) Maxwell
set
up
partial
analogies, between electric and magnetic lines of force and the lines of flow of an incompressible
fluid.
In a series of magnificent papers in
phenomena viewed
had become
fully
in the light
of the
1861-62 he gave
field
a fully
developed model of electromagnetic
concept of Michael Faraday of whose validity Maxwell
persuaded by 1858, Adopting the belief of William
Thomson (Lord
Kelvin) in the
88
rotary nature of magnetism, a magnetic tube of induction
was represented by
a set of cells rotating
about the axis of the tube, interference between the rotations of neighbouring tubes being avoided by
rows of intervening
means of
manner of
cells (in the
model Maxwell was able
this
By
known
wheels) which corresponded to electric currents.
idle
to give an elegant qualitative interpretation of all the
phenomena of electromagnetism. By introducing
was then able
the notion of elasticity he
to give a
quantitative description of the propagation of a disturbance in the model. Reinterpreted in terms of the
electromagnetic
implied that a disturbance
field, this
in the
electromagnetic
should travel with a
field
speed equal to the ratio of the electrodynamic to the electrostatic units of electric force.
SOURCE: A
Adam
Williams (London:
and Charles Black)
p 358 (1969)
SEE ALSO:
vol 13,
866
'A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic
pp 531-6
(8
C Maxwell
TC &
successful Atlantic telegraph cables were
first
Proc. R. Soc.
London
December 1864)
TRANSATLANTIC TELEGRAPH CABLE

The
by
field'
made and
Co (UK)
1866 by The Telegraph Construction
laid in
and Maintenance Company, then newly formed by the amalgamation of the Gutta Percha Company
and Glass,
two cables by
Mr R A
and Company. The laconic telegram sent on 27 July 1866 by
Elliot
Managing Director of
Company, from
the
Valentia on the completion of the laying of the
famous 'Great Eastern', read simply
the
Glass, the
first
of the
and had the more modern two-letter
'All right',
abbreviation been available the message would doubtless have been even shorter.
few days
replying to
came
later
Queen
the report that a
Victoria,
message of 405
had been sent
at a
letters
speed of 37
from the President of the United
modest indeed compared with the modern speed of over 2000
States,
per minute. With this performance,
letters
letters
per minute, the efforts of the
were crowned with success and the submarine cable was firmly established as a
intrepid pioneers
commercial proposition for oceanic depths.
SOURCE:
'The Story of the Submarine Cable' booklet published by Submarine Cables Limited (AEI)
London (1960) p
1868
RHEOTOME
(Waveform
Heinrich Lenz (of Lenz's

to
sample
a periodic
plotter)
Law) developed
waveform
at
Lenz (Germany)
segmented commutator or rheotome which could be arranged
known
points of the cycle and thus feed a train of pulses, each
corresponding to the amplitude of the waveform
at that point, to a
plotting the deflections against the time in the circle at
slowly responding galvanometer.
By
which they occurred, the complete waveform
could be reconstructed, In 1868 Bernstein used a rheotome
to chart the
time course of the action
potential in a nerve fibre.
By 1876
the capillary electrometer of
were available with
Marey and Lippman and
a sufficient sensitivity
the string galvanometer of Einthoven
and speed of response
to record biolectric
However, preceding Einthoven's studies of the electrocardiogram, Marchand

in
1878 were able to chart the electrocardiogram using a rheotome.
SOURCE:
'From torpedo
SEE ALSO:
ALSO:
868
Lippmann' E
by
Hill Electronics
& Power
due couer an
et
pp
(27
November 1975)
particulier etudiees au
BATTERIES
(Leclanche
d.
The Leclanche dry

flashlights
ges. Physiol,
cell is
moyen de
Marey C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris vol 82, pp 975-7 (1876)
'Bettrage zur kenntnis der reizwelle und contractionswelle de herzmuskels' by
PI tigers Arch,
in
to telemetry'
'Des variations electriques, des muscles
l'electrometre de
events directly.
1877 and Englemann
in
R Marchand
vol 15, p 511 (1877)
cell)
perhaps the best
known
and other such equipment. This type of
cell
cell
in
was
Leclanche (France)
common
use today.
It
originally described by
1868 and has undergone many improvements since that time.
Basically,
it
is
widely used
in
Georges Leclanche
consists of a nearly
89
pure (99.99 per cent) zinc negative terminal, a carbon positive terminal, and a mixture of
chloride,
manganese dioxide, acetylene black, zinc
chloride,
chrome
ammonium
The mixture
inhibitor and water.
hydrogen bubbles on the positive electrode as
acts as a depolarising agent to reduce the formation of
Improvements which have been made include leak proofing, longer shelf
discharge takes place.
life,
pepped-up depolarizers, improved insulation and miniaturisation.
SOURCE:
'Survey of electrochemical batteries' by
SEE ALSO:
L6clanch6
Les Mondes vol
N D
Wheeler Electro Technology p 68 (June 1963)
p 532 (1868) (also C.
16,
R.
Acad.
Paris vol 83, p 54
Set.
(1876))
1870
BATTERY
In about
L Clark (UK)
(Standard Clark Cell)
1870 Latimer Clark, an English engineer and
electrician, introduced a
new kind
of voltaic
cell
consisting of a positive electrode of mercury covered with a paste of mercurous sulphate and a negative
electrode of zinc.
The
electrolyte
Latimer Clark assigned
was
to the cell a
a saturated solution of zinc sulphate. After
mean
value of 1.457 volt
at
15.5 C.
(1200^V/C). However,
a very high temperature coefficient of e.m.f.
many
The Clark
in spite
of
determinations
from
cell suffered
this,
the
Chicago
International Electrical Congress in 1891 adopted the Clark cell together with the silver coulometer in
definitions of the
SOURCE:
ampere and
the volt.
'Standard cells by Muirhead' Muirhead Technique vol 18,
SEE ALSO:
Clark Cell Proc. R. Soc. vol
1874
also
p 19 (July 1964)
(1874)
Weston Cell (1891)
M Bauer (Germany)
CAPACITORS (MICA)
Mica sheet
3,
XX, p 444 (1872)
Clark Cell Phil. Trans. R. Soc. vol CIXIV, p
NOTE: See
No
as dielectric
because not only could
came
it
into
commercial capacitor manufacture only about 1914-18 very largely
stand up to the mechanical shocks of gunfire better than glass, but
it
also
enabled the size of the capacitors to be reduced substantially for the same effective performance. The
drive of war requirements pushed this developed to the fore, although the use of mica as a capacitor
dielectric
had been 'invented' more than 60 years
SOURCE:
'Electrical capacitors in
our everyday
earlier.
life'
by P
R Coursey ERA Journal No
6,
p 10 (January
1959)
SEE ALSO:
'Physical properties of mica' by
'Capacity of mica condensers' by
1876
Bauer
Zeleny Phys. Rev. vol 22, p 651 (1906)
ROLLED PAPER CAPACITOR

It
Ge. vol 26, p 137 (1874)
Z. duet. geol.
DG
appears that the rolled paper capacitor was
first
Fitzgerald
covered by a patent
filed in
(UK)
1876 by Fitzgerald, who
described:
'The construction of a condenser with layers of paper and conductor (usually
tin-foil)
alternately
interleaved with each other on to a cylinder, and the impregnation of such condenser with paraffin
wax
after rolling'
SOURCE:
IRE
'History, present status and future developments of electronic
Trans, on
SEE ALSO: 'Improvements in Electrical

No 3466/1876 (2 September 1876)
'Paper Condensers' by
Condensers or Accumulators' by
DG
Fitzgerald, British Patent
Boucherot Eclairage Electrique (12 February 1898)
'The manufacture of paper condensers' by

1908)
components' by P S Darnell
Component Parts p 124 (September 1958)
F Mansbridge J
Inst.
Elec.
Engrs.
vol 41. p 535
(May
A Concise
90
'The capacity of paper condensers' by
1876
Zeleny and Andrewes. Phys. Rev. vol 27, p 65 (1908)
TELEPHONE
It
A G
Bell
(USA)
momentous sound was made by Thomas Watson when
has been a hundred years since a faint but
he plucked a reed of a rudimentary transmitter. But that sound travelled over wire and was heard
another
room by Alexander Graham
apparatus to his ear. This was the

Later,
on 14 February 1876, Bell
had been working on
first
when
filed for the
Ma
Gray instead of
filed a
caveat with the Patent Office,
Had
it.
the timing been
Bell.
telephone patent was issued to Bell on March 7 1876 three days before the historic
the
first
human
intelligible
voice was transmitted over the
over his clothing, had called out, 'Mr Watson,
come
here.
Watson
patent on the apparatus that he and
one Elisha Gray
a similar device but had not yet perfected
a 'Ma'
new
moment
telephone. Bell, after spilling acid
want you'. Next year, the
first
commercial
telephone went into service
when
wooden box
both transmitter and receivers The talker had to alternately talk and
According
that contained
tentative agreement,
offer.
The
a Boston banker leased
and shortly afterwards a lawyer named Gardiner
three put into writing an agreement dated
'Alexander
27 February
later
listen.
merchant named
They reached
Hubbard made
875 and
Company, Gardiner
a simple
Bell a similar
signed a deed of trusts
Hubbard, Trustee.
December 1975)
Electronics p 91 (11
SEE ALSO:
a verbal offer to Bell to finance the telegraphic experiments.
dated 9 July 1877 forming the Bell Telephone
SOURCE:
two instruments, each consisting of
System was planted when
to the records, the seed idea for the Bell
Thomas Sanders made
in
reed-and-diaphragm
to be holding a similar
now famous
just three hours before
we might now have
different,
The
who happened
telephone signal.
first
was working on
declaring that he
Bell
Graham
Bell and the invention of the telephone' by
E Flood
Electronics
&
Power p 159 (March 1976)

Editor's Note: This issue of Electronics
'The marriage that almost was' by

'The telephone,
its
& Power
is
devoted
to the early history of the telephone.
F Wolff IEEE Spectrum p 41 (February 1976)
invention and development' by
Woolley Telecommunication Journal vol 43, p 175
111/1976
'Bell's great invention: the
Bell and Gray:
first
50 years' Bell Laboratories Record p 91 (April 1976)
'Contrasts in style, politics and etiquette' by
DA
Hounshell Proc.
IEEE
vol 64,
No
9,
877
PHONOGRAPH
T A
(Gramophone)
Alexander Graham Bell's invention of the telephone,

reproduction of speech.
One of
interested in the study of
sound because he was
wrapped
around a cylinder,
a sheet of tinfoil
in 1876,
those attracted was
Edison (USA)
drew
Thomas Alva
partially deaf.
attention to the problems of the
Edison,
Sometime
needle in contact with
set a
it,
little
date of invention
as to
how
the
more
rhyme
that begins:
'Mary
lamb'. After making a few changes, he cranked the cylinder again, and from the horn of
the instrument he heard a recognisable reproduction of his voice,
The
all
of 1877, Edison
turned a crank to rotate the
cylinder, and into a mouthpiece attached to the needle he shouted the nursery
had a
who was
in the fall
was
precise that date
later recollected
is.
We
Thus was born
the
by Edison as 13 August 1877, but there
know, however,
that the patent application
was
first
is
filed
phonograph.
some question
24 December
1877, and the patent was granted on 19 February 1878.
SOURCE: 'Disk
IREp 738 (May
recording and reproduction' by
SEE ALSO: US
Patent
1962)
No 200
521 (T
Edison)
S Bachman,
B B Bauer and P C Goldmark
Proc.
A Concise
1877
MICROPHONE
Among
T A
(Carbon)
Edison (USA)
was
the earliest devices intended for converting vibration into electrical impulses
metal-contact transducer which
This
intelligible speech.
is
Reis' loose
reported to have transmitted tones of different frequencies, but not
event seems
latter
91
have been achieved by
to
first
magnetic
Bell, using a
microphone, on 3 June 1875. However, Bell's microphone proved not to be sufficiently sensitive for
telephone work and the experiments of Berliner, Edison, Hughes and others soon thereafter introduced
a long era of
first
to
dominance
for the loose-contact carbon transducer.
To Edison goes
design a transducer using granules of carbonised hard coal,
The carbon granules
are
still
used
the credit of being the
present-day microphones.
in
of deep-black 'anthraxylon' coal ground to pass a 60-80 mesh, treated
made
chemically and roasted in several stages under a stream of hydrogen. This drives out volatile matter,
washes out extraneous compounds and carbonises the
The
coal.
last step
and air-stream screening to eliminate iron-bearing and flat-shaped
SOURCE:
'A century of microphones' by
SEE ALSO: T A
1877
Edison:
LOUDSPEAKER
US
(Moving
The motor mechanism
B B Bauer
No 474 230
Patent
Proc.
magnetic
is
IRE p 721 (May 1962)
27 April 1877. Also
filed
of the process
particles.
coil type)
US
Patent
No 474
231/2
W Siemens (Germany)
consisting of a circular coil located in a radial magnetic field
was
disclosed by
first
Siemens. Lodge, Pridham and Jenson and others contributed to the suspension system. However, there
were very few developments
breakthrough
in the
loudspeakers
in
twenty-seven years following Lodge's disclosure.
in the
dynamic loudspeaker was made by Rice and Kellogg
in
The success
1925.
of the development was due to their recognition of three physical factors with relation to the action
and design of a direct radiator loudspeaker. The

is
the product of the mechanical resistance
The second
the diaphragm.
system which
is
first is
to
that the
sound-power output of
a small vibrating
diaphragm gives
The
proportional to the square of the frequency.
is
mass controlled.
follows then that,
It
a loudspeaker
sound radiation and the square of the velocity of
sound radiation from
that
is
mechanical resistance which
due
if
rise to a
third is a vibrating
the fundemental resonance occurs
below the
lowest frequency of interest, the complementary variations of the second and third factors which control
the
sound output as given by the
factor conspire to provide a uniform response
first
region at which the assumptions begin to
fail.
continues to be the basic precept that guides the design of
SOURCE:
'Loudspeakers' by
SEE ALSO:
H F
Electroacoustics by
W Siemens:
S Pridham and P
German
Patent
Lodge: British Patent
1878
AIEE
vol 44,
pp 461-75
all
it
direct radiator loudpeakers.
filed
filed
Patent
new
14 December 1877
27 April 1898
No
1448 279
filed
28 April 1920
type of hornless loudspeaker' by
Rice and
Kellogg
(April 1925)
CATHODE RAYS
In his
frequency
Hunt (New York: John Wiley and Sons) (1954)
No 2355
'Notes on the development of a
Trans
US
to the
Olson Proc. IRE p 730 (May 1962)
No 9712
Jenson:
up
This was the contribution of Rice and Kellogg, and
Sir
W Crookes (UK)
Bakerian lecture of 1878 and his British Association Lecture of 1879, he announced various
striking properties of 'molecular rays' including the casting of
the deflection by a magnet.
The
title
Lecture of 1879 referred to ordinary matter in a

that collisions
SOURCE: A
p 120 (1969)
shadows, the warming of obstacles and
'Radiant Matter' employed by Crookes in his British Association
new
state in
which the mean
free path
was so
large
between molecules could be ignored.
Williams (London:
Adam
and Charles Black)
A Concise
92
1878
CARBON FILAMENT INCANDESCENT LAMP
W Swan, C H Steam, F Topham
and
CF
Cross (UK)
Swan
invented a carbon filament incandescent lamp and a squirting process to
fibres
for
lamp
who made
glass-blower
SOURCE:
filaments.
make
nitro-cellulose
Stearn was an expert in the production of high vacua and
Topham
the
the glass globes. Cross discovered the viscose process for the fibres.
'The Sources of Invention' by
Jewkes,
Sawers and
Stellerman (London: MacMillan)
p 59(1958)
NOTE: T A
Edison
Edison's main interest was to perfect the incandescent electric lamp, of which the construction was
now
being rapidly advanced by Swan.
'Edison'
After researches involving the examination of thousands of
he devised the cotton thread filament which, when joined with bulb patents, made the
alternatives,
lamp
SOURCE: A
commercial success.
Williams (London:
Adam
and Charles Black)
p 159 (1969)
1878
CARBON GRANULE MICROPHONE

To Hunnings goes
Hunnings (UK)
the credit for inventing a carbon transmitter using a multiple loose contact,
which
soon took the form of a disk electrode projecting into a contact cup containing granulated carbon
From
particles.
SOURCE:
that
time on, one improvement followed another in a seemingly endless parade.
Electroacoustics by
F V Hunt (New York: John Wiley and Sons) p 37 (1954)
SEE ALSO: Henry Hunnings (granulated-carbon microphone) British Patent No 3647 dated 16
US Patents No 246 512 (filed 14 May 1881) issued 30 August 1881, and No 250 250
September 1878;
(filed
1879
30 September 1881) issued 29 November 1881; both assigned to American Bell Telephone Co.
DIODE DETECTOR
In 1879,
D Hughes (UK)
David Hughes had performed a
truly
remarkable demonstration of transmitting and detecting
a series of recognised pulses of electromagnetic radiation over a distance of
Great Portland Street
in
some 450 metres along
London. Hughes was using the as yet undiscovered Hertzian waves, the radio
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
He was
using a microphonic detector device which
may have
functioned like a self- restoring coherer, or, possibly, in a manner closely resembling the rectifying
action of crystal detectors which
SOURCE:
into use in 1906.
'The birth pangs of radio' by
No 411
Publication
1879
came
AR
Constable Proc. on '100 Years of Radio', IEE Conference
HALL EFFECT
E H
Hall (UK)
Hall voltage, linear function of magnetic flux.

If a
is
current of particles bearing charges of a single sign and constrained to
subjected to a transverse magnetic
both the current and the magnetic
SOURCE:
field, a potential
move
in a
given direction
gradient will exist in a direction perpendicular to
field.
The Encyclopaedia of Physics 2nd edn,
edRM
Besencon (New York: Van Nostrand) p 400
(1974)
1880
PIEZO ELECTRICITY
The
relation
SOURCE:
P Curie (France)
between voltage generated and mechanical pressure on crystallographic materials.
'Developpement, par pression, de
inclinees' by
J Curie and
Curie and P Curie C. R. Acad.
l'electricite polaire
Sci.
dans
les cristaux
hemiedres
a faces
Paris vol 91, pp 294-5 (July-December 1880)
A Concise
1882
WIMSHURST MACHINE
The
revolve in opposite directions.

peripheries of the discs are
Wimshurst (UK)
The Wimshurst machine generates
electrostatic electricity
discs are
made of an
by
friction.
It
two discs which
consists of
insulating material such as glass and near the
mounted small sections of sheet conductor. The charges
the conductor sections by the action of brushes
up by combs. These charges are stored
which graze the sectors
in capacitors
93
and are used
are generated
on
and are picked
as they rotate
produce a spark between a pair of
to
ball conductors.
REFERENCE:
Text
Book of Physics, Part 5: Magnetism and

& Co.) p 960 (1926)
Electricity by
Duncan and S C
Starling
(London: MacMillan
REFERENCE:
Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Electronics and Nuclear Engineering by
Sarbacher
(London: Pitman) p 1402 (1959)
1884
NIPKOW TELEVISION SYSTEM

The
first
television invention that had practical consequences
Nipkow
Paul
P Nipkow
in
was
1884. At the heart of his camera
the
equally spaced along a spiral near the periphery of the disk.
on a small region
As
at the
disk's periphery, and the disk
cell
would then produce
light
the 'electrical telescope', patented by
The image
was made
the disk rotated, the sequence of holes scanned the
image region collected the sequential
was
now famous Nipkow
image
disk.
It
to be transmitted
to spin at
had 24 holes
was focused
600 revolutions per minute.
in a straight line.
lens behind the
samples and focused them on a single selenium

each proportional
a succession of currents,
to the intensity
cell.
The
of the light on a
different element of the image.
At the receiving end, Nipkow proposed using
synchronously with the one
Nipkow
built
no hardware
a magneto-optic (Faraday-effect) light
To form
the intensity of the reconstructed image.
the transmitter,
at
which
is
modulator to vary
the image, a second disk, identical to and rotating
would be needed.
probably just as well, because the technology of the time would
not have permitted him to build his system; the light modulator alone would have required
watts of control power. His disk, however,
built,
model
for several later television
some 10
systems that were
most notably those of British inventor John Logie Baird.
SOURCE:
1884
was
Electronics pp 70 and 75 (17 April 1980)
SWITCH, QUICK BREAK
The loose-handle quick-break switch was invented by

granted British Patent
No 3256
circuit closers for electrical
SOURCE:
of 1884, under the
H Holmes
Holmes (UK)
1884.
in
'Improvements
title:
For
this
device he was
in or applicable to switches or
conducting apparatus'.
L H A Carr and
C Wood
(London: Chapman and Hall) p 95
(1959)
1884
BATTERY
The
alkaline zinc-mercuric oxide system
number of
C L
(Zinc-Mercuric Oxide Cell)
not until early in World
was
made over
additional attempts
War
II
that a
first
Clarke (USA)
suggested by Clarke
in 1884.
Although there were a
the years to design a practical cell using this system,
commercially usable mercuric oxide dry
cell
it
was
was invented by
Ruben.
SOURCE:
'Batteries'
by
C K
Morehouse, R Glicksman and
S Lozier Proc.
IRE p 1467 (August
1958)
SEE ALSO: C L
Clarke:
'Balanced alkaline dry
US
cells'
Patent
No 298
175
(May 6 1884)
by S Ruben Trans. Electrochem. Soc. vol 92, p 183 (1947)
94
1885
TRANSFORMER
(Power)
Zipernowski,
Deri and
OT
Blathy (Hungary)
The
earliest patent
Max
covering the construction of the transformer appears to be that of Carl Zipernowski,
Deri and Otto Titus Blathy,
The
date of application
'Improvements
SOURCE:
all
of Budapest, and since
was 27 April 1885,
in Induction
was applied
this patent
and granted
for
in
can be quoted here.
this country, the British version
the patent being
numbered 5201
in that
year under the
title:
Apparatus for Transforming Electric Currents'.
L H A Carr and
C Wood
(London:
Chapman and
Hall) p 89/90
(1959)
1885
RESISTOR (Moulded Carbon

is
It
Composition Type)
S Bradley (UK)
of passing interest to note that the earliest moulded-rod composition-type resistor of which the
author has been able to trace any record dates back before the days of radio.
In 1885, a
moulded-
composition resistor was patented, comprising a mixture of carbon and rubber heated and moulded
to
shape and subsequently vulcanized to a hard body.
SOURCE:
Pt.
Ill,
'Fixed resistors for use in communication equipment' by
SEE ALSO: C
1885
S Bradley: British Patent
US
Slattery:
D C
P R Coursey.
IEE
Proc.
vol 96,
p 169 (1949)
US
Voss:
No 354
Patent
TRANSFORMER
8076/1885.
275 (1885)
No 573 558
Patent
No
(1896)
(Distribution)
For the
earliest patent
covering the use of the transformer
refer to
German
No
Patent
Deri (Austria)
system
in a distribution
it
is
33951 of 1885, since no corresponding patent was applied for
necessary to
in the
United
Kingdom.
Max
This application was made on 18 February 1885 by
under the
title
SOURCE:
(translated) of
'Improvements
L H A Carr and
Deri (in this case described as being of Vienna)
in the Distribution
of Electricity'.
C Wood
Chapman and
(London:
Hall) p 91
(1959)
1887
GRAMOPHONE
On 4 May
it
(Phonograph)
1887, Emile Berliner applied for a patent on what he called a 'Gramophone' to distinguish
from Edison's phonograph of ten years
year earlier.
The
first
support but by 1888,
groove
Berliner (USA)
in this record
figure of the
when he introduced
had
earlier
drawings
others.
This
movement,
lateral
wound on
a record
as against the vertical
a cylindrical
flat-disk record.
'hill
The
and dale' system
recording process was reminiscent of Leon Scott's
phonoantograph, which used a diaphragm and hog
lamp-blacked paper some
shows
model, he had changed to a
his first
a lateral side-to-side
which had been employed by
and from Bell's and Tainter's Graphophone of one
in Berliner's patent
bristle to trace a record
of sound vibrations on
thirty years earlier.
Berliner also used lamp-black as the recording
medium, and combined
this
method with an etching
process which permitted transfer of the original engraving to copper or nickel. Thus Berliner achieved
a
permanent master recording, and
longer did
By
artists
for the first time
1895, Berliner had developed a system utilising
groove, his
own
mass duplication of records was
possible.
No
have to repeat each number endless times.
flat
disc,
and
a coating of Bell's
many
ideas of his
own and
and Tainter's wax.
others:
Scott's lateral
The system stood up
as the
industry standard for half a century, thus Berliner deserves the mantle as the father of disk recording
and reproduction.
A Concise
SOURCE: 'Disk recording

IREp 738-9 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
and reproduction' by
first
R. Soc. Arts,
vol LVI,
633^9
pp
May
(8
Proc.
1908)
A D
human electrocardiogram was recorded

London
physiologist from
Waller (UK)
1887 by Augustus Desire Waller (1856-1922), a
in
University, born in Paris.
Willem Einthoven, professor of physiology
In 1901
B Bauer and P C Goldmark
S Bachman, B
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH
The
95
'The gramophone and the mechanical recording and reproduction of musical sounds' by
L N Reddie /
1887
at the
University of Leiden in Holland, and former
colleague of the physicist and 1908 Nobel Prize-winner Gabriel Lippmann (France), developed the loop
galvanometers. This
that
weighed 661
lb
made him
the true inventor of the electrocardiograph
and required
Carrying out an electrocardiogram
now
possible for a pregnant
The
heart.
result
people to operate
five
is
woman
(ECG),
a piece of
it.
very straightforward, though interpreting the results
on her abdomen
to place an ultrasound probe
can then be sent by the
woman by
equipment
to
who can
telephone to her doctor,
is not.
It
is
monitor her baby's

then assess the
health of the baby, thus saving everyone a great deal of time and effort.
SOURCE:
(New
1887
AERIALS
It
Inventions
and Discoveries 1993
Wave
(Radio
first
to prove the existence of electric
true antenna appears to
have been used by Hertz
1887, His antenna consisted of two

long.
The two rods were placed
balls separated
HR
Propagation)
remained for Heinrich Hertz
The
edited by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing and
Mark Young
York: Facts on File) p 172
in the
by a spark gap about
metallic plates,
flat
same
7-mm
waves
in
space as predicted by Maxwell.
in his classical
experiments
40 cm square, each attached
straight line,
long.
Hertz (Germany)
and were provided
at their
The spark gap was energised by
at
Karlsruhe
to a rod
in
cm
30
nearer ends with
Ruhmkorff
coil.
In
order to detect the radiated waves, Hertz employed a receiving circuit consisting of a circular loop of
wire broken by a microscopic gap.

to
be the proper size to be
SOURCE:
The
radius of the loop
was 35 cm which was found by experiment
resonance with the oscillator.
'Early history of the antennas and propagation field until the end of
I antennas'
SEE ALSO:
(Wiedeman)
1887
in
by P S Carter and
H H
'Ueber sehr schnelle elektrische Schwingungen' by
NF
vol 31, pp
SWITCH, QUICK
World War
I,
part
Beverage Proc. IRE p 680 (May 1962)
Physikund Chetnie
Hertz Ann.
421-448 (15 May 1887)
MAKE AND BREAK
Following Holmes' invention of the quick-break switch (see 1884) a
Holmes (UK)
later variant
provided for
a loose-
handle operating a spring over a dead centre by means of a toggle action, so that both quick-make and
quick-break were obtained. (British Patent
SOURCE:
No 5648
of 1887.)
L H A Carr and
C Wood
(London:
Chapman and
Hall) p 95
(1959)
1888
INDUCTION MOTOR
Tesla's 'master' patent covering the polyphase induction motor

Britain; the British Patent
Its title
was improvements
was granted
and
it
The
specification
SOURCE:
(1959)
No
is
in the
Tesla (USA)
was taken
out, inter alia, in Great
6481 of 1888, may therefore be used as a reference.
relating to the electrical transmission of
name of Nikola
power and
Tesla of the City and State of
New
to apparatus therefore'
York,
USA.
long and detailed with 18 diagrammatic figures.
L H A Carr and
C Wood
(London: Chapman and Hall) pp 96-7
A Concise
96
889
COMPUTERS
Hollerith
1889.
in
for tabulating population statistics for the
He used
a system of holes in a
was the
it
Hollerith
machine
such as male or female, black or white, age,
chose because
Date Order
(Tabulating Machinery)
worked on
he patented
in
be made. The machine
shown
in figure
cards were
6=j
Pascal
to
in the
USA
which
by 3^ inches
at
in size,
which he
which holes could
1.4.
Figure 11.4. Hollerith's tabulating machine (The Science Museum/ Science
1890 census
to represent various characteristics:
Each card contained 288 locations
size of a dollar bill.
is
The
etc.
punch card
(USA)
von Neuman by
H H
&
University Press) p 7 (1972) (Reprinted by permission)
SEE ALSO:
B
edited by
89
'An
electric tabulating system'
Hollerith, reprinted
STROWGER AUTOMATIC TELEPHONE

EXCHANGE
The man who
to
is
is
Almon Brown
exchange would connect the

that
would work without
was
installed in the
SOURCE:
A B
generally given the credit of inventing the
be used commercially
Strowger's business was losing
first
money
call to
because,
filings,
He
Strowger (USA)
practical
system of automatic telephony

It is
said that
was determined
to invent a
system
patented his ideas in 1889, and three years later his equipment
public automatic telephone exchange, at La Porte, Indiana,

J
Edouard Branly, physics professor
TELONDE, No
at the
USA.
Povey (Post Office Publication) p 35 (1974)

2/1977, p 16
E Branly
to 'Hertzian
USA.
called him, the operators at the telephone
other undertakers instead, and he
operators.
Story of Telephone Switching'
when subjected
first
when people
COHERER
In Paris,
The Origins of Digital Computers
Strowger, an undertaker from Kansas City,
The Telephone and the Exchange by P
SEE ALSO: The

1890
by
Randell (Berlin: Springer) p 129 (1973)
(France)
Catholic University, observed in 1890 that metal
waves' behaved very strangely. Normally,
filings
do not transmit
A Concise
an electric current because there are
air
electromagnetic waves, the filings fuse a

current.
The
filings
Branly called the
remain a conductor
little
when placed with
spaces between them but
enough
together,
little
to offer a
97
the range of
conducting path to an electric
by shaking or tapping.
until they are disturbed
glass tube in which he placed his filings a 'coherer';
it
was
the
first
form of
'detector' for electromagnetic waves.
SOURCE:
'A History of Invention' by
Larsen (London:
Dent
&
Sons) and
(New
York:
Roy
Publishers) p 278 (1971)
1891
BATTERY
In 1891,
E Weston (USA)
(Standard Weston Cell)
New
Dr Edward Weston, an Anglo-American from
1893 disclosing a
cadmium
cell in
which the electrolyte of the Clark
cell
was
temperature coefficient of e.m.f. was only about
by various workers from 1893 onwards and
a definite
40
cell
finally the
SOURCE:
was assigned the value of 1.01830
cadmium amalgam,
London Conference held

result of the
work of
Patent
in
the depolariser
improvement on the Clark
cell since the
in
this
made
1908 authorised the
committee, Weston's
international volts at 20C.
'Standard cells by Muirhead' Muirhead Technique vol 18,
SEE ALSO: Weston cell USA
which was granted
a saturated solution of
p.V/C. Considerable improvements were
appointment of a special international committee. As a
1893
was replaced by
sulphate and the zinc negative electrode was replaced by
being mercurous sulphate as before. This
cadmium
Jersey, filed a patent
cell
No 494 827
No
3,
p 19 (July 1964)
(1893); also British Patent 640 812, 797 381
WAVEGUIDES
Thomson (UK)
J J
(See also page 140.)
Perhaps the
the
first
analysis suggesting the possibility of
book 'Recent Researches
in Electricity
waves
hollow pipes appeared
in
and Magnetism' by
J J
written as a sequel to Maxwell's 'Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism'

the hypothetical question of
what might
wall of a closed metal cylinder.
result if an electric
Even now,
with resonance in hollow metal chambers.
this
problem
A much more
in
1893
in
Thomson. This book, which was

examined mathematically
charge should be released on the interior

of considerable interest
is
in
connection
significant analysis, relating particularly
to propagation through dielectrically filled pipes, both of circular
and rectangular cross section, was
published in 1897 by Lord Rayleigh.
SOURCE:
'Survey and history of the progress of the microwave
arts'
by
G C
Southworth Proc. IRE
p 1199 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
Recent Researches
'On the passage of

Phil.
1895
Mag.
electric
in Electricity
and Magnetism by
waves through tubes or
Thomson p 344 (1893)
the vibrations of dielectric cylinders'
Lord Rayleigh
vol 43, p 125 (February 1897)
W K Rontgen (Germany)
X-RAYS
On
J J
November
1895, while experimenting with a Crookes's tube (see
opaque shield of black cardboard, Rontgen noticed
that,
when
Crookes) covered with an
a current passed through the tube, a
nearby piece of paper painted with barium platinocyanide fluoresced.
In a series of classical papers
(1895-7) he described the properties of the new, so-called X-rays, but
his attempts to detect their
interference by crystals were unsuccessful.
SOURCE: A
Williams (London:
Adam
and Charles Black)
p 448 (1969)
1896
TELEPHONE DIAL
E A
Keith,
J Erickson and J
Erickson (UK)
The
early
Strowger,
automatic telephone systems of Connolly, Connolly, and McTighe, of Sinclair, and of

all
used push-buttons which the caller was required to press a number of times depending
98
When
on the number of the telephone he wanted.
numbers became
automatic exchanges beame larger, and telephone
was no longer
longer, this type of signalling
Erickson, and John Erickson invented the telephone
SOURCE: The
1896
Telephone and the Exchange by P
2 June 1896, Marconi took out
Marconi
United Kingdom the
in the
E A
in 1896,
Keith,
based on Hertz's discoveries, though exploiting radiations of a
at first
roof of the
patent for wireless telegraphy
first
much
longer wavelength. His apparatus

its
signals
transmitted over one hundred yards, a satisfactory demonstration being arranged from the
London General Post
when Marconi formed
year,
(Italy)
consisted of a tube-like receiver or 'coherer' connected to an earth and an elevated aerial,
were
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
On
and
practical,
dial.
except
in all countries
Italy; this later
Telegraph
SOURCE: A
Company
in
suspended from a
aerial
London
in
developed world-wide
were made on 12 December 1901 from Poldhu

were received through an
communication was established
Office. Ship to shore
a Wireless
Cornwall
in the following
for the exploitation of his patents
His
affiliations.
first
transatlantic signals
Newfoundland, where they
to St John's,
kite.
Adam
Williams (London:
and Charles Black)
p 352 (1969)
897
ELECTRON
By improving
Thomson (UK)
J J
the
vacuum of Hertz's cathode
ray experiments,
Thomson
got deflections which,
combined
with the long-known deflections by a magnet determined the ratio of the charge to the mass of the
supposed
particles.
This ratio e/m was over 1000 times larger than the ratio for hydrogen, the lightest
atom known. Thomson considered
that this
was due
smallness of the mass and that particles
to the
with this small mass were universal constituents of matter, since they were the
same whatever
chemical nature of the gas carrying the discharge and the electrodes through which
He examined two
charged particles with the same e/m
ratio as the
drops from their rate of

as far as this
fall.
The
cathode rays, and
on the
the actual charge by condensing drops of water
particles to
was then known. Thomson
SOURCE: A
p 51
in the
form
In both he
light.
second was able
to
found
measure
a mist, finding the size of the
supposed value of the charge on a hydrogen
results agreed with the
called these
adopted the word 'electron' invented a few years before by
atom regarded
the
left.
other cases of the discharge of electricity, namely, those from a hot wire negatively
charged and from a negatively charged zinc plate illuminated by ultra-violet
atom
entered and
it
new
J
light particles 'corpuscles' but later
Stoney for the charge on
hydrogen
as a natural unit of charge.
Adam
Williams (London:
and Charles Black)
(1969)
SEE ALSO: The
D L
Discovery of the Electron by
Anderson (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold)
(1964)
'The
897
first
subatomic
particle'
by
Frisch
New
Scientist p
408 (17 November 1977)
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOGRAPH

The cathode-ray oscilloscope
by Ferdinand Braun
the electron by
its
in
F Braun (Germany)
for the study of the time variation of electron currents
1897, the
same year
in
which
J J
Thomson measured
deflection in electric and magnetic fields.
cathode-ray oscillograph
at the
Ferdinand Braun constructed the
first
University of Strassbourg in 1897.
Just like the early X-ray tube, the 'Braun tube' used gas discharge
formation of an electron beam.

ray tubes by Wehnelt in
was developed
the specific charge of
Even
phenomena
after the introduction of a thermionic
mm
1905 an argon atmosphere of about 10~ 3
commercial oscilloscopes for another 25 years.
The
for the emission
and
cathode into cathode-
Hg was
still
retained in
effect of ion focusing facilitated the formation
of long, filamentary, electron beams.
SOURCE:
995 (May 1962)
Schlesinger and
Ramberg
Proc.
IRE
p 991,
SEE ALSO: 'On

Wiedemann's
method
552 (1897)
Thomson
J J
and study of currents varying with time', by F Braun
for the demonstration
Alln. vol 60, p
'Cathode rays' by
99
Phil.
Mag.
vol 4, p 293 (1897)
'Ferdinand Braun and the cathode ray tube' by
Shiers Scientific
American
vol 230. p 92
(March
1974)
1897
RESISTOR (Carbon
The
T E Gambrell and A F
Film Type)
of carbon-film resistor was also used
earliest type
when
apparently forgotten
the greater
demand
arose.
Harris (UK)
many years before broadcasting and it was

Some of these carbon-film resistors, notably
those formed by spraying or otherwise applying the conducting coating and then baking on to a glass
filament,
were enclosed inside a glass tube with metal end-caps sealed on
for terminal connections
and
with terminals connected to the filament coating by casting into a metal such as type-metal.
SOURCE:
Ill,
'Fixed resistors for use in communication equipment' by P
SEE ALSO: T E Gambrell and A F

1898
Harris: British Patent
one
really
he found
'It
Proc.
IEE
vol 96,
pt.
No 25412/1897
MAGNETIC RECORDING
No
R Coursey
p 170(1949)
knowns how
Poulsen (Denmark)
the idea of magnetic recording occurred to Poulsen. During his experiments
that:
would be possible
recorded on
it
to
magnetize a wire
to different
degrees so close together that sound could be
by running the current from a microphone through an electromagnet and by either drawing
the wire rapidly past the electromagnet or drawing the electromagnet rapidly past the wire.'
This invention had several things to
by de-magnetizing
Poulsen invented
1900.
He
filed
commend
it:
the wire or tape could be used over and over again
and recordings could be played thousands of times without destroying the quality.
it
this
Telegraphone
in
1898; with
an application for a Danish patent
he
it
won
the
Grand Prix
Paris Exposition in
at the
1898 and within two years he had
in
filed additional
patent applications in the United States and most European countries. These early patents suggested,
as recording media, steel wires
though he himself used only

Poulsen are
still
SOURCE: The
applied in
and tapes and discs of material coated with magnetisable metallic dust,
steel
all
wire and tape in his machinery. The basic principles enunciated by
types of
Source of Invention by
modern magnetic
J
Jewkes,
recorders.
Sawers and
Stillerman (London:
MacMillan
&
Co.) p 326 (1958)
SEE ALSO:
1900
'The development of the magnetic tape recorder' Engineer (18 March 1949)
CAPACITORS
L Lombardi
(Ceramic)
Ceramic materials have been used
for
many
years as electrical insulators.
severe working conditions because they are vitrified by firing
Being completely
inert they will withstand their rated
at
(Italy)
They
are able to withstand
temperatures of the order of 1200 C.
working voltage indefinitely and
retain their shape
and physical characteristics under normal conditions.
SOURCE:
Fixed Capacitors (2nd edn) by
SEE ALSO: 'An improved
'Dielectric losses
by
A Dummer
(London: Pitman) p
process for manufacturing thin
applicable for use in electrical condensers'

'Permittivity of titania'
L Lombardi,
homogenous
British Patent
Schmidt Ann. Phys. Lpz. vol
4, p
No
15 (1956)
plates,
9133,
more
filed
particularly
May
17 1900.
959 (1902)
and breakdown strength of porcelain' by F Beldi Brown Boveri Rev. vol
18. p
172
(May 1931)
'Insulating materials of the steatite group' by
E Schonberg
Elektrotech. Z. vol 54, p 545 (June 1933)
100
No 440951/1934
Tubular metallized ceramic capacitors. Porzellanfabrikkahla, Germany. British Patent
1900
BATTERY
TA
(Nickel-Iron Cell)
The nickel-iron-alkaline
form
to
same
batteries as they exist today are essentially the
around 1900 and marketed
grouped together
Edison (USA)
1908.
in
The negative electrode
as discovered
by Edison
consists of pockets of active material
a plate, while the positive plate is an
assembly of perforated nickel tubes
with nickel hydroxide and nickel.
filled
SOURCE:
by
'Batteries'
C K
Morehouse,
R Glicksman
and
IRE p 1478 (August
S Lozier Proc.
1958)
SEE ALSO: The
Edison nickel-iron-alkaline
by F
cell'
C Anderson
Electrochetn.
J.
Soc.
vol 99,
p 244C(1952)
1900
QUANTUM THEORY
Max
Planck had propounded
always
1900 the theory
in
of packets of
in a collection
the distribution of the energy found in the light

at
energy
not emitted in a continuous flow, but
is
driven to accept this view
in
order to explain
from hot bodies such as the sun. His conception struck
the principle of continuity as the comprehensive basis of nature.
SOURCE:
1900
that
He was
finite size.
Planck (Germany)
Science at
BATTERY
War by
(Nickel-Cadmium
Crowther and
R Whiddington
Cell)
HMSO)
(London:
Junger
&
Berg (Sweden)
1900
is
closely related to the nickel-
The nickel-cadmium
battery discovered by Junger and Berg about
iron Edison battery.
Both are mechanically rugged and
will withstand electrochemical
they can be overcharged, overdischarged, or stand idle in a discharged condition.
from the Edison battery
battery differs
SOURCE:
by
'Batteries'
C K
in the
Morehouse,
use of
cadmium anodes
R Glicksman
(1947) p 124
and
abuse
in that
The nickel-cadmium
in place of iron.
IRE p 1478 (August
S Lozier Proc.
1958)
SEE ALSO:
1901
Storage Batteries by
Vinal 4th edn
(New
York: Wiley) (1955)
RADIO: HEAVISIDE/KENNELLY LAYER
Heaviside (UK) and
A Kennedy
(USA)
When Marconi
in
succeeded
first
in establishing radio
communication around the curvature of the earth
1901, Oliver Heaviside in England and Arthur Kennelly in the
might be due to the existence of an ionized layer
in the
USA
proposed
that the
phenomena
upper atmostphere surrounding the earth which
could reflect radio waves. However, another explanation was that the waves were detectable because
of diffraction around the earth's curvature, a phenomenon which would be more observable, the longer
bending of the wavefront which would
the wavelength used.
Another explanation could be
occur
constant of the atmosphere should progressively change with altitude due to the
if the dielectric
effects of temperature, density
The observation of
the
that of the
and moisture.
waves of high frequency drew renewed
attention to the proposals of Heaviside
and Kennelly. Their hypothetical layer was dubbed the Heaviside-Kennelly
Breit
layer.
and Tuve
in
1926, definitely confirmed the existence of several such layers by sounding the atmosphere with short
pulses sent from a transmitter on earth which were reflected from the layers back to a receiver adjacent
to the transmitter.
The time delay
identified the height of each reflection
and determined physical
characteristics of the nature of the reflection and the degree of penetration as a function of frequency.
The Breit-Tuve experiments were
a predecessor of later radar techniques.
the earlier experimenters began to be explainable and even predictable.
was renamed
the 'Ionosphere'
The vagaries observed by
The region of
and the individual layers designated the D, E,
F|
the several layers
and F2
layers, the
layer being the lowest.
SOURCE:
'Telecommunications
resume' by
Levitt Proc.
the resource not depleted by use.
IEEE
vol 64,
No
9,
historical
and philosophical
SEE ALSO:
28, p
1901
'A
test
Breit and
Tuve Phys. Rev.
vol
first
P Cooper-Hewitt (USA)
low-pressure mercury discharge lamp was introduced
American individual
by Peter Cooper-Hewitt, the
mercury early
effect of a discharge through

inefficient
inventor.
at the
beginning of the twentieth century
Humphrey Davy had discovered
Sir
by modern standards, though better than contemporary incandescent lamps;

It
differed
the
Cooper-Hewitt's lamp was
in the nineteenth century.
the characteristic bluelight of the mercury discharge lamp.

in
of the existence of the conducting layers' by
101
FLUORESCENT LAMP
The
also produced
it
from the modern fluorescent lamp
being designed to produce visible radiation, not ultra-violet. In 1901 he used rhodamine dye, which
fluoresces red, to improve the light's colour, but the rhodamine deteriorated too rapidly for this to be
a success.
The Moore and neon discharge lamps, introduced
much
at
Hewitt, also contributed to the development of the fluorescent lamp.

individual inventor,
was
the
first
in constructing lasting electrodes.
modify
its
to
apply to hot cathode used on
the
same time
as the
Cooper-
McFarlan Moore, an American
and he also anticipated Wehhelt
it,
Georges Claude's introduction of the neon tube, and the desire
powders and
colour, stimulated interest in fluorescent
to
in
means of employing them with
Stellerman (London: MacMillan)
lamp.
SOURCE:
The Sources of Invention by
Jewkes,
Sawers and
pp 298/9 (1958)
SEE ALSO:
1902
'Lighting by luminescence' by
Claude Light and Lighting
INDUCTION MOTOR (SYNCHRONOUS)

Danielson's synchronous induction motor
invention which was complete at
It
was not patented
in
its first
is
June 1939)
Danielson (Sweden)
an excellent example of the sudden appearance of an
inception.
Great Britain, but the
694092 of 25 February 1902 granted
(3
to Ernst
information
full
is
available in United States Patent No.
Danielson of Westeras, Sweden
After relating the advantages of the over-magnetised synchronous motors for eliminating lag (of current)
and referring
to the difficulty
of starting such machines, the specification proceeds:
'The invention consists, briefly,
combination with an ordinary induction-motor and a suitable
in
resistance for connecting to the secondary element of said motor, a source of continuous electric
currents (and) a switch arrangement so connected that the secondary part of the motor
may by means
of said switch arrangement either be connected to the said resistance or to the said source of continuous
currents'.
With reference
'When
to the self-synchronizing action, the specification states:
the exciting current
is
supplied, the motor
one, provided, however, that the exciting-current
The drawing and diagram of connections (showing

to the specification are completely up-to-date,
is
is
changed from an asynchronous
to a
synchronous
strong enough to pull the motor in step.'
a three-phase-secondary
and were
it
not for the
winding) which are attached
somewhat archaic
outlines of the
machines, might have been taken from a present-day text book or manufacturer's pamphlet.
SOURCE:
L H A Carr and
C Wood
(London: Chapman and Hall) (1959)
pp 97/8
1902
SPONTANEOUS ATOMIC CHANGE

Very swift and
brilliant analysis
of the
six years after the original discovery
of atoms.
They
E Rutherford and F Soddy (UK)
phenomena
led Rutherford
and Soddy
to
announce
in 1902,
only
of radioactivity, their theory of the spontaneous disintegration
asserted that atoms, the very foundation of matter and nature, were exploding, and
not according to any rule, but merely by chance. Einstein has said that he 'could not believe that the
Almighty had organised the world according

chance as the
first
to the
throwing of dice'.
It
needed
a bold spirit to adopt
principle in the explanation of the transmutation of the fundamental atoms of matter.
A Concise
02
Rutherford forthwith bent his
He proved
atoms are not
that
planets round the sun of a miniature solar system. Nearly

the nucleus,
little
few distant electrons circulating round a
structures, consisting of a
made
genius to the task. Within nine years he had
full
the general structure of the atom.
which carried a positive
the
all
the rays reveal
hard balls, but very spacious
relatively
heavy nucleus,
like the
mass of the atom was concentrated
electric charge exactly balancing the
sum of
in
the negative electric
charges carried by the circulating electrons.
SOURCE:
1904
War by
Science at
Crowther and
R Whiddington
TWO ELECTRODE TUBE

Fleming received
(1947) p 123
Fleming (UK)
London, where he attended London University;
his early education in
was appointed
four years at Cambridge, and he
HMSO)
(London:
later
Edison Electric Light
'electrician' to the
he spent
Company
in
1882. During a visit to the United States in 1884 he visited Edison to discuss electric lighting problems,
and
it
moment
of particular
is
made
discovery he had
had been sealed, Edison found
plate
when
that
He used
was very
showed
It
interested in the
that 'the space
was on 16 November 1904
No 24850
Specification
SOURCE:
plate
'Fleming and de Forest

1
an
was
glass dielectric capacitor
immersed
to
stations.
in
to
Fleming
which he
street for electricity'.
in
British Patent
appreciation' by Captain
manufactured
later
modified form, using
in a
C F Booth IEE Pub.
Thermionic Valves
for
in tubular
Moscicki (UK)
form known as the Moscicki tube
Marconi's early experiments
in practical wireless
glass plates interleaved with zinc sheets and
flat
all
continued to provide the condensers for the spark wireless transmitting apparatus up
in oil,
and including part
SOURCE:
one-way
to the
(1955)
which provided the only form of capacitor available

communication; and
power
Fleming (1849-1945) described
CAPACITORS: GLASS (TUBULAR)

The
is
a metal
a two-electrode valve for the rectification of high-frequency alternating currents.
1904-1954 (London: IEE) p

1904
that Professor J
which
home, carried out researches
his return
between the filament and the metal
in
galvanometer
when connection was made
the device to regulate the supply voltage in
phenomenon, and, on
lamp
was connected through
the plate
positive terminal of the filament a current flowed, but no current flowed
the negative terminal.
Edison demonstrated a
to the story of the valve that, during the visit,
a year before the Edison effect. Using a carbon-filament
at least
of the 1914-18 war period.
'Electrical capacitors in
our everyday
by P
life'
R Coursey ERA Journal No
6,
p 10 (January
1959)
SEE ALSO:
Moscicki 'Improvements
in electric
condensers', British Patent
No
1307, filed 18 January
1904
1905
INSULATED SODIUM CONDUCTOR

The concept of using sodium
patent
was issued
issued to
that 'the
Anson
as an electrical conductor
for this purpose. In 1905
Betts,
who
sodium be enclosed
A G
is
hardly a
Betts
new
(USA)
Back
one.
and 1906, French and American
in 1901, a basic
Swiss
patents, respectively,
were
recognised the favourable economics of the metal. His patent specified
prefereably hermeticallyby
a sheathing of substantially nonoxidizable
reinforcing material.'
In 1927,
H H Dow and R H Boundy
in steel pipes,
and
in
1930,
Dow
of the
Dow
Chemical Company began
constructed a line 10
together 6-metre lengths of sodium-filled steel pipe.

plant in Midland, Mich,
current.
The
SOURCE:
'Insulated
(November 1966)
in
sodium conductors
J
Steeve,
a future trend'
I
experiment with sodium
long, by joining
This uninsulated conductor operated
work have been published
Schneider,
to
diameter by 260
for about ten years at currents ranging
results of this experimental
E Ruprecht, P H Ware, E
cm
by
from 500
to
at
4000 amperes
Dow's
direct
in considerable detail.
L E Humphrey, R C
F Matthysse and E
Scoran
Hess,
Addis,
IEEE Spectrum p 73
Concise Description of Each Invention
SEE ALSO: 'Sodium in pipe successful

No 26, p 852 (24 December 1932)
R H Boundy
'A 4000-ampere sodium conductor' by
by
as electrical conductor'
in
Date Order
R H Boundy
103
Elec. World, vol 100,
Soc pp 151-60 (September
Trans. Electrochemical
1932)
Cooling Electrical Machines and Cables by
T De
Koning (The Hague, Netherlands: Groothertoginne)
pp 202-32 (1955)
1905
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
The
constant under
is
of nature, and
it
began
to
From
line
this
were
conditions.
all
released,
Space and time, which according
there
Mass could be conceived
would be
in a unit
of mass.
If a
to turn nearly
that
it
Science at
mass of one ounce of matter could be transformed
a vast
into energy,
War by
Crowther and
R Whiddington
(London:
applied for a patent on 23
H C Dun woody
distinction of being used in
March 1906.
It
HMSO)
one of the
first
Henry
this
crystal rectifiers.
form of holder and battery bias
its
for
first
Ironically,
the
He was never compensated
for
good
results,
'The crystal detector' by
Douglas IEEE Spectrum p 66 (April 1981)
Fessenden (USA)
documented successful broadcasting of speech and music was conducted by
Fessenden
at
kw
Modulation was accomplished by means of
belived to have been water-cooled and which

at
many
was connected
antenna
in the
New York City, in

in New York City.
1908 from the
Eiffel
SOURCE: 'AM
(1938)
microphone which
Clear reception
Tower
in Paris,
and
in
in
1907 from
his laboratory in
1910 from the Metropolitan Opera House
These experiments, which were conducted with arc transmitters of about 500 watts
power, modulated by microphones
by the high noise
circuit.
locations including ships at sea.
Subsequently, Dr Lee de Forest conducted experimental broadcasting
SEE ALSO:
Reginald
of power and which was built by the General Electric Co., under the
W Alexanderson.
Dr E F
was obtained
Dr.
Brant Rock, Mass., on Christmas Eve, 1906, utilizing a 50 kc radio-frequency alternator
which produced about

direction of
is
after a lengthy legal
practicable.
newly invented carborundum, showing
RADIO BROADCASTING
The
The
H C Dunwoody, who
consulting work.
SOURCE:
1906
was not yet commercially
Forest's Audion, only recently invented,
the proper
(1947) p 125
saved the day for de Forest's company, which had just
was Pickard who helped de Forest's company use
company
would produce
it
(USA)
been enjoined from infringing on the electrolytic detector of Reginald Fessenden
it
energy was
and proportionate
one million tons of water into steam.
carborundum the
Silicon shares with
When
would be enormous.
use of carborundum was discovered by an associate of de Forest, Gen.
De
seemed
and he even calculated how
as congealed energy;
He found
CRYSTAL DETECTOR (CARBORUNDUM)
battle.
motions
to all the
to the old ideas
mass disappeared. The annihilation of mass would be accompanied by
SOURCE:
1906
was extended
relativity
of development, Einstein showed that mass and energy were one of these pairs of
output of energy.
enough
The theory of
of relativity seen to be two different aspects of one underlying unity.
in the light
interchangeable aspects.
much energy
(USA)
be evident that many apparently different things were the same fundamental
thing seen from different points of view.

utterly different,
Einstein
of relativity was proposed by Einstein in 1905 to explain the observed fact that the
brilliant theory
speed of light
in the
antenna-ground system, while successful, were handicapped
level inherent in arc transmitters.
and
FM
Broadcasting' by
'History of radio to 1926' by
R F Guy
G L
Proc.
IRE p
81
(May 1962)
Archer (New York: The American Historical Society)
A Concise
104
1906
in
Date Order
THREE-ELECTRODE TUBE
While Fleming was developing
on somewhat similar
States
electrode valve a triode
L
his two-electrode valve,
de Forest (USA)
Dr Lee de Forest was working
in the
as a device for amplifying feeble electric currents, the amplification being
achieved by using a voltage on the intermediate electrode (grid) to control the plate current.
months
later
United
and on 25 October 1906, de Forest applied for a patent for a three-
lines,
few
de Forest extended the patent to cover the use of the valve as a detector. The introduction
of the third electrode to provide an amplifier as compared with the two-electrode
extended the potential applications of the thermionic valve, and much credit
very greatly
rectifier
due
is
to
de Forest for his
achievement.
Unfortunately, the invention of the triode led to considerable bitterness and litigation involving Fleming
and de Forest, the former insisting
on
his
own
two-electrode valve.
to the
On
end of
aware of Fleming's patent before taking out

addition of the grid
when
1943,
until
his long life that de Forest's
the other hand, de Forest has

his
own.
Initially the
was dependent on Fleming's work. The
the United States
Supreme Court decided
work was dependent
always maintained
American courts held
that
he was not
that
de Forest's
story of the patent litigation did not end
that the original
Fleming patent had always
been invalid.
SOURCE:
'Fleming and de Forest
1904-1954 (London: IEE) p

1907
an
appreciation' by Captain
GONIOMETER
The
direction of aircraft on long-distance routes can be plotted
making
possible,
SOURCE:
Booth lEEPub. Thermionic Valves
A Artom
to the invention of the radio-goniometer

is
CF
2 (1955)
the old,
cumbersome
by
Italian
(Italy)
more accurately than ever before, thanks
Alessandro Artom.
Now
navigation by radio waves
slide-rule calculations obsolete.
The Timetable of Technology (London:
Michael Joseph and Marshall Editions) p 26
(November 1982)
1907
CRYSTAL DETECTOR (PERIKON)
W Pickard (USA)
In addition to the silicon detectors, Wireless Specialty sold detectors using other minerals discovered
Pickard in
November
1907: Pyron (iron pyrite) and Perikon (zincite in contact with chalcopyrite).
name Perikon was coined from PERfect pIcKard cONtact. Each mineral had
most
sensitive, but
heavy
to
own
its
field:
Perikon was
be readjusted often, whereas silicon was very stable and able to withstand
static discharges.
SOURCE:
1908
had
by
The
'The crystal detector' by
Douglas IEEE Spectrum p 66 (April 1981)
ELECTRONIC ORGAN
Beginning with the 1900s there were many attempts
vacuum tube
(USA)
to offer electric or electronic substitutes for organs,
but none enjoyed any degree of commercial success.

electrostatic prerecordings,
Cahill
They were based on
photo-optics, magnetic or
or neon lamp oscillators, or amplified
blown
reeds, etc.
of these, called the Telharmonium, was invented by Thadius Cahill and demonstrated
size of a small power-generating station,
the frequencies of the scale.
it
in
1908.
One
The
consisted of almost a hundred alternator generators for
Then through
all
console of switches, synthesised musical signals were
transmitted over telephone lines without benefit of amplifiers.

In
1935
Mr
Laurens
Hammond, based on
his
synchronous
electric clock, invented the first
successful mass-produced electric organ that started an industry.
over the world have joined
this industry, offering
instruments
Since then,
in a variety
commercially
many manufacturers
all
of sizes and prices that have
transformed modern music
SOURCE:
Book (London:
Newnes-Butterworth) chap.
(1976)
SEE ALSO: T
Cahill:
US
Patent
No
1295691 (25 February 1919)
17,
p 17-2
A Concise
L Hammond: US
1908
Patent
No 1956350
this time,
105
E Rutherford and H Geiger (UK)
experiments were being conducted with the collection of current by a positive wire
and negative cylinder arrangement

were reported
Date Order
(24 April 1934)
GEIGER COUNTER
About
in
that
were
have a profound effect on science. These experiments
to
paper by Rutherford and Geiger, which showed that the number of charges of an
in a
ionizing event could be multiplied several thousand times by the ionising action of electrons in the high
field
region near the wire.
tubes and
now
This was the
start
simply Geiger counter tubes.
of what for a time were called Gieger-Muller counter
The technique of
was
the proportional type of counter
established in 1928, and the following year, schemes for determining the coincidence of ionising events
were presented. Thus direction,
scattering, absorption, etch types of
experiments were possible and the
modern era of cosmic-ray and nuclear research developed.
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO: E
1908
Rutherford and
TELEVISION
Geiger Proc.
A, vol 81, p 612 (1908)
R. Soc.
A A Campbell-Swinton (UK)
(Electronic)
Boris Rosing, of the
St.
Petersburg Technological Institute, seems to have been the
As
thought of using Braun's tube for the reception of images.
remote
Nipkow
electric vision, with a
tube as the receiver. At about the
first
physicist
who
early as 1907 he suggested a system of
disc for scanning the scene to be transmitted and a cathode-ray
same time
AA
the English inventor,
Campbell-Swinton, also proposed
a system of electronic television, but with cathode-ray tubes for transmission as well as for reception.
He published
his ideas in the scientific
and 1920, explaining
that the
magazine Nature
image transmitted
from, about 400 000 points of different light value within
SOURCE: A
p323
1909
History of Invention by
Larsen (London:
1908, and elaborated them again
in
way could be
in this
up
split
in
1911
and reassembled
into,
of a second.
&
Dent
Sons)
(New
York:
Roy
Publishers)
(1971)
FERRITES
(HF)
Hilpert (Germany) and J
L Snoek
(Holland)
The
first
proposal for high-frequency application was
synthesised such
come about
until
ferrites.
However,
Snoek from
the practical
made
in
Germany
in
1909 by Hilpert,
who
first
development and exploration of these materials did not
the Philips Laboratories in Holland carried out extensive investigations
on the high-frequency properties of such materials
as
manganese and nickel
ferrite
well into the
UHF
region.
SOURCE:
B Lax and
'Solid-state devices other than semiconductors' by
Mavroides Proc IRE
p 1012 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
Ferriten
'Genetische und konstitutive
und Eisenoxyden' by
New Developments
1910
in
Zusammenhange
Ferromagnetic Materials by
The majority of cold cathode tubes use
Sir
the
den magnetischen Eigenschaften bei
L Snoek (New
NEON LAMP
Development of
in
Hilpert Berichte deutsch chemisch, Gesell vol 42, p
a gas
filling
William Ramsay discovered neon.
Ten years
later
Claude (France)
is
the
principal
constituent.
said to date from 1898, the year in
Georges Claude began
quantities of a helium-neon mixture and in 1910 Claude exhibited

the precursors of the familiar
York: Elsevier) (1947)
of which neon
modern cold cathode tube may thus be
2248-61 (1909)
two
38-ft.
neon sign and decorative lighting tube of today,
which
to isolate substantial
neon tubes. These were

in
which the
light
comes
principally from the long positive column.
Filament lamps and electric power were both expensive

incentive to develop a cheap and robust
at that time.
There was accordingly
lamp of low power consumption and
a strong
suitable for use
on
A Concise
106
H E Watson
domestic supply voltages. Professor

of the domestic neon lamp,
first in
Germany
has described the work which led to the appearance
1918 and
in
neon
substantially reduced, the design of a 'beehive'
110
Date Order
in
The
fall.
USA
activity in the
Holland.
Once
sputtering had been
supplies presented few problems. For
was required
supplies, however, an alloy or activated cathode
the cathode
later in
220
for
in
order sufficiently to reduce
successful development of such a tube by Philips in Holland stimulated renewed
and eventually,
1929, the General Electric Co., produced a miniature neon
in
indicator.
SOURCE:
'A survey of cold cathode discharge tybes' by
Neale The Radio and Electronic
Engineering p 87 (February 1964)
SEE ALSO: 'The development of the neon glow lamp

No 4793, p 1040-1 (9 September 1961)
1911
(1911-61)' by
ATOMIC THEORY
The general model of
H E Watson
Nature vol 191,
Lord Rutherford (UK)

the
atom was
proposed by Rutherford
first
in
1911 and consisted of a nucleus
of protons and neutrons, about which rotated electrons in orbits. Such a system appears not unlike our
solar
system
SOURCE:
1911
in a scale relative to the size
'Semiconductor electronics
1.
of the components.
Solid-state physics' Electro-Technology p 95 (October 1960)
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
The discovery of superconductivity
dates back to 1911
Onnes (Netherlands)
when Kamerlingh Onnes was
carrying out a
systematic investigation at Leiden of the electrical resistivity of metals in the range of low temperatures
opened up by
helium
his recent liquefaction of
in
resistance below
SOURCE:
that temperature; in short, the metal
415 K, and was unable
to detect
any remaining
had become superconducting.
Materials for Conductive and Resistive Functions by
Book Co.) p
measurements he
In the course of these
1908.
observed a sudden drop in the resistance of mercury at
A Dummer (New
York: Hayden
121
H K Commun. Phys. Lab., University of Leiden, No 119b ('Further

No 120b (The resistance of pure mercury at helium temperatures.
Further experiments with liquid helium'); No 122b ('Disappearance of the electrical resistance of
mercury at helium temperatures'); No 124c
SEE ALSO:
1911 Onnes
experiments with liquid helium');
1913 Onnes
1914 Onnes
H K Commun.
H K Commun.
resistance in supra conductors
1912
No
Phys. Lab. University of Leiden,
Lab., University of Leiden,
Phys.
when brought
into a
magnetic
133b, Suppl.
No
No
34
139f ('Appearance of galvanic
field')
TUNG AR RECTIFIER
Langmuir (USA)
During the spring and summar of 1912, Dr. Irving Langmuir of General Electric became interested and
active in the development of the gas-filled, tungsten-filament, incandescent lamp. These early laboratory
lamps were constructed with heavy-coiled tungsten-spiral filaments

bulb space around the filament was relatively small so that
few drops of mercury were placed
it
that operated at
would operate
at
low voltage. The
high temperature and a
There was usually another portion of the bulb where
in the bulb.
the mercury vapour condensed and ran back into the filament portion.
These lamps were frequently
As one of
tested
by operation from a 110
was
the objects of these tests
to study the life
temperatures, there were frequent burnouts.

out during operations, an arc formed
In all of this early
on the arc as a
work
rectifier
at
dc line through a series resistance.
was noticed
that,
when
the filament
at
very high
sometimes burned
the break.
the primary interest
were made
It
and characteristics of the lamp
at that
was
time.
in the arc as a
source of light and apparently no
However, one of the men sketched
filament and a separate anode plus liquid mercury.
tests
a tube with a hot
A
In the early part of
it
became
in
Date Order
107
1915 the possible need for a garage battery charger was considered and during 1916
a going concern.
SOURCE:
1912
'Early history of industrial electronics' by
CLOUD CHAMBER
W C White Proc.
CT R
(For Revealing the Ionisation
IRE p
130 (May 1962)
Wilson (UK)
Tracks of Radioactive Particles)

His intention was to produce an
to
occur
that
was then believed
it
even
artificial
that
cloud by the adiabatic expansion of moist
air.
For condensation
each droplet required a nucleus of dust. However, Wilson showed
complete absence of dust particles some condensation was possible, and
in the
He was
greatly facilitated by exposure to X-rays.
much
the necessary nuclei (1896-7). After
labour he produced, in 191
showed up
the paths of single charged particles
that
it
was
led to conclude that charged atoms (or ions) were

1,
his
Cloud Chamber,
which
in
as trails of minute water droplets.
The Wilson Cloud Chamber, sometimes modified
modern
or refined, has been an indispensable tool of
physics ever since.
SOURCE: A
Williams (London:
Adam
and Charles Black)
p 564 (1969)
1912
RELAY AUTOMATIC TELEPHONE EXCHANGE
GA
N G Palmgren
Betulander and
(Sweden)
The
idea of using relays as switching circuits in a telephone exchange
conceived
in
1912 by
Although
selector.
to the selector
RADIO
Betulander and
name
is less
N G
known, Betulander
well
was by no means new;
it
was
first
Palmgren of Sweden who also developed the crossbar

the relay
is to
exchange what Strowger
is
exchange.
SOURCE: The
1912
his
GA
W H Eccles (UK)
(Ionospheric propagation)
Following Marconi's success
in
1901 in transmitting signals across the Atlantic, Kennelly and Heaviside
postulated the existence of a conducting (ionized) layer in the earth's upper atmosphere and suggested
might cause the waves
that such a layer
to follow the curvature of the earth.
After
it
became
clear that
diffraction could not explain the substantial field strengths actually received at great distance, increased
attention
was directed
to this proposal of
an ionised region.
The theory of radio-wave propagation through

on the ionizing
Larmor
effect of solar radiation,
the ionosphere
based on work by Eccles
1924 re-examined the work of Eccles and others and ascribed the major
in
effect to the presence of free electrons in large numbers.
and developed by Appleton, Hartree and others

magnetic
is
field, is
work was
later
now
in
1912,
and on the effective refractive index of an ionized medium.
The Eccles-Larmor
to include the effect
part of the refractive
theory, as later extended
of anisotropy due to the earth's
considered the basic theory of radio-wave propagation in the ionosphere. This
extended by Booker and others
to
cover oblique propagation
in a
nonhomogeneous
ionosphere.
SOURCE:
'Radio-wave propagation between World Wars
and
II'
by S S Attwood Proc. IRE p 689
(May 1962)
SEE ALSO: 'On
the diurnal variations of the electric
of electric waves round the bend of the earth' by
waves occurring
in nature
Eccles Proc. R. Soc.
and on the propagation

vol 87,
pp 79-99 (June
1912)
1912
CIRCUITRY
The regenerative
circuit
was invented
States and by Meissner in

finally
decided
E H Armstrong and I
Langmuir (USA) and A Meissner
(Germany)
de Forest,
(Regenerative)
in
Germany.
de Forest's favour.
in
1912 by de Forest, Armstrong and Langmuir
After 20 years of litigation, the United States
in the
United
Supreme Court
A Concise Description of Each Invention
108
RF
In the regenerative detector circuit
give positive feedback
at
energy
Date Order
in
is
fed back from the anode circuit to the grid circuit to
the carrier frequency, thereby increasing the sensitivity of the circuit.
Regenerative receivers marked a big step forward
providing greatly increased sensitivity. Inherently
in
By 1922
they provided large amplification of small signals and small amplification of large signals.
they had reached the high point in their development and had almost entirely superseded crystal
SOURCE:
'The development of the
art
sets.
of radio receiving from the early 1920s to the present' by
WO
Swinyard Proc. IRE p 794 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO: 'Some
recent developments of regenerative circuits' by
E H Armstrong Proc IRE
vol 10,
pp 244-60 (August 1922)

'The regenerative
1912
circuit'
by E
H Armstrong
Proc. Radio Club of America (April 1915)
CIRCUITRY(Heterodyne and Superheterodyne)
HM
(see
Fessenden and
E H Armstrong
(USA)
figure 5.2)
Professor Fessenden, in his search for an improved receiver, invented the heterodyne system in 1912.
Previous receivers had merely acted as valves, detecting by turning a direct current on and off
amounts proportional
to the received signal.
joint action of the received signal and a local
in
In contrast, the heterodyne system operated through the
wave generated
receiving station. Combination of
at the
these two alternating currents resulted in an audio beat-note, the difference frequency between the
two
waves. Although Fessenden's local oscillator was an arc source, very bulky and troublesome,
was
it
nevertheless the forerunner of superheterodyne and single-banded reception.
The next advance
in
double-detection technique involved amplification of the beat-note or intermediate
frequency. Several parallel developments took place in the United States and in Europe.
name an
at
about the same time. The works of
E H Armstrong
SOURCE:
H Hammon, A
in the practical application
'Radio receivers past and present' by
SEE ALSO:
'The superheterodyne
Armstrong Proc. IRE vol
RELIABILITY
At the
difficult to
risk of
Meissner, Lucian Levy,
12, p
Alexanderson, and
its
origin,
of the superheterodyne system.
Buff Proc. IRE p 887 (May 1967)
development and some recent improvements' by E
AIEE (USA)
(Standards)
some controversy,
it
can be stated that the
AIEE
Standard No.
was 'General Principles upon which Temperature Limits

and Apparatus'. This Standard started the
electrical materials.
first
first
1
step in the
this
new
field
published in 1913. The

are
Based
in the
of
title
reliability
can be
of this document
Rating of Electric Machines
cycle of appreciation for the chemical composition of
During the subsequent development of the
been a cyclic recurrence of
549 (October 1924)
traced to discussion generated by the
mechanism of
EF
stand out. Armstrong fully appreciated the problem and obtained a patent in 1920 that
was of major importance
1913
It is
inventor since the superheterodyne system as a basic idea seemed to appear from several sources
electrical
and electronic
field,
emphasis which can be recognised today as 'analysis
failure in materials used in highly reliable electronic parts'.
However,
there has
for the basic
in all fairness,
should be stated that the element of time-dependent degradation was not a part of the referenced
document. This element did not become a formally recognized factor
until the great
it
first
upsurge period for
reliability in the 1950s.
SOURCE:
Proc.
1913
IRE
'The
reliability
p 1323
and quality control
field
from
ATOMIC ORBIT THEORY

In
inception to the present' by
C M
Ryerson
N Bohr (Denmark)
1913 Bohr proposed certain changes
orbits in
its
(May 1962)
which the electrons do not
number times some
constant; (3)
if
in the earlier
atomic concept. These were: (1) there are stable
radiate; (2) in these orbits the angular
momentum
is
an electron changes from one orbit to another, energy
an integral
is
emitted
or absorbed corresponding to the difference in energy between those orbits. Thus, various stable orbits
correspond to various permissible energy levels.
A Concise
SOURCE:
1913
'Semiconductor electronics
RESISTORS
Since
1.
review
article
W F G Swann
meeting over sixty years ago
Swann measured
necessary to refer to
it
is
is
the paper that
example
typical
Date Order
in
Solid-state physics' Electro-Technology p
(Thin Metal Film)
this is a
thin films.
which
in 1913,
Dr
some of
G Swann
how
illustrates
95 (October 1960)
(UK)
the earlier papers
on
the subject of
presented to the British Association
our ideas have changed
little
109
in this period.
the resistivity of sputtered platinum films as a function of the sputtering time and
hence of the film thickness; he also recorded the temperature coefficient of resistance of these films
between liquid nitrogen temperature and 100
and observed the abnormally high
resistivity associated
with very thin films and also a negative temperature coefficient of resistance in the thinnest films.
SOURCE:
'Resistive thin films and thin-film resistors
Electronic
Components p 737 (September 1964)
SEE ALSO:
1914
G Swann
Phil.
Mag.
vol 28 p
history, science
1914 Dr Langmuir
first
Bennett
Langmuir (USA)
suggested a method of controlling the arc in a mercury-pool tube by means
He showed how
of a grid.
467 (1914)
THYRATRONS
In
and technology' by
main arc
a grid voltage could be used to control the starting of the
in
each rectifying cycle. Thus, the average arc current through the tube was controlled when an ac anode
voltage was used.
In
1922 Toulon, a French
improved on
scientist,
this
method of control by varying
voltage with respect to the anode voltage rather than to

start at
any point
in the
anode voltage cycle and
the phase of the grid
made
amplitude. Thus, the arc could be
its
this resulted in a very practical
to
and convenient method
of controlling the average value of a rectified anode current.

In
1936 Dr
gas or vapour.
dropped
to a
positive-ion
SOURCE:
1914
Hull developed the idea of operating a hot-cathode diode in a low pressure of an inert
As
a result, the space charge effect
low and more or
bombardment of
less constant value
the cathode
is
was eliminated and

of 5 to 10
low arc drop voltage, the
this
not destructive.
CG
White Proc. IRE p
ASDIC
The
the voltage drop of the discharge
At
volts.
132 (May 1962)
(UK)
British traced their sonar
waves
the sound
Committee),
set
in a
up
system
to
World War
I,
when
a piezoelectric oscillator
was used
to
emit
system called the ASDIC, named for the Allied Submarine Detection Investigation
At the outbreak of World War
in 1917.
II,
Britain outfitted
its fleet
ASDICs
with
that
had the quartz-steel transducer. In the US, meanwhile, work on the magnetostriction-tube transducer
was being done under contract by
SOURCE:
1915
the
Submarine Signal Company of Newport,
ACOUSTIC MINE
The
RI.
acoustic mine
Wood (UK)
was invented by Wood,
later
Deputy Superintendent of
the Admiralty
Research
Laboratory, in the war of 1914-18.
The
31
first
encounter with a
German
acoustic mine in the recent
August 1940, when one was exploded by a motor
twice
in a
week mines had exploded
away. One suggestion was
that the
boat.
war occurred
Then
in the Firth
of Forth on
the cruiser 'Galatea' reported thai
well ahead of her. Destroyers began to explode mines half a mile
phenomenon was due
to
unexploded bombs. Even
at
the end of
September, some experts doubted the existence of acoustic mines.
The mine contained
a reed tuned to vibrate
up and communicated by
which operate
on
a frequency of
the reed to a carbon microphone.
like a telephone
The
240 per second. The noise was picked

later
exchange. The mine will not go off
forms of mine contained counters
until
it
is
called up, so to speak, for.
A Concise
10
The
say, the seventh time.
six ships will pass
first
over
safely and
it
The mines contained clocks which could keep them disarmed
SOURCE:
1915
SONAR
Science at
War by
R Whiddington
Crowther and
will
it
many
for
explode under the seventh.
days, until a fixed date.
(London:
HMSO)
p 172 (1947)
P Langevin (France)
(Submerged Submarine Detection by
Ultra-Sonics)
(See also chapter
The
6.)
detection of submerged submarines by sound has been particularly highly developed by British
The method has been evolved from
scientists.
liner Titanic
by collision with an iceberg.
a suggestion
British engineer
made
in
1912, after the sinking of the
named Richardson suggested
might be detected by the echo of a pulse of sound waves emitted from the approaching
of short sound waves which can be readily 'beamed' like a searchlight
precise definition of the direction of the berg.
In
is
that icebergs
ship.
The use
necessary in order to secure
1914 the only known practical way of obtaining
such short or supersonic waves was from oscillators made of mica and caused to vibrate by electrical
stresses.
An
Allied
Committee was
at this
Boyle of Canada, Professor
time formed to develop anti-submarine technique.
included Dr
It
William) Bragg, Professor P Langevin of France and
(later Sir
Rutherford. Langevin succeeded in 1915 in producing ultra-sonic waves by applying the piezo-electric
they produce an electric charge.

to vibrate
way
Thus an
alternating electric potential applied to a quartz crystal causes
and these vibrations are of the type that produces sound waves. Hence by suspending a
quartz crystal in water, and applying to

crystal will be
made
to vibrate
a pulse of alternating current of appropriate frequency, the
it
and communicate
length. This will be transmitted through the water

is
quartz crystals are cut in the appropriate
expands or contracts them; and conversely when mechanically stretched or compressed
electrification
it
When
by Jacques and Pierre Curie.
effect discovered
water a pulse of sound waves of the desired
to the
and be reflected by any obstacle.
If
such an obstacle
of sufficient size an echo can be received on the quartz which sent out the transmission. The echo
creates a
weak pulse of alternating
of 1918, scientists
this
which can be detected by
current
Admiralty Experimental Station
at the
at
kind in securing super-sonic echoes from a British submarine
SOURCE:
Science at
SEE ALSO:
War by
R Whiddington
Crowther and
electrical instruments. In the spring
Harwich succeeded with an apparatus of

range of a few hundred yards.
at a
(London:
'Uses of ultrasonics in radio, radar and sonar systems' by
HMSO)
p 153 (1947)
P Mason
IRE p 1374
Proc.
(May 1962)
Electroacoustics by
1915
Hunt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press) chapter
FILTERS (ELECTROMAGNETIC)
In
Campbell
&K
(1954)
W Wagner (UK)
Some
1831 Michael Faraday formulated the law of electromagnetic induction and self-induction.
84 years
the
first
later,
in
1915,
Campbell and
electromagnetic or
followed rapidly,
LC wave
until today, filters
of a modern world without them.
some kind of
signal
filter,
Wagner
utilized Faraday's
Significant advances in
filter.
filter
and, in the past,
industrial,
LC
filter
in their invention
of
theory and technology then
have so permeated electronic technology
Consumer,
law
that
it is
hard to conceive
and military electronic systems
networks provided one of the most
all
require
efficient
and
economical methods of implementing them.
SOURCE:
inductorless
SEE ALSO:
filters:
a survey'
by
S Moschytz
'The golden anniversary of electric wave
IEEE Spectrum p 30 (August
filters'
by
1970)
Zverev IEEE Spectrum vol
3,
pp 129-31 (March 1966)

'Introduction to
1915
RADIO
The
(Single
filters'
by
Zverev Electro -Technol (New York) pp 63-90 (June 1964)
Sideband Communication)
military and international
companies with
J
a
need
and by the 1950s designers were hunting for ways

transmission appeared to hold great promise.
to
Carson (USA)
communicate abroad leaned heavily on
to
ease spectrum crowding.
radio,
Single-sideband
A Concise
Like so
many
1915,
R Carson
other radio techniques,
AT &
of
needed for transmitting
showed
that
it
major application
SOURCE:
1916
Three years
intelligence.
at
had been developed originally for use
later the first
in
first
'Communications' by
Command became known,
Air
in the Strategic
making
teleprinter,
RELIABILITY
Press,
in 1916.
it
was invented
possible to send written messages through telephone lines,
&
Macdonald
name
telex
1928 and was extended
in
from
at a
teleprinter exchange.
Co.) (1990) p 243
Bell/Western Electric (USA)
first
clear-cut
The Western
planned programme
to
examples of what would now be called
Electric
Company and
the Bell
programme
a reliability-control
Telephone Laboratories co-operated
in a
produce good performing and trouble-free telephone equipment for public use.
The following elements of
good
reliability
programme were
involved:
R&D programme considering the system needs.
(1)
An
(2)
Development programmes leading
ably planned, forward-looking
to
mature designs verified by design reviews and engineering
tests.
(3) Part
improvement projects using
test-to-failure
methods, consideration of tolerances and performance
stress loading.
and simplification
(4) Standardization
Product evaluation under
(6) Quality control during
Feedback from the
(7)
November 1972)
Gilder Electronic Design vol 24, p 96 (22
(Control)
Perhaps one of the
(5)
its first
The Book of Inventions and Discoveries Associate Editor Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing
(UK: Queen Anne
under
the mid- 1930s single-
Markrum Co (USA)
SOURCE:
model
By
single-sideband really caught on.
1916 by Markrum Co. of Chicago. The system became operational
occurred
telephone systems. In
high radio frequencies had proved successful. In the late 1950s, after
national level by the Bell Laboratories in 1931 under the
1916
commercial application of single-sideband
use this technique to increase channel capacity.
to
TELEX
The
in
T's Development and Research Dept. had proved that only one sideband was
was possible
sideband transmission
it
in design.
field application
conditions for prototypes and pilot production models.
manufacture to assure achieving the
field to
SOURCE: 'The reliability and

IREp 1323 (May 1962)
reliability inherent in the design.
provide information for the designers.

quality control field from
its
G M
Ryerson
Proc.
1916
'CROSSBAR' TELEPHONE EXCHANGE
Roberts and J
Reynolds
(USA)
The
first
'crossbar' based
but the idea needed
system.
system
years of development
and by Gotthelf
mechanism. The
first
work before
system but
it
used
SOURCE. The
it
was more expensive. At
One
Roberts, of the
USA,
exchange was
where
it
installed in
Sweden
in 1926.
could offer several advantages over
that time, crossbar, like Strowger,
was
a step-by-step
kind of selector.
CONDENSER MICROPHONE
could be transformed into a practical
N Reynolds of the USA, who patented the

G Palmgren of Sweden who designed the first
fully operational crossbar
a totally different
it
Roberts, and John
Betulander and Nils
the late 1930s, crossbar had been developed to the point
Strowger, although
1917
on an idea conceived as long ago as 1901, by Homer
This was done by John

in 1916,
satisfactory
By
many
Covey
(Post Office Publication) p 75 (1974)
E C Wente
(USA)
electrostatic device chat has earned a secure place for itself in the transducer art
is
microphone. Wente's 'uniformly sensitive instrument' of 1917 probably represents the

design in which sensitivity was deliberately traded for uniformity of response, and
the condenser
first
it
transducer
was almost
A Concise
112
certainly the
first
Date Order
in
which electronic amplification was
in
relied
on
to gain
back the ground
by
lost
eschewing resonance.
SOURCE:
Electroacoustics by
F V Hunt (Cambridge, Mass': Harvard University
SEE ALSO: 'The sensitivity and recision of the electrostatic

E C Wente Phys. Res. vol 19, p 498 (May 1922)
Press) p 169 (1954)
transmitter for measuring sound intensities'
by
1917
CRYSTAL PULLING TECHNIQUE

Most of
The
is
the single crystal silicon used for p-n junction devices
oldest of these
grown from
was
J Czochralski
is
the pulling process
a charge
of
commonly
of
a vertical rod
region
is
been commercially exploited,
formed on the end of
The
some
SEE ALSO:
the crystal
movement of
narrow molten zone up or
a crucibleless pulling technique
and the crystal
is
it
growth technique, which has only
third crystal
whereby
seeded and pulled from
the molten
this
molten
extent, features of Czochralski and float-zone growth.
'Microinhomogeneity problems
Trans, on Parts, Materials
is
a thick silicon rod
pool in a manner combining, to
SOURCE:
whereby
This technique has been widely used because
initially polycrystalline silicon.
eliminates the problem of crucible contamination.

relatively recently
produced by one of three techniques.
melted in a crucible (usually quartz). Historically, the next development
Si
the float-zone technique of crystal growth, involving the
down
is
called the Czochralski technique
and Packaging
H F
by
in silicon'
vol
PMP-2, No
3,
John,
Faust and
Stickler
IEEE
'Measuring the velocity of crystallisation of metals' by
Czochralski
Z.
Phys. Chem. vol
92, p 219 (April 1917)
1918
ALEXANDERSON ALTERNATOR
E F
Alexanderson tested special Swedish iron

the iron capable of satisfactory operation
However Fessenden
iron
would melt
it
magnetic
for his tests
magnetic
1.5 mills thick in strong
and found
fields,
100 kHz, so he designed the alternator with an iron core.
rejected the design and insisted
in a strong
By mid- 1906 General

used
strips
at
W Alexanderson (USA)
field at
on the use of
wooden core
was sure
as he
wooden core
Electric had built an alternator with a
and Fessenden
as specified,
from Brant Rock, Mass. on Christinas Eve, 1906. He succeeded
in
broadcasting
However
both speech and music, and the transmission was heard as far away as Norfolk, Virginia.
Dr Alexanderson did not give up

authority from
to
GE
to build a
model
Fessenden he was convinced of
his idea of using
alternator to his
its
that
100 kHz.
potential
an iron cored armature, and was able
own
design.
When
this
to obtain
machine was demonstrated
and placed an order for two 100
kW
alternators using
iron cores.
By 1915
modulate
was
a
it
50 kW, 50 kHz experimental alternator was being tested and Dr Alexanderson was able
to
with voice, using a DeForest Audion valve to control a magnetic amplifier. Dr Alexanderson
also responsible for the design of a multiple tuned antenna for use with the alternator.
By 1917
the 50
kW
alternator
was ready
to
be tested
in the
NJ, but by this time America had entered the war and
American Marconi
all
station at
New
Brunswick,
radio stations were taken over by the
US
government.
SOURCE:
'The Alexanderson Alternator, a 'near-perfect' system of
WAT
transmission' by
K Weedon
lEEConf. Publ. 411 p 69 (September 1995)
SEE ALSO:
p 626
1918
'Transatlantic radio communication' by
E F
Alexanderson Proc. IEEE vol 72, no
5,
(May 1984)
INDUCTION HEATING
The production of
(High Frequency)
heat by induced currents
was recognised
E F Northrup (USA)
as early as 1880.
The heating of transformer
cores due to eddy currents was, of course, understood at an early date. Probably the real engineering
and developmental pioneer
in
induction heating with frequencies above the power range
was Professor
A Concise
E F Northrup of Princeton
1918
RADIO
At
all
kW
C White
frequencies, electromagnetic energy
is
and usable signal strengths
134 (May 1962)
shadow of an
obstacle, the
In the radio-frequency range, diffraction yields significant
the geometric field strength in the
many mathematicians over
significant break-through
was produced by Watson
shadow zone
The numerical values of
to be far
The
15 years with resultant divergent answers.
1918,
in
who showed
that
waves radiated by
an antenna on the surface of a perfectly conducting sphere would be attenuated exponentially

distances.
10000
Watson (UK)
diffracted into the geometric
shadow zone beyond
in the
IRE p
Proc.
GN
(Ground Wave Propagation)
of the earth was attacked by
using a spark gas oscillator.
amount increasing with decreasing frequency.
first
University. In 1918 he built practical 'furnaces' for frequencies above
cycles and powers as high as 60
SOURCE:
great
at
by Watson under these conditions proved
field strength predicted
lower than known experimental values. This discrepancy promoted increased
interest in the
ionosphere as a mechanism that might explain the wide divergence in the mathematical and experimental
values of field strength, particularly
SOURCE:
in the
kilocycle range of frequencies.
'Radio-wave propagation between World Wars
and
by S S Attwood Proc. IRE p 688
II'
(May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
'The diffraction of electric waves by the earth' by
pp 83-89 (October 1918) and

1918
pp 546-63
vol 96,
THE DYNATRON
The dynatron possesses

same purposes and,
G N
Watson Proc.
vol 95,
Hull (USA)
substantial advantages over other types of oscillator that are available for the
in additions
has applications for which other types are not available. For example, a
two-terminal oscillatory circuit, with one terminal 'earthy' can be maintained
no necessity
R. Soc.
(July 1919)
for tappings, or auxiliary circuit elements.
The
being
in oscillation, there
oscillators are in general
more
stable in
frequency than those maintained by triodes and are under more precise control.
SOURCE:
'Applications of the dynatron' by
MG
Scroggie The Wireless Engineer vol X, no 121. p 527
(October 1933)
SEE ALSO:
'The dynatron' by
Hull Proc.
IRE
pp 5-35 (February 1918)
vol 6,
'The dynatron detector' by Hull, Kennelly and Elder Proc. IRE p 320 (October 1922)
1918
ATOMIC TRANSMUTATION
When
Lord Rutherford (UK)
atoms explode, they release some of
certain radioactive
the atomic fragments flung out in the explosion.
of helium.
They
are flung out with
Some
when
the
the
its
war of 1914 began. He was called by
struggle against the
nucleus.
the British
German submarines and was very busy with
atom going. While
his laboratory at
the
Germans were
to
it
Why
not
Rutherford was preoccupied with
this
Government
this
to assist in the scientific
work. But he kept the attacks on
shelling Verdun, Rutherford
was bombarding
the nucleus in
Manchester, when he could find the time.
In 1918 he failed to appear at the meeting of an important
colleagues asked him

it
energy by communicating
immense speed and hence high energy of movement.
direct these against the citadel of an atom, against
idea
their
of these fragments consist of nuclei of atoms
might be possible
why
war science committee.
When one
of his
he had failed to appear, he said that he had just got definite evidence that
to disintegrate an
atom
at will,
and that
if this
proved
to
be true
'it
was
far
more
important than the war'.
Immediately
and
in
after the conclusion
of the war, while
1919 published a conclusive proof
that
still
in
Manchester, he completed
with atomic projectiles from natural radioactive substances; and
at
Manchester.
by Chadwick,
who had been one
Cambridge, he extended
later, in
investigations to the study of the artificial disintegration of the atoms of

assisted in this especially
this investigation
atoms of nitrogen could be transmuted by bombardment
many
light elements.
his
He was
of his most brilliant pupils and collaborators
A Concise
14
SOURCE:
1918
Science at
War by
R Whiddington
Crowther and
H Abraham & E
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUIT
The
multivibrator, described by
many purposes
for
HMSO)
(London:
Abraham and Bloch
(see figure 11.5).
In
its
p 126 (1947)
Bloch (France)
very important circuit, and
in 1918, is a
original form, however,
is
it
use
is in
more commonly used
for the
generation of pulses than as a time base or discharger circuit.
oHTt
Figure 11.5. Multivibrator
The
multivibrator consists of two valves, each having the anode coupled to the grid of the other via
a condenser,
when
the
and with
in
one valve increases,
anode current
R2
still
in the first
it
drop across the anode
reduced, which results in the grid of the

current of this valve
The method of operation of
a leak resistance to earth.
anode current
to the increased voltage
off.
circuit.
further.
It
first
will thus
load..
sufficiently to permit
anode current
The anode
to flow
maximum
charge
when
is
thus
is
cumulative one and that the
while the anode current
in the
once more
in the
second
cut
is
condenser C| has leaked away through
second valve.
in the
in the reverse direction.
unstable limiting conditions wh/ch occur
as follows:
current of the second valve
be apparent that the effect
until the
cumulative effect again takes place, but
is
valve becoming more positive and increases the anode
valve rapidly reaches a
This circuit condition then remains
the circuit
passes a negative signal to the grid of the other, due
The
either of the valves
When
this
occurs the
multivibrator, therefore, has
is at
two
cut-off and the other at zero
grid potential.
SOURCE: Time
SEE ALSO:
Bases by
S Puckle (London: Chapman
&
Hall) p 25 (1944)
'Notice sur les Lampes-valves a 3 Electrodes et leurs applications' Publication
No
27 of
the French Ministere de la Geurre (April 1918)
1918
CIRCUITRY
The neutrodyne
circuit
was invented
(TRF) amplifier which employed

circuit
L A
(Neutrodyne)
was fed back
in
Hazeltine (USA)
1918 by Hazeltine. Basically
into the grid circuit in the proper
this
a specific type of neutralisation.
magnitude and phase
the effect of grid-to-plate capacitance inside the tube, and thus
it
was
a tuned radio-frequency
current obtained from the plate

to
balance out, or neutralise,
achieved
stability
and prevented
oscillation.
SOURCE:
art
of radio receiving from the early 1920s to the present' by
WO
SEE ALSO:
'Tuned radio frequency amplification with neutralisation of capacity coupling' by L
Hazeltine Proc. Radio Club of America vol 2 (March 1923)
A Concise
1918
NOISE
The
first
realisation
tube amplifiers.
unwanted random noise was a factor
that
was soon found
It
in
Date Order
when
that there
was
to
contend with
attempts were being made
to
the
in
being amplified. In his classic paper Schottky

in the plate current
field
of
design high-gain vacuum-
number of stages which could be cascaded
a limit to the
weak
quest for high gain due to an unacceptably high background noise which masked the
random component
15
W Schottky (Germany)
(Shot Effect)
communications came during World War
in the
signals
explained one of these effects and formulated the
first
of a vacuum tube.
Schottky ascribed the random fluctuations in the plate current to the fact that
composed
this current is
not of a continuous but rather of a sequence of discrete increments of charge carried by each electron
arriving at the plate at
random
of the plate current on which
He
The average
superimposed
phenomenon
referred to this
SOURCE:
times.
is
of charge arrival constitutes the dc component
rate
component
a flucuation
as each discrete charge arrives.
as 'schroteffekt' or 'shot-effect'.
'Noise and random processes' by
Ragazzini and
SSL Chang
IRE p
Proc.
146 (May
1962)
SEE ALSO:
'Theory of shot effect' by
Schottky Ann. Phys. vol 57, p 541 (December 1918)
1919
TELEVISION
(Electronic System)
V Zworykin (USA)
1927
TELEVISION
(Electronic System)
P Farnsworth (USA)
It
was already recognised
work was
complete cathode-ray system provided the answer, but no experimental
that a
and the idea lay dormant
started
the Westinghouse
Company.
until, after
going to America
1919, Zworykin joined
in
His major difficulty centred on the electronic camera tube.
He, like
Campbell-Swinton, had conceived the idea of charge storage by 1919. Zworykin lacked the necessary
funds to carry his ideas forward into practical form
at the
time he conceived them, and
it
was
several
years before he could concentrate on their elaboration. Westinghouse took him on to their research staff
but their laboratory devoted itself mainly to radio research, and, since
Zworykin was given no freedom
to
pursue his ideas on television, he resigned to join a development company
to
Westinghouse
in
in
Kansas.
Returning
1923, he drew up an agreement whereby he retained the rights to the television
inventions he had disclosed in 1919, while Westinghouse acquired the exclusive option to purchase the
patents at a later date.
Philo Farnsworth was essentially an individual inventor who, though fortunate enough to find substantial
financial backing,
always retained his autonomy
in research.
on
a small scale with relatively simple equipment.
in
San Francisco he was able
his
first
to
Largely self-taught, he appears
He was of
age to have conceived a completely electronic system.
Working
in laboratories in
demonstrate a complete electronic system
patent application, including his
image dissector
tube,
at
which prefers
the type
an early
to
work
Los Angeles and
later
when he
filed
in
1927,
which constitutes
his
most important
inventive contribution After long-drawn-out patent interference proceedings, Farnsworth and Zworykin
each received basic patents on their different systems of television transmission.
SOURCE: The
Sources of Invention by
Jewkes,
Sawers and R Stillerman (London: MacMillan
&
Co.) p 385/6 (1958)
SEE ALSO:
vol
1919
'The history of
TV
by
GRM
Garratt and
A H Mumford
Proc. 1EE; Part
111
A, Television
99 (1952)
RETARDED FIELD MICRO- WAVE OSCILLATOR
Barkhausen
&K
Kurtz
(Germany)
In
1919
it
was noted by Barkhausen and Kurtz, during
tests for the
presence of gas in transmitting
valves in which the grid was held at a high positive potential and the anode at a negative one, that
oscillation could be maintained in a circuit connected
between grid and anode, or between other
pairs
of electrodes.
The explanation was given
that electrons are accelerated
from the cathode
to the positive grid
through
116
which some of them
pass.
These are then retarded
some of them again passing through, and being
anode space and turn back
in the grid
to the grid,
reflected at the cathode to repeat the behaviour.
SOURCE: 'Microwave valves: A survey of evolution, principles of operation

C H Dix and W E Willshaw J. Brit. IRE p 578 (August 1960)
and basic characteristics'
by
SEE ALSO:
1919
'The shortest waves obtainable with vacuum tubes' by
CIRCUITRY
to scale
most important single device
innumerable modifications the original form of
in
and Jordan. During the
all
Barkhausen and
Kurtz
Z. Phys.
down
late
1930s
which the
possible 16 states.
its
coded readout for each decade.
In
to provide a scale-often circuit.

resistors arranged to light
in
tandem
was developed
tandem connection began
flip-flops in
last 'carry'
to
in
Used
1919 by Eccles
be used by nuclear physicists
by factors of 2n. These devices were
pulse was used as the output to a mechanical
In 1944, Potter described a scale-of-ten counter in
skip six of
the bistaple circuit or 'flip-flop'.
is
this circuit
the counting rate from Geiger-Muller counters
essentially binary counters in
register.
decades
Eccles and Jordan (USA)
(Flip-Flop Circuits)
In digital circuitry probably the
today
pp 1-6 (1920)
vol 21,
which feedback caused
neon lamp indicating the
state
a binary counter to
of each flip-flop provided a binary-
1946, Grosdoff described another binary counter with feedback
Grosdoff's circuit featured a direct readout obtained by a matrix of
one often neon lamps for each stablestate of the counter. By connecting such
direct reading decimal counting registers of arbitrarily large capacity
were achieved
and the way was cleared for the widespread application of high speed electronic counting.
SOURCE:
'Digital display of
measurements
by
in instrumentation'
Oliver Proc.
IRE
170 (May
1962)
SEE ALSO:
'A highly accurate continuously variable frequency control system' by
Instruments and Methods vol
1919
7,
WG
VALVES HOUSKEEPER SEAL

The breakthrough came
Before
through glass.
this invention
it
in
1919 when
this the
was possible
to
which has high conductivity, and

7
165 x 10~ /C and that of a
C H
Vincent
p 325 (1960)
Houskeeper patented
Houskeeper (USA)
method of sealing base metals
With
leads brought through the glass had to be wires or ribbons.
make
is
large diameter seals using metals such as high purity copper
easily
common
worked
glass
is
into
any desired shape. The expansion of copper
52 x 10" 7 /C so a matched
seal is not possible.
is
The
technique developed by Houskeeper was to taper the metal to a feather edge and then seal the glass
to the thin
copper
edge of the
taper.
Tie copper
is
cleaned, oxidised and then sealed to the glass.
sufficiently flexible to equalise the difference in
is
The
thin
expansion and contraction between the glass
and metal.
With
this
development
outer surface directly.
it
became possible
to
make
vacuum envelope and
the anode part of the
By 1925 valves with water cooled anodes were
in
cool
its
commercial production and
they mark the beginning of the era of high-power broadcast transmitters.
SOURCE:
Book (London:
Newnes-Butterworth) chap.
7,
pp 7-31
(1976)
SEE ALSO:
'The
art
of sealing base metals through glass' by
Houskeeper
J.
Am, IEE
vol 41,
p 870 (1923)
1919
CRYSTAL MICROPHONE
The
is
crystal
made
microphone, destined to be widely used
in the
USA
Nicholson (USA)
in
home
tape recorders and public address systems,
by Nicholson. The mike works on the piezo-electric principle, by which small
voltages are produced on the surface of a solid such as a crystal.
Sound
quality
is
good, and costs low,
but the mike reacts adversely to heat, humidity and rough handling.
SOURCE: The
1982)
Timetable of Technology (London: Michael Joseph, Marshall Editions) p 61 (November
A Concise
1919
'MILLER' TIME BASE CIRCUIT

There
Valve,
is a
family of time bases (see figure
i.e,
a valve circuit with a
condenser
1.6)
is
C(A +
1) in series
and the cathode, where
amperes per
Miller (USA)
device
known
from the anode of the valve
volt.
This
with a resistance equal to
its
is
grid.
When
such a
substantially the
same
/g had been connected between
the gain of the valve stage and g
is
known
usually
is
as a Miller Capacitance
to
provided with a resistive anode load the effect on the grid circuit
as if a capacitance of
the grid
utilize the
117
connected directly between the grid and the anode. The
insertion of this condenser results in feed-back
valve circuit
which
Date Order
in
is
the mutual conductance in
as the 'Miller Effect' (see figure 11.6).
HTt
Out
oHT-
Figure 11.6. Miller time base
SOURCE:
Time Bases by
1919
RESISTOR
&
Hall) p 158 (1951)
of the input impedance of a three-electrode
vacuum tube upon
SEE ALSO: 'Dependence

the plate circuit' by
circuit.
S Puckle (2nd edn) (London: Chapman
the load in
Miller Sci. Papers of the Bureau of Standards vol 15, p 367 (1919)
F Kruger (Germany)
(Metal-Film Type)
Proposals for the production of metallic-film resistors that will possess a high degree. of stability date
back over 25 years, but mostly they could be prepared only with comparatively low resistance values.
By
spiralling the coating in a
manner similar
possible to increase the resistance of resistors
SOURCE:
Ill,
used for high-stability resistors,
made with gold
films
up
to
it
has been found
200000 ohms.
R Coursey
Proc.
IEE
vol 96,
pt.
p 173 (1949)
SEE ALSO: F
1920
to that
Kruger: British Patent
No 157909/1919
PLASTIC MAGNETIC TAPE
Dr Pfleumer (Germany)
Magnetic tape recording becomes possible outside the laboratory. The reason
is
Austrian researcher Dr Pfleumer, of plastic tapes in place of steel wires or tapes.
marketed by the Germans
SOURCE: The
the introduction, by
The magnetophones
1930s will incorporate these plastic tapes.
in the
1982)
1920
ULTRA-MICROMETER
Few would
suspect that one of the
published in the
November 1920
Cavendish Professor of Physics
The
title
R Whiddington (UK)
first
authentic disclosures of practical electronic instrumentation
issue of
was
The Philosophical Magazine by R Whiddington MA, DSc,
in the University
of Leeds.
of Professor Whiddington's communication
Thermionic Valve
to the
is
The
Ultra-Micrometer; an Application of the
Measurement of Very Small Distances'. The summary of
circuit consisting of a parallel-plate
condenser and inductance be maintained
the paper reads:
in oscillation
'If
by means of
118
a thermionic valve, a small change in distance apart of the plates produces a change in the frequency of
the oscillations
which can be accurately determined by methods described.
small as 1/200 millionth of an inch can easily be detected.
The name
shown
It is
that
'ultra-micrometer'
changes so
tentatively
is
suggested for the apparatus'.
SOURCE: Letter: 'A pioneer of

No 11, p 687 (November 1975)
SEE ALSO:
'The ultra-micrometer
small distances' by
1921
an
Whiddington
by F
electronics'
Diver The Radio and Electronic Engineer vol 45,
Mag. Series
While working with a quartz

that the
634 (November 1920)
62, vol 40, p
W G Cady (USA)
CRYSTAL CONTROL OF FREQUENCY

Cady discovered
measurement of very
application of the thermionic valve to the
Phil.
crystal connected in the circuit of a self-excited
vacuum-tube
oscillator,
frequency of self-oscillation could be stabilized over a small range by the
vibration of the quartz crystal. In retrospect
it
many
appeared that a good
made
other experiments had
use of crystals associated with vacuum-tube circuits with which they might have observed this stabilizing
action; but
most of them sought
of resonance in the crystal, and

a
to avoid the 'anomalous' effects that occurred in the

it
remained for Cady to discover
high-Q resonator. Cady extended these
results
this
neighbourhood
remarkable stabilizing action of
by applying two pairs of terminals to the crystal and
connecting these as a feedback path for a three-tube amplifier
in
such a way that the circuit would
oscillate but only at the resonance frequency of the crystal.
Cady described and demonstrated
his crystal circuits (January 1923) to Professor
W Pierce of Harvard
University.
Pierce took up the study of such crystal-oscillator circuits immediately, and within a few
months
experiments had led him to the invention of several improved forms of crystal oscillator
in
his
which a two-terminal
crystal could be
made
to control
uniquely the frequency of oscillation in a
single-tube circuit.
SOURCE:
Electroacoustics by
SEE ALSO:
Proc.
Inst.
Hunt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press) p 53, 55 (1954)
'The piezo-electric resonator' by
Radio Engrs. vol
10,
W G Cady
Phys. Rev. A, vol 17, p 531 (April 1921)
pp 83-1 14 (April 1922); also Piezoelectricity (New York and London:
McGraw-Hill Book Co.) (1946)

Walter
Cady
(crystal resonator)
US
Patent
No
1450 246
(filed
28 January 1920) issued 3 April
1923; also (crystal stabilization and a 3-tube oscillator controlled by a 4-terminaI crystal)
No
1921
1472 583
(filed
28
May
FERROELECTRICITY
Ferroelectricity
its
was
first
US
Patent
1921) issued 30 October 1923.
J Valasek
discovered by Valasek in 1921 in Rochelle
salt,
Curie point; however, the most important ferroelectric material today
discovered in 1942 and developed shortly thereafter
at
MIT
which
is
is
barium
piezoelectric above
titanate,
for ferroelectric applications.
which was
Since then,
other materials of the Perovskite structure and of other structures have been found to be ferroelectric.
SOURCE:
'Solid state devices other than semiconductors'
by B Lax and
Mavroides Proc.
IRE
p 1014 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
'Piezoelectric and allied
phenomena
in
Rochelle
salt'
by
Valasek Phys.
Rev.
vol 17,
p 475 (April 1921)
ALSO:
'High dielectric constant ceramics' by
von Hippel, R E Breckenridge, F E Chesley and L
Tisya Ind. Engrg. Chem. vol 38, p 1097 (November 1946)
1921
SHORT WAVE RADIO

One
Amateurs (USA and Europe)
of the main developments in radio after 1918 was the discovery of the usefulness of the shorter
wave-bands.
It
was generally considered
short distance transmission, though cases
that
wavelengths below 200 metres were useless except for
were known of long ranges being obtained on short waves.
A Concise
These were regarded
as freaks, however,
who encouraged by
to
amateurs
in
December 1921 on 200
Date Order
in
and wavelengths below 200 metres were,
these 'freak' results, arranged
showed
metres. Their success
19
after 1918, allocated
broadcasts from America to England
trial
that
short-wave low-power broadcasts could
Stellerman (London: MacMillan) p 353
be heard over long distances
SOURCE:
Jewkes,
Sawers and
(1958)
1922
CIRCUITRY
E H Armstrong (USA)
(Superregeneration)
E H Arrmstrong
Superregeneration was discovered by
during the defense of his patent case for the
regenerative receiver. In a superregenerative receiver, sustained oscillations are squelched by periodic

variation of the effective resistance of the input resonant circuit. Oscillations periodically build up in a
prevented by periodic application to
circuit resonant at the signal frequency. Sustained oscillations are
the grid of the superregenerative tube of a signal that

is
usually between
and considerable
20000 and 100000
used as transmitters
SOURCE:
was
sensitivity,
at
cps.
practical
the oscillations.
The superregenerative
and popular
when
earlier
The quenching frequency
detector, because of
its
broad tuning
unstable modulated oscillators were
frequencies above 30 Mc.
'Radio receivers past and present' by
SEE ALSO:
damps
'Super-regenerative receivers' by
R Whitehead
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
(1950)
1922
NEGATIVE RESISTANCE OSCILLATOR
W B Gill and J H Morell (UK)
Following the work of Barkhausen and Kurtz (1919) which for the
electrical oscillations
on the excitation of oscillatory currents

the starting point of the
Subsequent work on
time reported the generation of
first
depending primarily on the oscillatory motion of electrons
whole
this
field
tuned
circuit,
and
this
in a
vacuum, and not
discovery might be said to represent
of modern microwave valves.
device called generally the 'retarding
reported in 1922 and subsequently by

variants including one in
in a
many
others,
showed
which with adequate emission,
generator, by Gill and Morrell,
field'
that this simple type
of operation had many
a negative resistance could be provided
by the
tube over a frequency band.
SOURCE: 'Microwave valves: a survey of evolution, principles of

operation and basic characteristics'
by
1923
E V
'SQUEGGER' CIRCUIT
The
first
Appleton, J F Herd and R A

Watson Watt (UK)
hard valve time base was of the transformer-coupled type and was developed about 1923 by
Appleton, Herd and Watson Watt. The circuit was

figure
The
known
as a 'squegging oscillator' or 'squegger' (see
1.7).
circuit consists of a transformer-coupled valve V|, oscillating fairly violently at a radio frequency
and having a condenser C|
in the
cathode-grid circuit. At each positive peak of potential
at the grid,
current flows from the transformer secondary winding through the valve V, from grid to cathode and
into the
condenser C| which thus accumulates a charge such
increasingly negative.
When
anode current and, hence, also the alternating potential

the charge
oscillation.
makes
on the condenser leaks away
While the anode current
SOURCE:
which
Time Bases by
SEE ALSO: E V
is
Appleton,
becomes
grid potential
is
the grid,
at
is
cut off and remains so until
sufficiently through the diode to permit the
cut off, the condenser C, loses
a potential excursion towards zero volts.
oscillatory motion
mean
that the
the negative potential reaches the cut-off bias potential of the valve, the
Upon
this
its
excursion there
charge via
is
F Herd and R
Watson Watt:
&
Hall) (1951)
British Patent
and the grid
superimposed
the second half-cycle of the oscillation.
S Puckle (2nd edn) (London: Chapman
resumption of
V2
No 235254.
damped
A Concise
120

HTt
HT-
Out
Figure 11.7. Squegging oscillator
1923
circuit.
ICONOSCOPE
V K Zworykin (USA)
The combination of
by
V K
Zworykin
electron
in
1923
beam scanning and

at a
storage
was
proposed and carried into practice
first
The
time preceding any other electronic pickup system.
target
was
an aluminium film oxidised on one side, which was photosensitised with cesium vapour and faced a
metal
grill
serving as collector for photoelectronics.
The metal
side,
which served as
scanned by a high-speed electron beam, which penetrated through the oxide

conducting path permitting the locally stored charge
to flow off
layer,
through the signal
While the tube as described was capable of transmitting only rudimentary

ancestor of the extended line of storage camera tubes which dominate
common
Their
transmission.
features are electron
was
plate.
patterns,
became
it
the
phases of television picture
all
beam scanning and
a signal plate,
forming a temporary
a picture target with small
transverse conductivity capable of storing charge released in response to light.
The
first
camera tube was the iconoscope. Here, the picture was projected on
practical storage
of photosensitive elements capacitatively coupled to a signal
plate.
mosaic
The mosaic was then scanned by
high-velocity beam, restoring the mosaic to a uniform potential and releasing photoelectrically stored
charge for forming the picture signal. The secondary-emission ratio was greater than unity, so that the
beam was
equilibrium potential under the
SOURCE:
close to that of the electrodes facing the mosaic.
Schlesinger and
G Ramberg
Proc.
IRE p 993
(May 1962)
SEE ALSO: V K
'The Iconoscope
Zworykin:
US
Patent
modern version of
No
2141 059 (20 December 1938)
the electric eye' by
V K
filed
29 December 1923
Zworykin Proc. IRE
vol 22, p 16
(January 1934)
1924
CARBON
REISZ TRANSVERSE-CURRENT
G Neumann
(Germany)
MICROPHONE
A
very significant invention
which became the standard

microphone.
It
in
BBC
the
microphone
field
was
microphone from 1926
to
the Reisz transverse-current microphone,
1935
was invented by Georg Neumann, who worked
the familiar white marble octagonal
for the Reisz
Company
in
Germany
at
the time, about 1924.
block of marble or other insulating material had two deep recesses cut
a shallow surface trough.

rear.
Each recess had a carbon electrode
The block was covered by
trough-plus-recesses
was
filled
The diaphragm was very
a thin
it,
in
it,
these being joined by
connected
to a terminal at the
diaphragm of mica or paper and the space between
this
and the
with fine granulated carbon.
light,
and well damped by the carbon granules, giving the microphone a
performance very much superior to
that of other
SOURCE: Communication
SEE ALSO: BBC
in
from P
carbon microphones, such as those used
Baxandall, Malvern (22 July 1982)
Engineering 1922-72 p 42
(BBC
Publications) (1972)
in telephones.
A Concise
Neumann
'Georg
1924
memoriam'
in
J.
R Anson (UK)
of a linear saw-tooth time base
earliest attempt at the construction
and was developed about the year 1924. The author believes
of the development of the Anson relay
which
in
low pressure,
upon
and
is
in
which neither of the electrodes
is
normally about 130
When
volts.
When
St
with neon gas
filled
which
a potential,
at
dependent
is
which the electrodes are made
the potential falls to about 100 volts the gas deionizes.
consists of a condenser charged through a high resistance and discharged by the
Time Bases by
SEE ALSO: R
appeared as a result
for signal-shaping purposes in
between the electrodes the gas becomes ionized. This potential
neon tube when the charge upon the condenser reaches the
SOURCE:
believed to be due to Anson,
two-electrode valve,
heated.
is
the gas pressure, the proximity of the electrodes, the material of
their surface condition is applied
The neon time base
1924/5
is
that this instrument
neon tube was used
conjunction with telegraph receivers. The neon tube

a
121
Audio Eng. Soc. p 708 (October 1976)
LINEAR SAW-TOOTH TIME BASE CIRCUIT

The
Date Order
in
Chapman
S Puckle (London:
striking voltage of the tube.
&
Hall) p 13 (1944)
No 214754
Anson: British Patent
RADAR
Appleton,
Watt SFR,
Briet,
GEMA
R A Watson
(primarily
et al
UK)
The
use found for the reflecting properties of radio waves was in measuring the height of the
first
Heaviside layer. This was done

the
USA
were the
1924 by Sir Edward Appleton and
in Britain in
A Tuve
1925 by Dr Gregory Briet and Dr Merle
in
first
Institute.
Barnett, and in
Breit and
Tuve
apply the pulse principle.
to
By
1939, Germany, Great Britain, Holland and the
the
first
peaceful application had been
done by the
of the Carnegie
scientists
made
of radio companies:
in
USA
France
in Britain
in
possessed military radar apparatus, while
all
1935. In France and
and the
USA
by scientists
Germany
in
the
work was
government research
stations.
began
Scientists of the Societe Francaise Radioelectrique
waves
'obstacle detector'
fitted to the liner
equipment
Normandie
aircraft.
in
1935;
it
by other
Though
As
a result,
Le Havre
in 1936.
by 1939 a large number of radar
German work began
the assumption that the
such basic work as radar than
at least as
installed
short,
waves
the Air Ministry and his assistant,
Research
at
develop a method of detecting
Henry Tizard, Professor
soon realised that radio
beam would be
to detect aircraft arose in
new
GEMA,
firm
operation for detecting
German
less effort
policy
was put
Rowe
Hill
Britain about
1931 and 1933; on the
in
into
H E
1934.
latter
The
occasion
Wimperis, Director of Scientific
suggested that the country should increase
aircraft at a distance
A V
in
and consequently
the possibilities for aircraft detection were carefully analysed.
efforts to
were
early as that in other countries and had reached a
had been observed
aircraft
sets
by 1939.
USA.
in Britain or the
of radio waves from
scientists, Sir
Work was meanwhile done on
lagged behind after the outbreak of war.
it
war would be
Interest in the possibility of using radio
reflection
An
for military uses.
before 1935, was carried on under contracts from the Navy, by a
firms.
the
at
no radar warning system had been
very similar level of development by 1939,
was based on
and then
appears to have been successful and equipment was installed
and leaving the harbour
for detecting aircraft, although
German work, begun

later
use of metric and decimetric radio
to study the
to saving life at sea
working on decimetric waves and employing magnetrons and the pulse principle was
to detect ships entering
and
view
to detect obstacles in 1934, first with a
its
and an investigating committee of three
and Professor Patrick Blackett, was
set up.
the ideal alternative to the existing inadequate acoustic
It
was
warning
equipment.
Robert
Watson-Watt (now
Sir Robert)
before he began a research career

practical radar
equipment
in the
in Britain.
who was
a lecturer in physics at University College, Dundee,
government laboratories, played the major
He was
role in
developing
superintendent of the Radio Division of the National
22
in
Date Order
Physical Laboratories at the time the pressure for improved air defence reached
confident that radio waves could be employed to detect aircraft. His two
its
He
peak.
felt
memoranda of February 1935
described his suggested means for so using them; after a demonstration of the echoes produced by
from the
aircraft
BBC
Daventry short-wave
was
the principal, Watson- Watt developed the
on the Suffolk coast
in the
summer of
Working with
whom A F
six assistants, of
Wilkins
equipment for the detection of
practical radar
first
The main problems he solved were
1935.
high-power transmitter, the modulation of
Tizard Committee recommended that work on
station, the
the lines suggested by Watson-Watt should be started.
aircraft
the construction of a
with short pulses, the development of receivers to handle
it
the pulses and of suitable transmitting and receiving aerials
The performance of
the
first
equipment was
considered promising enough for the Air Ministry to build a chain of five radar stations.
The development of
radar had meanwhile been proceeding independently in the United States. Military
L A Hyland,
A H
interest
began
aircraft
cause interference in radio waves and Leo Young successfully applied the pulse apparatus to
after
an associate of
Taylor, discovered accidentally in 1930 that
Despite the fact that radar looked so promising, the
this.
amount on
it,
but, through the persistent efforts of
$100 000 was allocated
for radar research.
Laboratory's radio divisions developed
Robert
some of
Navy was
Harold
the
reluctant to spend any significant
Bowen, chief of
the Naval Laboratory,
Page, head of the research section of the Naval
modern radar equipment.
first
after successful laboratory demonstrations of the equipment, the American Navy
devices to
some of
its
In 1938,
finally
two years
fitted
radar
ships.
After 1940 Great Britain and the United States co-operated in radar development.
SOURCE: The
Jewkes,
Sawers and
Stillerman (London: MacMillan
&
Co) pp 346, 347 and 348 (1958)

1925
RESISTOR (Cracked-Carbon
It
was undoubtedly
in
Siemens and Halske (Germany)
Type)
Germany
use was
that the first practical
made of
of metal to form a highly stable resistance coating and resistors of
by several firms
in that
a cracked-carbon film in lieu
country for a number of years before the war.
Amongst
and Halske organisation seems to have produced the largest quantities, so
commonly came
One
is
to
be known as the 'Seimens
type were manufactured
this general
these, the
Siemens
that this type of resistor
resistor'.
of the earliest disclosures of the cracking of hydrocarbon vapour to produce a hard carbon layer
contained
in the Seibt patent
Halske patent relating
of 1930 and in the Stemag patent of the same year. The Siemens and
to these resistors is dated
March 1932, but
the fundamental
method
is
already
there referred to as 'well known!'.
SOURCE:
Ill
SEE ALSO: Siemens and
Halske: Akt. Ges.
Siemens and Halske: Akt. Ges.British Patent
C A
1925
R Coursey
Proc.
IEE
vol 96, Pt.
pp 174-5 (1949)
Hartman: German Patent
No 438 429
German
Patent
No 387150
(1932)
(1925)
ELECTROSTATIC LOUDSPEAKER
The
electrostatic
development
shortcomings
relied
on
(Various)
loudspeaker failed to gain wide commercial
activity
still
No 438429/1925
devoted to
adhered to
its
it
acceptance,
in
spite
of extensive
during 1920-35, for the very sound reason that several serious
design.
Either the diaphragm or the air gap itself had usually been
to provide the protective insulation against electrical
breakdown, but
this protection
was often
inadequate and limits were thereby imposed on the voltages that could be used and on the specific
power output.
Close spacings, a film of trapped
harmonic distortion combined
diaphragm motion: and as

useful
the
stiff
air,
to restrict to very small
diaphragm materials, and vulnerability
consequence, large active areas had
amounts of sound power, especially
at
to
amplitudes both the allowable and the attainable

to
be employed
in
order to radiate
low frequencies. But when large areas were employed,
sound radiation was much too highly directional
at
high frequencies.
Several of the patents cited
A Concise
below bear on one or another of these
improvements would have made
it
features,
possible to
and
now
is
it
23
apparent that an integration of such
overcome almost
but not
quite
every one of
these
performance handicaps. Occurring singly as they did, however, no one of these good ideas was able
by
rescue the electrostatic units from the burden of their other shortcomings. Taken together,
itself to
however, with the newly available diaphragm materials and with the important addition of one or two
new
in
modern form of
ideas, the
handicaps that
many
it
electrostatic loudspeaker
can so completely surmount these former
merits careful consideration as a potential competitor for the moving-coil loudspeaker
applications.
SOURCE:
Electroacoustics by
Hunt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press) p 173, 174
(1954)
SEE ALSO:
No
October 1927, and
German
21
May
Patent
No
61
1746 540
783
1927, renewed 14
No
117
601
(filed
November 1930)
German
patents, for example,
25
issued 7 July 1931 (insulating spacers, perforated plate
Hans Vogt (Berlin), more than a score of contemporary and relevant German
coated with a dielectric);
1933 and
US Patents No 1644 387 (filed 4 October 1927;) issued 4

May 1927) issued 11 February 1930: Ernst Klar (Berlin)
(filed
22 May 1926) issued 5 April 1935, and US Patent No 1813 555 (filed
For example, Colin Kyle,
No
Patents
17
(filed
May
583 769
(filed
25 December 1926) issued 9 September

1934, and
1928) issued 8 August
US
Patent
No
107
1881
(filed 15 September 1928) issued 4 October 1932 (tightly stretched diaphragm between perforated rigid
Edward
electrodes):
Kellogg (GEC)
US
Patent
No
1983 377
(filed
27 September 1929) issued 4
December 1934 (sectionalised diaphragm with inductances for impedance correction); William Colvin,
Jr.
US
Patent
No 2000 437 (filed 19 February 1931) issued 7 May 1935 (woven-wire electrodes); DEL
No 537 931 (filed 21 February 1940, complete spec. 23 January 1941, accepted
Shorter, British Patent
14 July 1941) (diaphragm segmentation with external dividing networks for improving directivity and
impedance).
'Wide range
1925
by P
electrostatic loudspeakers'
p 265 (June 1955),
Walker Wireless World
SHORT WAVE COMMERIAL RADIO

COMMUNICATION
On
23 April 1925, an experiment began
for the link
wave
in
transmitter to
after
it
new water cooled 4
kW
Eindhoven, which had a grid-anode capacity low enough
humble wooden shed, Mr van Boetzelaer,
transmitter 'on the
see
how
far
this
invited
after
transmitter could be heard,
van Boetselaer operated the morse key

in
p 208 (May 1955),
pt. 2,
W van Boetzelaer (Holland)

to
have far-reaching consquences
into operation.
young research engineer, L Jan Was van
transmitting triode from the Philips factory at

to permit oscillating at
many
in
difficulties,
.5
managed
MHz
(!).
Working
to get the primitive
it
was arranged
to
send a cable
caused great excitement
in
if
that
the steam ship
until late at night,
hoping to be read.
Then,
in a
It
flatly stated that
The
ship's reactions,
bold mood, the diligent operator
they happened to read the transmissions.
Hilversum.
'Prins der
on a daily schedule. With admirable perseverance,
slowly via coastal stations, were favourable.
Malabar
came
air'.
Nederlanden', sailing to the East, would listen
coming
Hilversum which turned out
become obsolete only months
Boetzelaer had just received a
To
1,
between The Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia, causing a huge long-
At the Nederlandsche Seintoestallen Fabriek, now PTI,
in a
pt.
p 381 (August 1955)
pt. 3,
The telegram
sent back
reception on 26 metres had been loud and
clear since the beginning of the experiment.
SOURCE:
1925
Philips Telecommunication
IONOSPHERE LAYER
Review vol
33,
No
4,
p 191 (December 1975)
Appleton (UK)
At Cambridge University, British physicist Edward Appleton lays the foundation
for the
development
of radar: he measures the height of the ionosphere and finds that radio waves are reflected from the
upper atmosphere
to a height
of 310 miles (500 km) above ground
level.
24
SOURCE: The
1982)
1925
TELEVISION
When
(Mechanical Scanning)
Baird (UK)
Baird, in 1923, decided to devote his untried inventive genius to the development of a practical
television scheme, the
problem seemed
him
to
to
Two
be comparatively simple.
optical exploring
devices rotating in synchronism, a light-sensitive cell and a controlled varying light source capable of
rapid variations in light flux were
Patent-Office term,
known
that
all
were required, 'and these appeared
Baird,
to the art'.
however
to be already, to
use a
realised the difficult nature of the problem.
'The
only ominous cloud on the horizon', he wrote 'was that in spite of the apparent simplicity of the task
no-one had produced television'.
C F
Baird's principal contemporaries in this challenge were
of Hungary.
USA
Jenkins of the
and
von Mihaly
Other inventors were patenting their ideas on television at this time (1923) but only
Jenkins, Mihaly and Baird and a few others were pursuing a practical study of the problem based on
the utilisation of mechanical scanners.
SOURCE:
'The
first
demonstration of television' by
W Burns Electronics & Power p 953 (9 October
1975)
1925
NOISE
(Johnson)
In addition to fluctuation effects
were generated
produced by vacuum tubes,
made of homogeneous
metallic resistors
in
be temperature dependent and are known as thermal noise.

understanding of thermal noise were
paper by Johnson
in the
agitated molecules.
The
made
in the
conductor
effect
is
in
consequence of
similar to the
it
was found
random noise
that
materials.
These
A number
of basic contributions
a certain
amount of energy. Since
noise
was traced
Brownian movement of
the particle
is
to the
random
particles
suspended
particle
cohesive, collision with any one of
its
the entire particle in motion thereby resulting in
random movements observable under
SOURCE:
SSL Chang
Ragazzini and
'Thermal agitation of electricity
in
conductors' by
'Noise and random processes' by
to
to the
excitation
existence in an environment of thermally-
its
which the thermally-agitated molecules of the liquid collide with the suspended
in
signals
were found
effects
1920s and 1930s among which was the outstanding
The source of thermal conductor
in 1925.
of the electron gas
it
B Johnson (UK)
Proc.
in a liquid
and impart
to
molecules sets
a microscope.
IRE p
147/8
(May
1962)
SEE ALSO:
series,
1926
SCREENED GRID TUBE

By
B Johnson
Phys.
Rev.
2nd
vol 32,
p 97 (July 1928)
the end of the
1914-18 war the triode was the only tube
and generator of high-frequency
some of
its
Round (UK)
common
use as a detector and amplifier
oscillations. Broadcasting was, in fact, started with the triode, although
limitations were, by that time, well recognised.
electrostatic capacitance
in
between the grid and
One major
limitation arose
the anode, within the valve itself.
coupling between grid and anode circuits which resulted

reaction between the output circuit and the input circuit.
in uncontrollable,
The
was
first
suggested by
had earlier suggested a four-electrode tube, but his suggestion of the introduction of an
additional grid had been to secure an increase of amplification factor.
was directed
rise to a
and therefore undersirable,
introduction of a screed grid, between
the control grid and the anode, to reduce this inter-electrode coupling,
Hull. Schottky
from the inherent
This gave
to the reduction
of grid-anode capacitance.
But
it
Hull's suggestion, by contrast,
remained for
Round
to bring the
screen-grid valve into practical use in 1926.
Other, and
later,
one or more
versions of the screen-grid valve were developed, the screen grid being provided with
skirts
which extended
to the walls of the container bulb.
another the anode, was brought out uniquely

out from the base. In this
way
be reduced to 0.001 or 0.01
at the top
the undesired capacitance
nn F
In
one form the
grid,
and
in
of the tube, the other electrodes being brought
between the control grid and
the
anode could
A Concise
Date Order
in
125
'Thermionic devices from the development of the triode up to 1939' by Sir Edward Appleton
SOURCE:
lEEPub. Thermionic
1926
Valves 1904-54 (London: 1EE) p 22-3 (1955)
L O Grondahl and P H
COPPER OXIDE RECTIFIER
Geiger
(USA)
In the course of an investigation of
passed through the oxide
the resistance of the combination
when
flowed
it
was about
was
less
1.
The phenomenon was so
from
the current flowed
of the resistances
from anything
different in nature
was observed
it
that
in the
that
copper than
the oxide to the
two directions
had been observed
in
types of rectifiers that an intensive study and experimental investigation was undertaken
during which
it
became more and more evident
very probable that
it
CIRCUITRY
new device
that the
Grondahl and P
was
set for the invention
January 1926, Wheeler invented his diode
Geiger Proc.
HA
(Automatic Volume Control)
In 1925 the stage
has characteristics which
make
it
will find general application as a rectifier.
SOURCE: 'A new electronic rectifier' by L O

New York (February 7-11, 1927) p 357
1926
angles to the surface of separation,
when
in the reverse direction. In the first unit, the ratio
3 to
known
other
copper oxide formed on a piece of copper, during which current was
in a direction at right
A1EE
Winter Convention,
Wheeler (USA)
of a practical automatic volume-control circuit, and on 2
AVC
and linear diode-detector
incorporated in the Philco Model 95 receiver which he designed
circuit.
This circuit was
the Hazeltine laboratory and
at
first
which
was announced about September 1929.
AVC
Full
RF
bias voltage
stage, half
AVC
was applied
bias voltage
to the first
was applied
sufficiently gradual to permit accurate tuning
once
it
tubes, and, to prevent distortion in the third
by
and
ear,
it
The automatic volume-control
was unnecessary
to
action
was
touch the volume control
was adjusted
SOURCE:
RF
two
to that stage.
art
of radio receiving from the early 1920's to the present' by
SEE ALSO:
'Automatic volume control for radio receiving
H A
by
sets'
Wheeler Proc. IRE
vol 16,
p 30 (January 1928)
1926
FILM SOUND RECORDING

As
a result of lagging interest in the
to test the popularity of
motion pictures by the public, Warner Bros,
sound picturese To minimize the cost of the venture,
have Western Electric develop the necessary equipment
cameras
that
Warner Bros (USA)
(Sound-on-Disc System)
were housed
in
to
in
arranged to
synchronise disk-recording machines with
booths to suppress the camera noise. Arrangements were
Company to do the recording in

Machine Company was a Western Electric
1926 decided
this studio
Victor Talking Machine
their facilities
Victor Talking
licensee,
and
made with
the
and with their personnel. The
their studios vere
equipped with
Western Electric developed motor drives for theatre projectors and disc turntables.
These were
Western Electric recording equipment.
mechanically connected to the same constant speed motor system. Essentially standard public address
system amplifiers and loudspeakers were used. The
first
picture produced
was 'Don
Juan'. In October
1927 'The Jazz Singer' followed and was a success.
The
public reaction
was so
enthusiastic that the large theatre chains
wanted equipment immediately
play the pictures. Western Electric agreed to lease equipment to them.

first
pictures,
Vitaphone.
It
Warner Bros,
was destined
installed disk-recording
to
equipment
As
to
a result of the success of the
in their studios.
This system was called
be supplanted by systems that recorded the sound as photographic images
on the same film the picture was printed on. Having demonstrated the popularity of sound pictures and
developed the equipment, the industry proceeded with great speed
to convert studios for sound-picture
production.
SOURCE:
1962)
'Film recording and reproduction' by
Batsel and
L Dimmick
Proc.
IRE p 745 (May
26
A Concise
1926
FIXED RESISTOR
The
reduces
is
Loewe developed
compressed
air
in
Date Order
S Loewe (Germany)
(Sprayed Metal Film)
basic idea involved
in 1926,
through
the very old art of decorating chinaware with precious metals. In
and applying the spray
it
'Resistors
SEE ALSO:
Heating the film thus formed
to an insulating base.
a survey of the evolution of the
No
S Loewe: German Patent
Marsten Proc. IRE p 922 (May 1962)
field' J
US
591 735 (1926) and
TRANSITRON OSCILLATOR
One
Germany
a resistive film by atomizing a liquid solution of platinum resinate by forcing
to the metal.
it
SOURCE:
1926
Patent
No
B van der
1717 712 (1926)
Pol (Holland)
of the earliest forms of single-valve trigger circuit was described by van der Pol in 1926.
employs
circuit
a tetrode in
This
which the screen and grid have a resistance-capacitance coupling, the grid
being fed from the high potential source via a high resistance, which forms part of the coupling network.
The term
come
'transitron' has recently
valve in such a
way
coined by Brunetti,
any
into use to denote
that amplification is possible without the
who
defined
it
may produce
from one oscillator by means of very simple switching.
it
It is
pentode
Generally,
wave output
equally easy to convert the continuous

the circuit
arranged as a relaxation
is
many
very valuable as a switching device, and has
is
a single
a sinusoidal, sawtooth or square
When
by changing the bias potential.
oscillator or as a flip-flop
which employs
as a 'retarding-field negative-transconductance device'.
these circuits are extremely versatile, and one
oscillator into a flip-flop
circuit
phase reversal. The name was originally
applications to time
bases and control circuits.
SOURCE:
Time Bases by
SEE ALSO: 'On
S Puckle (2nd edn) (London:
'The transitron oscillator' by
1926
B van
relaxation oscillations' by
Brunetti and
Chapman
E Weiss
Proc.
IRE
Yagi studied under the direction of Professor Dr
London from 1914
to 1914,
to 1915,
G H
p 978 (1926)
Yagi (Japan)
Barkhausen
under the direction of Professor Dr
and under the direction of Professor Dr
Cambridge, Massachusetts from 1915
2,
vol 27, p 88 (1939)
Hochschule from 1913
Hall) pp 56, 57 (1951)
der Pol Phil. Mag. vol
YAGI AERIAL
Dr
&
Dresden Technische
at the
A Fleming at University College,

G W Pierce at Harvard University,
to 1916.
In 1926, during his career as a professor at
Tohoku
University, he invented the
VHF
a result of this invention, the
Academy
directive 'Yagi
Some
antenna' which was widely put into practical use for domestic television reception.
years
later, as
of Technical Science in Copenhagen awarded him the Valdemar
Poulsen Gold Medal for his outstanding contributions to radio technique.
SOURCE:
1926
'Death of Dr Hidetsugu Yagi' Telecommunication Journal vol 43, p 372 (V/1976)
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
In
1926 Hans Busch (Germany)
two of
his fellow
countrymen.
carried out experiments based
microscope
in
1933.
It
laid the theoretical foundations for the electron
Max
on
Busch (Germany)
microscope. In 1928
Knoll and Ernst Ruska, from the Technische Hochschule in Berlin,
his research that led to the
development of the
first
operational electron
was perfected by Rulska, who, with Heinrich Rohrer and Gerd Binnig, was
awarded the Nobel Prize
for Physics in
1986 for the invention of the tunnel effect miscroscope (see
below).
SOURCE:
(New
1927
Inventions
CABLE TELEVISION
The
first
Company
disc
Mark Young
Bell
cable television transmission

in 1927.
was used
was
Telephone
Co (USA)
carried out in the United States by the Bell Telephone
The experiment took place between Washington and New York. A Nipkow scanning
for the transmission
and another for the reception.
127
This cable technique was then taken up again for the purposes of reaching those areas without access
to traditional Hertzian transmission.
In
1949 a small town
in
Oregon
United States had bad reception of programmes transmitted
in the
that a large aerial
would
be installed on high ground. From there a cable network transmitted programmes, without any
risk of
from Seattle on account of the mountains which surround
was decided
It
it.
parasitic oscillation.
It
was not
1960s that cable television experienced
until the
Today 22 million Americans are subscribers
real
to different cable
growth
in the
United States and Canada.
systems (paid by subscription), 2.5 million
of which are Disney Channel subscribers.
The development of
optical fibres in place of traditional coaxial cable (invented
makes
Affel and Espensched in 1929)
audience participation, that
is
directly in the contents of the
The
fibre optic
it
possible to go from passive viewing of
to say, users are able to
choose
by the Americans
programmes
programmes and
their
programmes themselves (quick surveys, questionnaires, games
technique makes
possible to transmit through the
it
to active
to participate
same cables not only
etc).
television
programmes, but also radio programmes, telecommunications and data material.
Thanks
to direct television satellites,
SOURCE: The Book
to benefit
&
one of the most fundamental discoveries
in the history
S Black (USA)
of communications,
Laboratories found that by feeding part of an amplifiers output back into

it
was possible by
SOURCE:
in 1993.
Co.) (1990) p 243
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

In
from 120 channels
of Inventions and Discoveries Associate Editor Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing
(UK: Queen Anne Press, Macdonald

1927
Europe was able
some
sacrificing
its
S Black
in
1927
at Bell
input (negative feedback),
amplification to achieve stable operation at low distortion.
Mission Communications
the Story of Bell Laboratories by Prescott C Mabon (Murray
Hill,
NJ: Bell Laboratories Inc.) p 171-2 (1975)
1927

The
first
commercially successful photographic sound recording system (Fox Movietone News) used
a variable intensity
lamp known as
method of modulating
beam of
light to
the Aeo-light had an oxide coated cathode,
a considerable range by varying the
The Aeo-light was mounted

was
Fox Movietone News (USA)
(Sound-on-Film System)
a light restricting
slit
anode voltage,
in a tube
at
expose the film negative. The gas-filled
and
which entered the camera
which passed
beam about
its
intensity could be
at the
back.
a tenth inch long
between the picture and the sprocket holes. The Aeo-light could produce
to
modulated over
audio frequencies, between 200 and 400
volts.
Directly against the film
and 0.001 inch high, placed

a sufficiently high intensity
expose the sensitive negative films used for picture taking. The system worked quite well for news
photography, where the sound and pictures were taken simultaneously on the same camera.
SOURCE:
G L Dimmick
Batsel and
IRE p 746 (May
Proc.
1962)
1928
PENTODE TUBE
The
it
is
Tellegen and Hoist (Holland)
substantial suppression of secondary emission in a tetrode
is
not an easy matter, particularly where
desired to operate with high anode and screen potentials, and so by far the most
of suppressing secondary emission
and anode, as
in the
suppressor grid
is
is
by way of the inclusion of a suppressor
grid,
pentode invented by Tellegen and Hoist of the Philips Company,
maintained
at the filament potential.
common method
between screen grid
Pentodes, before 19391 had
in
Holland. The
become extremely
popular for both high- and low-frequency amplifications.
SOURCE: Thermionic
IEE Pub. Thermionic
devices from the development of the triode up to 1939' by Sir Edward Appleton
Valves 1904-54 (London: IEE) p 23^1 (1955)
A Concise
128
1928
FREQUENCY STANDARDS
The tuning
(Quartz Clocks)
was developed
fork
could have been improved
by Horton and Marrison and
it
which
to a point at
By
further.
still
seemed
W Horton & W A Marrison (USA)
J
it
this time,
gave
a stability of
however, the
clear that quartz possessed
per
week and
quartz clock had been
first
many
part in 10
advantages.
made
One fundamental
advantage was the higher frequency of quartz vibrations. Frequencies of many millions of cycles per
second were already being used for radio transmissions, and
them
terms of a standard having such a low value as
in
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
16,
1928
L Essen
'Frequency and time standards'
Proc.
'Precision determination of frequency' by
it
was not very convenient
to
measure
kc.
IRE
159 (May 1962)
Horton and
Marrison Proc. IRE vol
p 137 (February 1928)
RADIO
HA
(Diversity Reception)
HO
Beverage,
Peterson and J
B Moore (USA)
Because of the turbulence and abrupt changes encountered
improved means of reception
be given
to
were not
sufficient.
Among
as
in the
became apparent
is
obtained due to the
of two or more paths. Diversity reception
any frequency.
H A
HO
Beverage,
is
statistical
resistor
above
Peterson and
rectified outputs
minimum from any
a certain
independence
B Moore
SEE ALSO:
'Diversity receiving system of
Beverage and
H O
fading characteristics
employed
three antennas spaced about
IRE
to television.
Washington and
New
of modern colour
TV
common
load
as the voltage
was
RCA
vol 19, pp
As long
Communications
Inc.
for radiotelegraphy'
H H
531-61 (April 1931)
Bell Laboratories
three primary colours
SOURCE: The
in the
keyed tone signal was reproduced.
COLOUR TV
Colour comes
diversity reception, wherein
described and developed a triple-space-
local tone generator.
receiver, a properly
'Radio receiver past and present' by
Peterson Proc.
is
power increases alone
of three separate receivers were combined across a
and the voltage across the resistor keyed a
SOURCE:
1929
The
feet apart.
special attention had to
improving the reception of any type of modulation
basic,
diversity system for on-off telegraph reception around 1928. This
1000
HF medium,
that transmitter
the significant techniques developed, one of the most important
a considerable improvement
at
it
With spectacularly good
(USA)
results, the first transmission is
beamed between
York. The 50-line system used by the Bell Telephone Laboratories transmits the
red, blue
is laid
and green
down when
along
three separate channels. Later in the year, the basis
several colour signals are transmitted over a single channel.
1982)
1929
E O Laurence (USA)
CYCLOTRON
Laurence used a curved path for the
particles, so that the particles
could circulate continuously, travelling
long distances in a relatively small volume and using the same accelerating system over and over again.
An
electrically
particle,
charged particle entering a magnetic
proceeds to
of the circle
in
SOURCE: The
move
which the
in a circle
particle
field directed at right
angles to the motion of the
with constant speed; as the particle speed
moves
is
Jewkes,
Sawers and R Stellerman (London: MacMillan)
pp 290/1 (1958)
SEE ALSO:
'Atomic slingshot' by Howard Blakeslee Science Digest (April 1949)
'Maestro of the atom' by
L A Schuler
increased, the radius
also increases. Further acceleration occurs at each revolution.
Scientific
American (August 1940)

1929
A G
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
means
oscillator provided a
1920 Barkhausen positive-grid
In
waves. This revived the interest in the centimeter waves.
29
Clavier (France)
40-cm
for the efficient generation of
1929 Andre
In
Clavier, then associated
with Laboratoire Central de Telecommunications in Paris, started an experimental project to challenge

the then accepted principle that wire or cable circuits should be used in preference to radio
whenever
physically possible.
1930 a link was started between two terminals
In
testing started, the project
demonstrated
and
was transferred back
in
New
microwave transmission provided
that
Jersey using 10-ft. parabolic antennas. Just as
On
to France.
new
March 1931, Clavier and
31
communications over a 40-km path between Calais and Dover. The
flexibility in
went on
to establish the first
power output of
commercial microwave radio
provided
circuit
beam by means of
both telephone and teleprinter service using 17-6cm waves transmitted in a 4

parabolic reflector 3 metres in diameter with a
his associates
order of economy, quality, dependability
1933 from Lympne, England,
link in
Andre Clavier
a fraction of a watt.
to St.
Inglevert, France.
SOURCE: 'Microwave
1930
communications' by
TRANSISTOR (MOSFET
A
1930 patent was issued
compared
H Vogelman
IRE p 907 (May 1962)
Proc.
Concept)
J Lilienfeld
to Julius Lilienfeld
MOSFET,
to today's
(Germany)
of the University of Leipzig for a device that could be
The device was reported
or insulated gate field-effect transistor.
to
provide a means of obtaining amplification in a thin film of copper sulfide. However, a working device
was probably never
SOURCE:
1930
built, since the
low mobility of holes
and other factors would seem
in the material
any amplification.
to preclude
'Solid state devices' Electronic Design vol 24, p 72 (23
VAN DE GRAAF ACCELERATOR
November 1972)
J van de Graaf (USA)
For nuclear structure research, constant-potential accelerators use the electrostatic belt generator invented
by van de Graaf. About 5.5 million
now
(equipment
SOURCE: The
Reinhold
&
1930s
G Trump
were insulated
between two large generators
in air
Encyclopedia of Physics (2nd edn) Editor
Besancon (New York: Van Nostrand
'Electrostatic generators for the acceleration of charged particles' by
and
WW
Bruechner Rep. Prog. Phys. vol
METEOR SCATTER
1,
(BURST) SYSTEMS
km;
to 120
this
Schanker
range of altitudes includes also the ionised
they create an ionised
lower
VHF
trail
was discovered during
was eventually
realised that
reflections.
It
reflections.
Schanker estimates
milliseconds to
scatter paths
1
activities
was made
van de Graaf,
up
at altitudes typically
layer.
aimed
(USA)
et al
When
upper
predicting 'sporadic'
in the 1930s;
it
to irregular
is
from 80
the meteors vaporise,
efficiently in the
at
one of the 'sporadic' effects was due
that this discovery
scale experiments to probe the ionosphere
Because meteor
which re-radiates incident radio waves quite
ranges. This effect
(1948)
Billions of meteors enter the Earth's atmosphere every day and burn
km
1930
in
of Science).
Litton Educational Pub. Inc.) p 13 (1974)
SEE ALSO:
J
volts
Museum
Boston
in the
well
HF
E
meteor
known
and
layer
trail
that large
were taking place internationally.
between two terminals are open only
for short periods, ranging
or 2 seconds, high speed transponding (hand-shaking)
is
from
essential before information
can be passed. Thus, systems suitable for general use had to wait for the production of high speed,
cheap microprocessors and modern memory chips and have developed rapidly since 1982.
typical
meteor scatter burst system can provide information exceeding 75 b/s (sometimes much
greater) over each
24 hour period
SOURCE:
Communication from
Private
at
distances up to
J
2000 km.
Guest, Malvern Wells,
UK
A Concise
30
SEE ALSO: Meteor Burst Communication
JANET
'The Canadian
1930
by Jacob
system' by Davis
Date Order
in
WL
Z Shanker
et al Proc.
(Boston: Artech House)
IRE (December 1995)
W J de Haas and J Voogd
HIGH FIELD SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
(Netherlands)
The
story of high field superconductivity
that resistance
was restored
gauss
The
at
4.2 K.
suggested to
in the
began as long ago as 1930, when de Haas and Voogd discovered
Pb-Bi eutectic only by magnetic
fields as
high as 16000 to
20000
eutectic alloy had a transition temperature of about 8.8 K. This discovery immediately
authors the old idea of making a superconducting solenoid with wire of this material,
its
but because of the very low critical current densities that they observed, the idea was soon dropped
and
over 20 years. Then
in fact lay fallow for
wound
in
1955 Yntema described a superconducting solenoid
with niobium wire which produced fields up to 7000 gauss, but this received
made
Autler (1960)
a similar coil
attention.
until
by Kunzler and his co-workers of the remarkable current-carrying properties
the discovery in 1961
of the intermetallic compounds Nb3Sn.

temperature of 18.0
little
producing 4300 gauss but, the subject did not really take off
by Matthias
This material had been found to have the very high

(1954) and indeed this
et al
is still
the highest
known
critical
transition
temperature of any material, give or take a few tenths of a degree.
SOURCE:
Materials for Conductive and Resistitive Functions by
Book Co)
p 141
SEE ALSO:
de Haas and
'Superconducting electromagnetics' by S
GB
Autler Rev.
Yntema
Phys. Rev. vol 98, p
Sci. Instrum.
vol 31, p
Nb 3 Sn at high current density in a magnetic field of 88

J H Wernick Phys. Rev. Lett, vol 6, p 890 (1961)
'Superconductivity in
1930s
Dummer (New
York: Hayden
Voogd Commun. Phys. Lab. University of Leiden No 208b (1930)
'Superconducting winding for electromagnetics' by
E Beuhler F
WA
197 (1955)
369 (1960)
kgauss' by J
Kunzler,
L Hsu and
RADIOPHONIC SOUNDMUSIC
These techniques
first
came
P Grainger
(Australia)
into real use during the 1950s with the maturation of the
magnetic tape
recorder although as long ago as the 1930s Percy Grainger, the Australian composer of 'Country
Gardens' fame, had produced a brief composition based on pure frequencies for the Theremin, an early
electronic sound generator.
The beginnings were however with 'musique
although as the
name
sounds and was
in fact orchestrated noise.
suggests the 'music' was
sounds were used as the raw material,

malleability
was achieved
tape speeds on playback,
SOURCE:
1931
bore
With further study
i.e.
it
became apparent
that if
more 'musical'
changes encountered during pitch changes, due
Book (London: Newnes-Butterworth) ch
was provided by
conducting tin-oxide coating for glass insulators.
to differing
relationship to each other.
(Oxide Film)
for this important contribution
concrete', pioneered in Europe,
the manipulation of pre-recorded natural
sounds with a more ordered harmonic structure, greater
some audible
FIXED RESISTOR
The seed
as the timbre
still
made through
Littleton
Littleton (1931)
Its resistivity
was
17,
p 17-16 (1976)
(USA)
who developed
sufficiently
low
an iridized,
to equalise potential
across the insulator, thereby reducing corona effect, but too high for use in conventional resistors.
Mochel modified
By
SOURCE:
'Resistors
SEE ALSO:
J
this film
by the addition of antimony oxide which stabilized
its
electrical properties.
varying the tin-antimony proportions, negative or positive temperature coefficients are obtained.
Mochel:
T
US
a survey of the evolution of the field' J
Littleton:
Patent
US
Patent
No 2564 707
No 2228 795
(1931)
(1947) Reissue 25 556
Marston Proc. IRE p 922 (May 1962)
A Concise
1931
STEREOPHONIC SOUND REPRODUCTION
A D
Date Order
in
131
Blumlein (UK) and Bell Labs.
(USA)
Stereophonic reproduction per se was pioneered almost simultaneously by Blumlein in Great Britain
and
Blumlein's contributions are presumed to be described
Telephone Laboratories.
at the Bell
He showed
his patents.
microphone arrays
complete system applicable
utilising bidirectional as well as omnidirectional
and disc recording systems
simultaneous
utilising
and
lateral
in
sound-on-disc motion pictures, including
to
microphones, transmission
Economic
vertical recording.
circuits,
difficulties
are believed to have prevented completion and commercial exploitation of these systems.
The recognised
systems approach to large audience stereophonic reproduction was a public
early
demonstration of Bell Telephone Laboratories equipment under the guidance of Dr Harvey Fletcher
on 27 April 1933. The Philadelphia Orchestra was

reproduced
SOURCE:
'The history of steophonic sound reproduction' by
SEE ALSO: A D
Also
US
Academy of Music
in the
Patent
Philadelphia and
in
it
was
Washington, DC.
in Constitution Hall,
Blumlein: British Patent
No 394 325
IRE
Hilliard Proc.
p 776
(May 1962)
December 1931)
(14
No 2093 540
'Perfect transmission
and reproduction of symphonic music
in auditory perspective'
F B Jowett
et al
Bell Telephone Quart, vol 12, p 150 (July 1933)
1931
CRO CARDIOGRAPH
The
first
workers
the action potentials of nerves.
realising
its
At the present time, many workers
unique properties, are adapting the cathode-ray tube to their
Among
general account will be found in Holzer's book.
work was
work were Gasser and Erlangers,
to use the cathode-ray tube in bio-electrical
work on
Rijlant (Belgium)
Rijlant,
of Brussels (1931
Germany, and Matthews (1933)
et seq)
who
in this country,
the
has published
first to
own
adapt
were also among the
first
fields,
particular problems; a
to electrocardiographic
it
many papers on
in their
in bio-electrical
the subject. Schmitz, in
to publish
electrocardiograms
recorded by the cathode-ray oscillograph (CRO). Matthews (1934) was able to show that Rijlant's
electrocardiograms were inaccurate, and to point out that the
were
really
SOURCE:
caused by deficiencies
'The examination and recording of the
ray oscillograph' by
SEE ALSO: 'Some

bio-electrical
Robertson
new waves
(P2,
T2
etc) described
by him
in his amplifer.
J.
IEE
human
vol 81, p
electro-cardiogram by means of the cathode-
497 (1937)
observations on the adaptation of the cathode ray oscillograph to the recording of
phenomena with
special reference to the electrocardiogram by
Robertson Proc. R. Soc.
of Medicine (Section of Physical Medicine) vol 29, p 593 (1936)
Cathode Ray Oscillography
in
Biology and Medicine by
human
'The cathode ray oscillogram of the
heart'
Holzer (Vienna: Maudrich) (1936)
by P Rijlant Comptes Rendues des Seances de
la
Societe de Biologie vol 109, p 42 (1932)
1931
COMPUTERS
V Bush (USA)
(Differential Analyser)
Early analogue computer for solving differential equations.
SOURCE:
'The differential analyser
new machine
for solving differential equations'
by
V Bush
Journal of the Franklin Institute vol 212, p 477 (1931)
Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
1931
RELIABILITYQUALITY CONTROL CHARTS

After languishing in libraries for several years, the work of
and the work of Shewhart on control charts
finally
W A Shewhart (USA)
Dodge and Romig
was brought
in
to light during
acceptance sampling
World War
II
through
A Concise
132
War Production
Date Order
programmes sponsored by
the nationwide training
of the
in
Development
the Office of Production Research and
Board.
Although the underlying concepts were developed by
and
scientific investigators
Romig and Shewhart
preceding decades, the genius of Dodge,
statisticians in the
lay in their recognition of basic principles
as an aid to solving practical problems, and their ability to recognise and formulate a systematic
approach.
SOURCE:
'Treating real data with respect' by J
SEE ALSO: Economic
Henry Quality Progress p 18 (March 1976)
Control of Quality of Manufactured Product by
W A Shewhart (New York:
Van
Nostrand) (1931)
1932
NEUTRON
Some
J Chadwick (UK)
German
years before, the
radiations obtained
assumed
country
paraffin
were of
that the radiations
wife Irene Curie
physicists Bothe and Becker had discovered
by bombarding the
wave
some very
The French
nature.
physicists Frederic Joliot and his
whose mother Marie Curie had discovered polonium and named
studied
made
these radiations and
wax was placed
in front
penetrating
beryllium with particles shot out of polonium. They
light metal
a very striking experiment.
it
They found
after her native
that if a piece
of
of them then the amount of radiation seemed to be increased, and not
decreased by the inter-position of the wax.
Chadwick, by further experiment and
able to prove that this paradox could be resolved
if
the radiations
interpretation,
were not waves, but
new
was
kind of
atomic particle without any electric charge. Thus he discovered the neutron.
SOURCE:
1932
Science at
War by
Crowther and
Whiddington (London:
COCKCROFT-WALTON ACCELERATOR
(Atom-Smasher)
(UK)
Cockcroft was an electrical engineer from Manchester.
HMSO)
p 127 (1947)
ED
Cockcroft and
He had graduated
S Walton
as an engineer at the
Manchester College of Technology and joined the engineering firm of Metropolitan- Vickers Electrical
Company Ltd. After spending four years in the army in the war of 1914-18 he returned to his firm.
He engaged in advanced study with Professor Miles Walker and was presently awarded a post-graduate
scholarship to continue his studies
His engineering knowledge
Cambridge.
at
fitted
him
to devise
powerful electrical apparatus, and he attacked the problem of devising an electrical machine by which
an electrical
of several hundred thousand volts could be applied to atomic particles, so that they
field
could be given a very high speed and energy, like those thrown out naturally by radium.
and
his colleague
Walton succeeded
in disintegrating lithium
Cockcroft
with electrically accelerated protons in
1932, shortly after Chadwick' s discovery of the neutron. This was a great advance, because electrical
machines could be developed, and large streams of atomic projectiles could be produced
Cockcroft used protons, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms,
about sixty times as
much energy
relatively insignificant,
greater than
the total
smasher was very
SOURCE:
1932
possessed
amount
in
As
field
was much
machine, Cockcroft's atom-
inefficient in the engineer's sense.
Crowther and R Whiddington (London:
the diagrams, figure
features of the line scan circuit
common
Each proton released
producing the accelerating
released in the atomic disintegrations.
A D
(Energy Conserving Scanning Circuit)
As with most of
into a
it
experiments.
But the number of protons accelerated was
itself.
and the amount of energy used
Science at War by
CIRCUITRY
as
in his first
at will.
which
.8(a) is taken
is
now
HMSO)
p 128 (1947)
Blumlein (UK)
from the Patent Specification, and shows the basic
universal in television receivers, although not brought
use until 1946. Figure 11.8(b) shows the method of operation, involving three separate
regimes during the cycle.

It is
it
now
such a well-known circuit that
with the single
the saw-tooth
as
LC
circuit
waveform
it
which
is
is all
it
will not
that
is
be described
in detail, but
it
is
interesting to
compare
necessary for a sinusoidal waveform, whereas to handle
necessary to provide also the switches in the form of the valve and diode
shown. The element of symmetry mentioned
earlier
can be seen here.
133
<t
Figure 11.8. Energy conserving scanner
SOURCE:
circuit,
(a)
Basic features; (b) method of operation.
'The world of Alan Blumlein' British Kinematography Sound and Television vol 50,
No
7.
p 209 (July 1968)
SEE ALSO:
1932
British Patent Specification
No 400 976
(1932)
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

The
electron microscope
first
was
built at the
Knoll
&E
Ruska (Germany)
Technical University of Berlin early
in
1931.
It
had two
electro-magnetic lenses in series and achieved a modest magnification of 17. Improvements were
later.
Ruska
condenser lens was added and an iron shield with a narrow gap
SOURCE:
The Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd edn) Editor R
&
'Origin of the electron microscope' by
in
first
1933.
lens.
Besancon (New York: Van Nostrand
MM
Leistung des Magnetischen Elcktronemikroskops' by
Freundlich Science vol 142, (3589) p 185 (1963)
STEREO RECORD
The
made
Litton Educational Pub. Inc.) p 2 (1974)
SEE ALSO: 'Uber Fortschritte im Bau und in der

E Ruska Z. Phys. vol 87, (9 & 10), p 580 (1934)
1933
around the magnetic
1934 was able to demonstrate a magnification of 12 000.
in
Reinhold
built
EMI (UK)
stereophonic records were produced in Great Britain by
The
research, directed by the physicist Alan
EMI
(Electric
and Musical Industries)
Dower Blumlein, culminated
in the
recording
134
of stereo 78s. The work of Blumlein and
company Audio
in
EMI
Date Order
remained experimental untl 1958, when the American
and the British companies Pye and Decca issued the
Fidelity
first
commercial stereo
records thanks to numerous technical advances.
SOURCE:
(New
1933
Inventions
FREQUENCY-MODULATION
The
FM
promoting
credit for
seeking a
way
to
reduce
E H Armstrong (USA)
as a broadcast service goes to
static,
and
finally
E H Armstrong. For
many forms of man-made

components up
SOURCE:
static.
years he had been
he turned his attention to FM. Toward the end of 1933 he
had perfected a system of wide-band frequency modulation which seemed
Mark Young
to
overcome
natural and
75
kc by audio
system the carrier was frequency modulated
In this
to 15 kc.
of radio receiving from the early 1920's to the present' by
art
SEE ALSO:
'Frequency modulation' by S
W Seeley RCA Rev.
Selected Papers on Frequency Modulation edited by
vol 5, p
468 (April 1941)
Klapper (New York: Dover Publications Ltd.)
(1970)
NOTE
The
actual invention of frequency modulation goes back to 1902
US
Patent 785 303.
Ehret
(Endeavor Review April 1978)
1933
POLYETHYLENE INSULATION
An
ICI (UK)
outstanding event in the cable world in recent years was the discovery of polyethylene in 1933 by
Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd.
was made available
small amount
At
first
only minute quantities could be produced, but by 1937 a
for experimental use.
The opportunity was
once taken and,
at
after
extended research, a mile of submarine cable insulated with Telcothene, a synthetic material based on
polyethylene, was
SOURCE:
made by Submarine Cables
Ltd. in 1939.
'The story of the submarine cable' Booklet published by Submarine Cables Ltd (AEI) London
p 13 (1960)
1933
HARD VALVE TIME BASE CIRCUIT

In 1933,
S Puckle (UK)
O S Puckle developed a time base which employs a variation of the multivibrator as a condenser
charging medium.
from
SOURCE:
Time Bases by
SEE ALSO:
maximum
This raised the
a thyratron time base,
repetition frequency, as
from about 40 kc/s up
to a
maximum
S Puckle (London: Chapman
'A time base employing hard valves'
&
compared with
of about
that obtainable
Mc/s.
Hall) p 30 (1944)
S Buckle British Patent 419198; also Journal of
the Television Society vol 2, p 147 (1936)
1933
RADIO ASTRONOMY
While looking
for the sources of static in overseas radio signals,
energy coming from the
SOURCE:
KG
stars
thus launching
Jansky (USA)
KG
Jansky
in
1933 discovered radio
the science of radio astronomy.
the Story of Bell Laboratories by Prescott C Mabon (Murray
Hill,
NJ: Bell Laboratories Inc.) p 170 (1975)
1933
'IGNITRON' (Mercury-Arc
In
1933 the Westinghouse
Westinghouse (USA)
Rectifier)
Company announced
its
Ignitron. Its potential value
and an active developmental programme soon commercialised

applying Ignitrons was rapid.
installed in a customer's shop.
By
it
extensively.
was
at
once recognised
Progress in making and
the end of 1934 a welding control unit using glass Ignitrons
was
A
SOURCE:
1934
W C White Proc.
'Early history of industrial-electronics'
FREQUENCY STANDARDS
CE
(Atomic Clocks)
Date Order
in
IRE p
135
133 (May 1962)
Cleeton and
NA
Williams
(USA)
In
1934 Cleeton and Williams
Mcs by
of 23 870
exciting the transitions
ammonia was
at
Michigan University excited a
at
a source of radio
was
waves generated
magnetron which generated a
atmospheric pressure,
'Frequency and time standards'
SEE ALSO:
C E
1934
'Electromagnetic waves of
Cleeton and
N A
fairly
1.1
L Essen
cm
this
Proc.
frequency
for
wide band of frequencies and the

effect
The
observed.
is
IRE p
(May 1962)
161
wavelength and the absorption spectrum of ammonia'
Williams Phys. Rev. vol 45, p 234-7 (February 1934)
E Fermi
Enrico Fermi
Professor
1934,
at a
can be reduced by reducing the pressure.
TRANS-URANIAN ATOMS
In
ammonia
The source used by them
which only a very broad resonance
at
width was mainly due to the effect of collisions and
SOURCE:
spectral line of
in the laboratory.
in
systematically bombarding atoms of
Rome
all
(Italy)
poured out a bewildering series of discoveries by
He found
the elements with neutrons.
that several
dozen
of them could be transmuted by neutrons, and he obtained particularly interesting results from uranium.
This
The
nucleus.
No
first
and the
1,
stable.
Fermi found
different
Atom No 92
should be naturally radio-active.
It
an ancestor of radium, whose atomic number
known
is
that
he had made
new
SOURCE:
1934
series of
atoms hitherto not found on the
Science at War by
Crowther and
as
Atom
not
It is
88.
bombarded uranium produced numerous atoms with chemical
from uranium. He concluded
new
as
might well be too complicated to be
properties quite
atoms, more complicated than uranium
atoms, and supposed that these must be 'trans-uranian' atoms, Nos.

a
known
Atom No 92.
hydrogen, with one positive charge, and therefore
uranium, with ninety-two charges, and therefore
that the
earth.
an order of complication, depending on the number of electric charges on the
in the series is
in fact
It is
in
last is
surprising that
made
atoms found on the
the most complicated of the ninety-two different kinds of chemical
is
These can be placed
93,
94
etc.
He seemed
to
have
earth.
R Whiddington
LIQUID-CRYSTALS
(London:
HMSO)
p 129 (1947)
J Dreyer (UK)
Although the liquid-crystal
state
was
first
noted
in
1889,
it
was not
until
around 1934
that serious
consideration was given to these electro-optical devices, in the Marconi laboratories, in England. John
Dreyer found
polarisers
that their orderly
method
molecular arrangement could be used to orient dye molecules for making
used even though his work was done
still
present explosion in liquid-crystal research began in the 1960s

States
began
to investigate them.
British patents that
Its
in the
when
1940s and patented
the
RCA
in 1950.
course of development can be charted by counting the
have been granted
one each
The
laboratories in the United
US
and
year in 1936, 1946, 1950, 1951, 1963, 1965 and
1967. Then, suddenly, seven in 1968, 11 in 1969, at least
two
in
1970 and more than
in 1971.
Few
companies claim as long-lived an association with the subject as Marconi and RCA: most have been
in the field for
SOURCE:
1935
two years or
'The
fluid state
less.
of liquid-crystals' by
SUPERCONDUCTING SWITCH
M Tobias New Scientist p 651
(14 December 1972)
W J de Haas
Casimir-Jonker and
(Netherlands)
The
idea of using the superconductive transition to switch a small resistance into and out of a circuit
at will
seems
to
have occurred
at
about the same time in the laboratories
at
1935. Casimir-Jonker and de Haas (1935) developed an apparatus to detect the

in a
Leiden and Toronto

first
superconducting specimen, using a sensitive magnetometer to observe the change of
to the cryostat
when
as small as 3
x 10""
field external
the current decayed in a super conducting circuit in series with the specimen.
superconducting lead solenoid around the specimen was used to restore
ohm
its
resistance,
produced a decay of current rapid enough to be detected.
in
trace of resistance
and a resistance
36
Date Order
in
At Toronto, Grayson Smith and Tarr (1935) used

consisting of fixed lead field coils and a
magnetometer inside the cryostat
a moving-coil
moving copper
coil.
the field coils acted as a superconducting switch and could be driven normal by
The apparatus was used
a copper solenoid.
their decay.
Used
4
as small as 10
SOURCE:
in this
amp
way
means of
a current in
for measuring small persistent currents, again by observing
as a super-conduct ing galvanometers
in a circuit
itself,
short section of lead wire in series with
it
was capable of detecting currents
4
of self-inductance of 5 x 10" henry.
A Dummer (New
York: Hayden
Book Co.) p 134
SEE ALSO:
1935:
1935
1935: Casimir-Jonker
H Grayson
Smith and F
G A
and de Haas
Physica vol
2,
p 935
Tarr Transaction of the Royal Society of
TRAVELLING WAVE MICROWAVE OSCILLATOR
and
Canada
Heil
vol 29, p 23
(Germany)
(Early Magnetron)
Studies of the classical triode valve in which the anode current
a
fundamental
difficulty for the highest frequencies
electron inertia.
In
1935 proposals were made by
also of avoiding the
power
was
is
controlled by the grid had
the excess grid control
Heil and
first
time, a
new mechanism
that
to
Heil for avoiding this limitation and
dissipation limit of very high frequency circuits.
particular importance since for the
shown
power needed due
These proposals were of
specially suited for the generation of
very high frequencies was suggested.
SOURCE: 'Microwave valves: A survey of evolution, principles of operation

and basic characteristics'
by
SEE ALSO:
'Eine neue methode zur erzeugung kurzer, ungedampfter, elektromagnetischer Wellen
grosser Intensitat' by
1935
A A
Heil and
Heil Z. Phys. vol 95, p 752 (1935)
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Knoll,
von Ardenne
(Germany) and
D McMullan, C
Oatley (UK)
Postulated by Knoll in 1935, an early form of scanning electron microscscope was built by von Ardenne
in 1938.
and
it
However, the
intensity of the electron
was therefore necessary
beam
to record the picture
at the
specimen was very low (about 10-13 A)
over a period of about 20 minutes
in
order to obtain
an image of reasonable density on the photographic film.
Since the image was not visible

it
The
results with this
had been developed, focusing was a
until the film
being necessary to find the setting by
trial
and
show advantages with
could then be examined
in
The
beam should be
collected by
surfaces of opaque specimens
terms of their secondary emitting properties
scanning electron microscope designed especially for opaque speciments was made by Zworykin and
others in 1942.
main
The specimen was scanned by an
difference being that electrostatic lenses
were published showing

It is
is
thick specimens.
also proposed that, instead of a photographic recording, the electron
an electrode, amplified and used to modulate a cathode-ray tube.
proceeding,
microscope were inferior to conventional electron microscopes but von Ardenne
pointed out that the scanning microscope should
He
difficult
error.
well
known
a resolution of about
that with
electron spot as in von Ardenne's microscope, the
were used instead of magnetic ones. Some micrographs
500
but the interpretation of them
was inconclusive.
primary voltages below a few thousand volts the secondary emission ratio
very dependent on the cleanness of the surface and in a demountable system with
on the specimen, and
practically impossible to prevent a thin layer of oil forming
significant part in determining the contrasts in the final micrograph. This difficulty has
in the
scanning electron microscope
at
Cambridge and,
in addition, a
oil
pumps
it
is
this layer plays a
been overcome
number of other improvements
have been incorporated including direct viewing of the picture before recording.
SOURCE:
Letter from
Dr D McMullan dated
16/10/77.
the electron-optical examination of surfaces' by
1953)
Also 'The scanning electron microscope and
D McMullan
Electronic Engineering p 46 (February
A Concise
SEE ALSO:
von Ardenne
Tech. Phys.
K C A
Z.
D McMullan
Proc.
IEE
vol 100,
75, p 245 (June 1953)
Smith and
'First international
(New
Knoll
407-16 (1938)
vol 19,
'An improved scanning electron microscope for opaque specimens' by
No
467 (1935)
'Das Elektron raster Mikroskop' by
III,
137
'Aufladepotential und Sekundar-emission elektronbestrahlter Oberflachen' by
Tech. Phys. vol 2, p
Part
Date Order
in
W Oatley
J Appl. Phys. vol
Brit.
conference on Electron and Ion
p 391 (1955)
6,
Beam
Science and Technology' Edited by
Bakish
York: John Wiley) (1965)
NOTE:
In
1957 a team of
scientists
at
Cambridge University made
microanalysers which gave Britain a lead in this
field that
breakthrough
electron
in
Before the wholly-British development of scanning techniques, specimens had to be moved under
probes and the element distribution plotted laboriously and slowly. Scanning made
the information
on
The following
year,
probe
has so far been maintained.
it
static
possible to display
TV-type viewing system.
Tube Investments Research Laboratories found
microanalysis, developed by the team at the Cavendish Laboratory
the
value of scanning X-ray
was so
great that they built an
instrument of their own.

Early
in
1959, the Cambridge Instrument Co. entered into an agreement with TI to manufacture such
instruments. Production started later that year and the
first
Microscan was completed for the
Aldermaston, and shown in the Cambridge Instrument Company's London office
at
UKAEA,
the time of the
Physical Society Exhibition in January 1960.
During the same period the company's
efforts to
improve the resolution of Microscan
led to the
merging
of their work with that of the University's Engineering Department where scanning electron microscopes
were being studied. Stereoscan was the

This instrument had a
field
of focus
result.
some 300 times
greater than any previous microscope, optical or
So revolutionary
otherwise, and produced dramatic results of both rough and delicate surface alike.
were the photographs taken on
this instrument, that the
company had
to
arrange a special demonstration
before microscopists were convinced that they were true pictures of the surface.
SOURCE: 'From
Microscan
to Stereoscan....
Cambridge keeping
Britain in front' by P Slater Electronics
Weekly p 16(10 January 1968)
1935
CIRCUITRY
A D
(Constant Resistance Capacity Stand-Oft
Blumlein (UK)
Circuit)
Figures
11.9(a)
and
(b)
show two
versions of the basis of this invention,
arrangements of an inductor L, a capacitor C, and two equal resistors

the
impedance measured between the two terminals
provided L/C =
1
1.9(b)) as a
R2
is
namely two-terminal
having the property that
purely resistive, of value
at all
frequencies,
This property was known, but Blumlein adapted the circuit (particularly figure
means of removing from
critical points in a circuit (e.g.
capacity to earth of, for example, floating power supplies.
wide-band amplifier) the stray
The example shown
in
figure
1.9(c)
is
the application of the idea to the filament supply for the cathode follower output valve of the vision
modulator for the original Alexandra Palace transmitter.
The 'hardware' of
this is
preserved in the
Science Museum.
SOURCE:
'The work of Alan Blumlein' British Kinematographv Sound and Television vol 50,
p 209 (July 1968)
SEE ALSO:
No 462 530
(1935)
No
7,
138
CR
Figure 11.9. Constant resistance capacity stand-off
1935
MULTIPLIER PHOTOTUBES
One
circuit.
&
Zworykin, Morton
of the most important by-products of television research
is
the multiplier phototube.
Malter (USA)
When
electrons
of one or several hundred electron volts energy impinge on a suitably prepared conducting surface, they
eject
4 to 10 low- velocity electrons, multiplying the
initial
current by a corresponding factor of
to 10.
Repetition of this process leads to current multiplication by an arbitrarily high factor, practically without
the addition of amplification noise. If the initial current
reflects the variation
derived from a photocathode, the tube output
is
of the light incident on the photocathode with a precision which depends only
on the quantum efficiency of the cathode; with proper design, the dispersion
in the transit
time of the
electrons from the cathode to the final collector can be held to quantities of the order of 10"'" second.
In the earliest effective multipliers
from dynode
to
(Zworykin, Morton and Malter 1935) the electrons were guided
dynode along an approximately cycloidal path by crossed
electric
and magnetic
fields.
Purely electrostatic focusing and acceleration systems were developed subsequently by Zworykin and
Rajchman and Rajchman and Synder
as well as
by Larson and Salinger. These may be regarded
the prototypes of present-day multiplier phototubes of

utilised in the
image orthicon
is
also
RCA
employed by EMI and
the early and very simple screen multiplier of
as
and DuMont. The venetian-blind design
RCA
for multiplier phototubes.
Finally,
Weiss (1936) does without focusing altogether,
at the
expense of materially lowered multiplication efficiency.
SOURCE:
Schlesinger and
E C Ramberg
Proc.
IRE
p 1001/2
(May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
'The secondary emission multiplier
Morton and L Malter Proc. IRE
new
electronic device' by
vol 24, p 351
(March 1936)
V K
Zvorykin ?nd
'The electrostatic electron multiplier' by
A Rajchman
V K
Zworykin,
IRE
Proc.
G A
vol 27, p 558
(September 1939)
'Photocell multiplier tube' by
CC
Larson and
'On secondary emission multipliers' by

1935
TRANSISTOR
In
Weiss
Salinger Rev. Sci. Instrum. vol

Z. Tech. Phys.
1935, Oskar Heil of Berlin obtained a British patent on
The
light area
marked 3
is
Figure 11.10
thin metallic layer
in or
is
Relating to Electrical
the inventor's original
described as a thin layer of a semiconductor
such as tellurium, iodine, cuprous oxide, or vanadium pentoxide;

the semiconductor.
p 226 (July 1940)
(Germany)
improvements
Amplifiers and Other Control Arrangements and Devices'.

illustration describing his device.
Heil
1,
623 (December 1936)
vol 17, p
(Field Effect)
and 2 designate ohmic contacts
marked 6 immediately adjacent
to
to
but insulated from the
A Concise
semiconductorlayer serves as control electrode.
Heil describes
modulates the resistance of the semiconductor layer so
means of
how
in
a signal
Date Order
139
on the control electrode
that an amplified signal
may be observed by
the current meter 5. Using today's experience and language, one might describe this device
as a unipolar field-effect transistor with insulated gate.
Figure 11.10. Field-effect
SOURCE:
'The field-effect transistor
transistor.
an old device with new promise' by
T Wallmark IEEE Spectrum
p 183 (March 1964)

1936
CIRCUITRY
This
now
familiar and
much used
for the original video cable
not the
now
A D
(Long-Tailed Pair)
circuit (figure
between points
11.11(a) and (b))
in Central
Blumlein (UK)
was
first
needed
London and Alexandra
familiar co-axial type but a shielded pair, and the problem
was
in the amplifiers
Palace.
The cable was
to obtain the 'push-pull'
signal uncontaminated by 'push-push' interference pick-up. In telephone practice a transformer serves

this
purpose, but transformers to handle the video frequency range were not then available.
o+
Figure 11.11. Long-tailed pair
The name of
that
it
the circuit invented to
do
the job
is
the
circuit.
name given
to
it
by Blumlein, and
is
so descriptive
has stuck.
SOURCE: The work

p 209 (July 1968)
of Alan Blumlein' British Kinematography
Sound and
Television vol 50,
No
7,
A Concise
40
SEE ALSO:
1936
No 482 740
(1936)
COLD CATHODE TRIGGER TUBE

Telephone Laboratories announced the
Bell
The
first
cold cathode trigger tube
number of
cathode, the 313-A set the pattern for a
decades.
(USA)
Bell Laboratories
made
trigger tubes
in
1936. Using an activated
Europe during the next two
in
activated cathode led to anode maintaining and critical trigger voltages each of the order
of 70 V.
SOURCE:
'A survey of cold cathode discharge tubes' by
DM
Neale The Radio and Electronic Engineer
SEE ALSO:
1936
'The 313-A vacuum tube' by S
B Ingram
Bell Lab. Rec. p
WAVEGUIDES
14-6 (December 1936)
Carson, S P Meade, S
Schelkunoff,
GC
Southworth
(Bell
Laboratories) (USA)
In
from the Bell Telephone Laboratories, Carson, Meade and Schelkunoff published
1936,
mathematical
theory
experimental
results.
same year
In that
Waves
in
on
Wave
'Hyper-Frequency
Guides'
These papers provided the basis
L Barrow of MIT published
his
their
G C Southworth published his

TECH mode cylindrical waveguide.
while
for the
work on
the 'Transmission of Electromagnetic
Hollow Tubes of Metal'. Before 1934 Southworth had transmitted telegraph and telephone
signals at 15.cm wavelengths in a 5-in. diameter hollow metal pipe 875
ft.
long with relatively small
attenuation.
SOURCE: 'Microwave
communications' by
H Vogelman
Proc.
IRE p 907 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO: (1) 'Hyperfrequency waveguides mathematical theory'

A Schelkunoff Bell Sys. Tech. J. vol 15, p 310-33 (April 1936)
1936
VOCODER
In
US Government
SOURCE:
Hill,
With
later
Carson, S P
Meade and S
(USA)
developments, vocoder output was digitised, encrypted and the
for secure
The vocoder has been used
World War
since
II
by
communications.
'Mission Communications
C Mabon
the Story of Bell Laboratories' by Prescott
(Murray
XEROGRAPHY
An
1936, Bell Laboratories developed the voice coder, or vocoder, for analysing the pitch and energy
digital signal transmitted within a voice channel.
1937
Bell Laboratories
content of speech waves.
the
by
Carlson (USA)
individual inventor, Chester Carlson, conceived the idea of Xerography. This
is
new photographic
process which in a relatively short time has found numerous industrial applications.
dry and
is
It
is
completely
based entirely upon principles of photoconductivity and electrostatics. The process:
'employs a plate which consists of

be electrically charged
in the
image can be produced on
photoconductive coating on
a thin
a metallic sheet.
dark and will hold this charge until exposed to

the plate
by exposing the plate
dusted with powder particles, the electrostatic image
is
to
light.
This coating can
Thus an
an optical image.
When
electrostatic
the plate
is
transformed into a powder image which can be
transferred to paper and fixed by fusing.'
The development of Xerography was turned over

with
some previous experience
in
printing.
assigned a few assistants to help him.
By
to
Roland
Schaffert, a Battelle research physicist
For a year he worked alone but after the war Battelle

the latter part of 1946
two important developments were
completed: a high-vacuum technique for coating plates with selenium; and a corona discharge wire,
both for applying the original electrostatic charge to the plate and for transferring powder from the
plate to the paper.
The most
background from being

industry
became
filled
interested.
significant contribution
was
the discovery of a
method
to
keep the image
with stray powder. Thus Battelle improved Xerography to the point where
A Concise
SOURCE: The
Jewkes,
Sawers and
141
&
Co.) p 405, 408 (1958)
SEE ALSO:
'Printing with
'Xerography
From Fable
'Developments
1937
in
Powders' Fortune (June 1949)

to Fact'
Xerography' by
by
W T Reid
Schaffert (The Penrose Annual) (1954)
POLAR CO-ORDINATE OSCILLOGRAPH
von Ardenne (Germany), J J
T G
Dowling and
polar co-ordinate oscillograph
usually
employs
special
Bullen (Ireland)
form of cathode ray tube or other
oscillographic device which has been specially designed for the purpose of depicting oscillograms
in polar co-ordinates.
von Ardenne and Dowling and Bullen have independently developed polar co-ordinate cathode ray
oscillograph tubes, von Ardenne's tube and the circuit employed with
Wavt term
to
are
it
shown
in figure 11.12.
bt exanmtlt
Figure 11.12. von Ardenae's polar co-ordinate oscillograph.
The tube contains two concentric cone-shaped

connected.
The
resultant
form of the image
has the advantage that the
final
anode
deflectors across
shown
which the potential
is
the case
when
it
the signal
to
be examined
is
This form of cathode ray tube
in figure 11.13.
anode potential remains fixed and
larger deflections without defocusing than

final
is
is,
is
therefore, possible to obtain
applied as a modulation of the
potential.
von Ardenne has also employed electromagnetic deflection methods
The form of
the image, as
sense of the term, but
it
is
shown
in figure 11.13,
difficult to find a
is
for this purpose.
not in true polar co-ordinates in the mathematical
name which
truly describes the arrangement.
Figure 11.13. Polar co-ordinate oscillogram obtained with von Ardenne's polar co-ordinate oscillograph.
SOURCE: Time
Bases by
S Puckle (London:
Chapman
&
Hall) p 104 (1955)
A Concise
42
SEE ALSO:
measurements with
A H
Pulse code modulation, or coded step modulation (which

that
came
Only
use.
knew
in the last
that
few years,
no
too early.
T G
Dowling and
would have been an apter name),
think
conceived the idea
make
tools then existed that could
in this
Reeves (UK)
in
semiconductor age, has
it
1937 while working
When PCM was
Paris laboratories of International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation.

in 1942,
(1937)
PULSE CODE MODULATION
1938 and
by
a radial deflection cathode ray oscillograph'
good example of an invention
p 5 (1937)
14,
Bullen Proc. R. Irish Acad. A, vol 44, p
1937
Date Order
'A new polar co-ordinate cathode ray oscillograph with extremely linear time scale' by
von Ardenne Wireless Engineer vol

'Precision
in
economic
patented in
for general civilian
commercial value been
its
is
at the
felt.
Pulse code modulation was invented mainly for line-of-sight microwave links or link sections, where
in
1938 the needed extra bandwidth would have been cheap and easily obtainable, rather than for more
now
limited frequency bands, as in cables, which are
PCM,
change of aim for

so far in
It
was
its
sound reasons,
for quite
of application.
fields
caused most of the technological
It
is
this
difficulties
application.
United States during World
in the
War
that the next step in
II
Bell Telephone Laboratories. In this important stage, a
PCM
main
in fact the
that has
system
later
Ralph Bown.
It is
produced
in quantity for the
SOURCE: The
US Army
new system were

and future of
past, present
progress was made, by

a practical
Signal Corps. Research was also done under
work should be
appropriate that this early Bell
the principles underlying the
PCM's
team under Harold S Black designed
stressed, for
it
was
the
first
time that
translated into hardware.
PCM' by A H Reeves IEEE Spectrum
vol 3,
No
5,
p 58
(May 1965)
1937
RADAR AIMING ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS

The
first
P E Pollard (UK)
radar equipment for aiming anti-aircraft guns
the basis of the
first
was devised by Mr P E Pollard
in 1937.
It
radar gun-laying equipment, GLI, brought into anti-aircraft service in 1939.
It
was
gave
range up to 10 miles, with an accuracy of about 25 yards, but no angle of elevation, and was the only
equipment of
SOURCE:
1938
kind available
its
Science at War by
of 1940^11.
in the night attacks
Crowther and
Whiddington (London:
German
The shadow-mask tube had
its
genesis in a 1938 conception of the
seemed
to
be no way to make Flechsig's device
at that time, there
had
to
be in exact alignment with an equal number of phosphor
blue-emitting phosphor
at
RCA
line.
p 76 (1947)
W Flechsig (Germany)
SHADOW-MASK TUBE
TELEVISION:
HMSO)
in
triads,
inventor Flechsig. However,
which hundreds of
each with a
fine wires
red-, green-
and
Modifications of the idea were proposed by Goldsmith and by Schroeder,
Laboratories. Schroeder suggested a hexagonal array of circular holes in a metal mask, together
with round phosphor dots and three closely spaced electron beams through a
Prior to 1948,
common
some experiments were done on methods of multicolour phosphor
deflection yoke.
deposition, but the
basic technology of aligning either holes or wires with phosphor dots or lines appeared well
reach.
One
Law.
When
beyond
of the experimenters on phosphor deposition, and a colleague of Schroeder's, was
RCA
the
Schroeder's idea.
He
crash program to develop a colour tube started in 1949,
then
made
a photographic process to
Law
H B
elected to pursue
key invention, which he called the 'lighthouse'. This device permitted
produce
light
shadows
that
were essentially the same as the electron-beam
shadows. Application of any one of several photolithographic techniques then permitted deposition of
phosphors
in
exactly the right place. Success
etched a metal
mask with
deposited, shifting the
good colour
at
RCA's
mask
came
tiny holes, through

slightly for
rapidly and in a
few months Law photographically
which the three colour-emitting phosphors could be
each deposition. Law's
pictures. Application to a larger screen
first
tube displayed small but remarkably
(30-cm diagonal) was made by engineering teams
Lancaster and Harrison locations, and a single-gun version was developed by
(unrelated to
H B Law
but also at
RCA's
Princeton Laboratories).
R R Law
A Concise
SOURCE:
'A history of colour television displays' by
143
No
Herold Proc. IRE vol 64,
p 1333
9.
(September 1976)
SEE ALSO:
W Flechsig:
'Multi-colour television'
German
AC
Patent 736575 filed 1938
US
Schroeder,
'Picture reproducing apparatus'
A C
H B Law
No 2595 548
Proc.
IRE
sends out a series of pulses.
to the aircraft
P and beyond.
It is
a transmitter is then activated
If
we
which issues
Figure 11.14.
The
aircraft carries
navigator
stations
is
186 (October 1951)
Mr R
Dippy and developed by
when
it
will travel past station
the pulse reaches
second pulse,
Then
GEE
his
In practice three stations are actually used.
B which
is
team
at
master
B and
also
called a slave station,
second pulse from
also activates a
the cycle repeats.
one cathode ray tube on which the
and C, and
Science at
SEE ALSO: 'Gee a
COMPUTERS
Shows
arrival
of the four pulses
is
recorded.
The
provided with a chart covered with two intersecting sets of curves, corresponding to
flown over. The target
SOURCE:
1947, issued 1952
filed
J Dippy (UK)
consider one of these,
arranged that
transmitter in a second slave station at C.
548
network or grid of curves, the system was given the code
invented by
Telecommunications Research Establishment.

station
1947, issued 1952
vol 39, p
R
a
filed
No 2595
Patent
'GEE' NAVIGATION
Owing to the use of a chart covered with
name of GEE (see figure 11.14). It was
1938
US
Schroeder,
'A three-gun shadow-mask kinescope' by
1938
Patent
is
and
respectively. This can be superimposed
marked on
War by
the
map and hence
Crowther and
radio navigational aid' by
its
R Whiddington
R
on
map
(London:
HMSO)
Dippy Proc. IEE. vol 93,
(Information Theory)
of the country to be
place in respect to the curves
pt.
is
seen.
p 54 (1947)
Ill A,
p 468 (1946)
C E Shannon (USA)
the analysis of complicated circuits for switching could be effected by the use of Boolean algebra.
SOURCE:
'A symbolic analysis of relay and switching
p 713 (1938)
circuits'
by
C E Shannon
Trans.
AIEE
vol 57,
144
1938
NUCLEAR FISSION
Fritsch and Meitner (Germany)
Hahn and F Strassman,
Late in 1938,
new
reviewing the chemical knowledge of the
in
substances,
recognised that one of them was probably barium, whose atomic mass and number are only about half
of that of uranium. This meant that they had previously been on a false
in Scandinavia,
immediately explained the significance of
uranium atoms
into
They
slightly heavier or
No
38
Xenon No
Dr
54.
in
a higher atomic number.
could be done
splitting
Barium No 56
split into
R Dunning
The
parts.
now
Neutrons did not transmute
more complicated, with
two roughly equal
Uranium atom No 92 might be
variety of ways.
Strontium
new atoms
these big uranium atoms into
split
Frisch and Meitner,
trail.
this discovery.
No
Krypton
America rapidly repeated
the
in a
36; or into
work on
fission.
Here was the explanation of the chemical confusion: a wide variety of chemically different atoms was
named
Frisch and Meitner
being produced by the disintegration.
this
new
process of atom-splitting
'nuclear fission'. Nothing like this had been seen in heavy atoms before.
SOURCE:
1939
Science at
War by
RADIO ALTIMETER
The
HMSO)
(USA)
Bell Laboratories
radio altimeter, by which a pilot can calculate his height above the ground,
USA
Laboratories.
The
take to return to the aircraft.
The
at the Bell
relative altitude
SOURCE:
p 131 (1947)
developed
is
in the
altimeter bounces signals off the Earth and measures the time they
pilot then uses a calibrated indicator to translate this figure
the
into a figure giving his absolute altitude.
The Timetable of Technology (London: Michael Joseph, Marshall Editions) p
(November
17
1982)
1939
KLYSTRON
Perhaps the
first
great step in understanding the
phenomena
in
C Hahn and
Varian Bros (USA)
microwave tubes came with
of the klystron. Bruche and Recknagel discussed 'phase focusing'
the invention
1938 and the work of the Varians,
in
Webster's theoretical treatment of the klystron and the work of Hahn and Metcalf were published
in
1939.
With the klystron came

and a
full
SOURCE:
'History of the
SEE ALSO:
p 321
1939
a well-thought-out theory of
its
operation, the concept of velocity modulation,
appreciation of the value of microwave resonators.
microwave tube
art'
by
Pierce Proc.
'High frequency oscillator and amplifier' by
R H and
S F Varian
Appl.
J.
Phys.
vol 10,
(May 1939)
DOUBLE-BEAM OSCILLOGRAPH
A
IRE p 979 (May 1962)
splitter plate is
immersed
in the
B C Fleming-Williams (UK)
beam and
divides
it
two separate
into
sections.
Two
'bucking' wires
to which potentials are applied are used in order to cancel out mutual deflectional interference of the
two beams.
With
this tube, the
separately controlled in the
(because only one plate
is
two beams
are simultaneously deflected in the
Since the Y
direction.
available for each
beam)
it
axis but they are
deflecting potentials are necessarily unbalanced,
becomes necessary
to
employ an anti-trapezium
construction for the tube.
The production of
beam cathode
double beam
ray tube than by
appearing are coincident
is
much
better
means of an
in time.
This
is
accomplished by means of Fleming- Williams' double-
electronic switch since, in the former case, the
not so with the electronic switch and, hence,
it is
two images
possible for
events which are not coincident in time to be assumed to be so.
SOURCE:
Time Bases by
Chapman
S Puckle (2nd edn) (London:
SEE ALSO:
'The double-beam cathode ray oscillograph' by
Wave World
vol 12, p
457 (1939)
&
Hall) p 262 (1951)
B C Fleming-Williams
Electronics
&
Short

1939
COMPUTERS
HH
(Digital)
145
IBM
Aitken (USA) and
Utilizing twentieth-century advances in mechanical and electrical engineering, the Automatic
Controlled Calculator, or
Mark
The Mark
more
at the
built
by the International Business Machines Corporation between 1939 and 1944.
same
time.
Sequence
brought Babbage's ideas into being, giving concrete existence to
I,
I,
much
an electromechanical calculator 51 feet long and 8 feet high, was

It
could perform
any specified sequence of five fundamental operations, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
and reference to tables of previously computed
results.
The operation of
the entire calculator
was
governed by an automatic sequence mechanism. The machine consisted of 60 registers for constants.
72 adding storage
The
perforated paper tapes.
was
either
punched
SOURCE:
and dividing
registers, a central multiplying
transcendental functions log,,,*,

input
unit,
means of computing
the elementary
10*
and sinx, and three interpolators reading functions coded
was
in the
into cards or printed
by
in
form of punched cards and switch positions. The output
electric typewriters.
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
Pyrne Proc. IRE p 1043 (May 1962)
Pascal
von Neumann by
to
H H
'Proposed automatic calculating machine' by
1939
H H
Aitken
IEEE Spectrum p 62 (August
BELL TELEPHONE LABS 'COMPLEX

COMPUTER'
It is
perhaps a
little
surprising that
it
was not
G
1937
until
that Bell
Stibitz et al
1964)
(USA)
Telephone Laboratories investigated the
design of calculating devices, although Andrews has stated that from about 1925 the possibility of using
relay circuit techniques for such purposes
started to
first
was well accepted
However,
there.
1937 George Stibitz
in
experiment with relays and drew up circuit designs for addition, multiplication and division. At
he concentrated on binary arithmetic, together with automatic decimal-binary and binary-decimal
conversion, but later turned his attention to a binary-coded decimal
became an
official
one when, prompted by
TC
number
multiplying and dividing complex numbers, which was intended to

to facilitate the solution
of problems
in the
representation.
The
project
Fry, Stibitz started to design a calculator capable of
design of
filter
fill
namely
a very practical need,
networks, and so started the very important
Bell Telephone Laboratories Series of Relay Computers.
November
In
1938, S
B Williams
took over responsibility for the machine's development and together
with Stibitz refined the design of the calculator, whose construction was started in April and completed
in
October of 1939. The calculator, which became known as the 'Complex Number Computer', often
shortened to 'Complex Computer' and as other calculators were

operation
in
January 1940. Within a short time
it
was modified so
built, the
'Model
1'
began routine
as to provide facilities for the addition
and subtraction of complex numbers, and was provided with a second, and then a third teletype control,
situated in remote locations.
SOURCE:
It
remained
in daily
use
at Bell
Laboratories until 1949.
SEE ALSO:
'Computer' by
GR
Stibitz
(Berlin: Springer) p
238 (1973)
(Berlin:
Springer) p 241 (1973)
1939
MAGNETRON
In the
the
autumn of 1939
the Admiralty asked Professor
University of Birmingham
to
by
and
WW
in
on
L Oliphant and
the klystron, described by
HAH
1939, which used for the
first
its
Boot (UK)
the physics department of
inventors,
The majority of
R H and S F
HAH
the
Varian
time closed resonators, described
Hansen, also of Stanford, in 1938, for the production of high-frequency power.
Randall
Boot, struck by the difficulty of getting enough power from the klystron, considered
instead applying the resonator principle to the magnetron,

the
Randall and
develop a high-power microwave transmitter.
scientists in the laboratory concentrated
of Stanford University, California,
American General
Electric firm in 1921 but which, in
which had been invented by

its
Hull of
conventional form, lacked the properties
A Concise
146
The
they were seeking.
result
was
in
Date Order
the cavity magnetron,
which proved
to
be the needed generator,
producing high powers on centimetre wavelengths.
SOURCE: The
Jewkes,
Sawers and
&
Co.) p 348 (1958)
1939
FREQUENCY STANDARDS
The
(Caesium Beam)
at
Columbia University by Rabi and
method which can be used with atoms possessing
nonuniform
field
and deflect the atoms
of the two energy levels they are
When
in.
in
first
moment,
RF
from those
in the first
field is exactly
L Essen
Proc.
large-screen television projector
in the
TV
Fischer (Switzerland)
'television theatres'
Swiss Federal
at the
Institute
come from
and he invented the Eidophor
pictures onto cinema-sized screens.
cumbersome machines, which could
detector.
IRE p 1162 (May 1962)
was invented by Professor Fischer
development of networks of neighbourhood
with the capability of projecting
which
second magnet
of Technology in 1939. At that time, Fischer thought that the growth of television would
the
to
equal to the Bohr
magnet A, and the atoms are thus focused on the
'Frequency and time standards' by
passes
Bohr frequency. The
one direction or the other according
the frequency of the
beam
In this
beam of atoms
field alternating at the
LARGE SCREEN TELEVISION PROJECTOR

The
his co-workers.
of the right amplitude transitions are induced and the deflections
are the opposite
SOURCE:
1939
is
a magnetic dipole
system of magnets and a region of
to a detector through a
frequency and
Rabi (USA)
of bandwidth and low intensity are most easily overcome by using the atomic
difficulties
magnetic resonance method developed
magnets have
I I
The
earliest
Eidophors were
project only black and white pictures in a darkened or semi-
darkened room. They were not the most reliable of machines and for a number of years the Eidophor
system was
little
known
or used.
programme
Later the American space
called for a reliable, high performance, large-screen projection
system capable of working for long periods of time, to provide data displays
centres.
in
NASA
flight control
Gretag AG, Zurich, a subsidiary of Ciba Geigy and patent holders and manufacturers of the
Eidophor, successfully developed the projector's capability to meet
NASA
Eidophors are able to project full-colour television pictures onto screens 18
SOURCE:
television
'Projection
specifications.
The
review of current practice in large-screen projectors'
latest
wide.
by
Robertson Wireless World p 47 (September 1976)
1940
CYBERNETICS
N Weiner (Germany)
Cybernetics, as a science, was invented by Norbert Wiener
1948 by Wiener and
Rosenblueth.
It
comes from
the
in
1940, but the word was not coined until
Greek word kybernetes meaning a steersman
or pilot.
Cybernetics
in
is
SOURCE: The Book

(UK: Queen Anne
1940
communication and control mechanisms
the study of automatic
in
machines
as well as
humans.
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) (1990) p
16
E G Bowen,
PLAN POSITION INDICATOR
W B Lewis, G W A
Dummer and E
The
first
radar PPI (Plan Position Indicator) to be used by the
A Dummer
and
The
It
was
using a sufficiently narrow
development of
made of
this
the authors
device
it
(G
may be of
experimental work on radial time bases.
possibility of the desirable PPI presentation of radar echoes
the early days of radar.
the
RAF, was designed by
Franklin) in 1940 and in view of the use since
interest to recall early
Franklin (UK)
not,
however,
beam and
a satisfactory PPI.
until
1939-40
had been realised by the pioneers
that the
two developments of
in
a radar station
the cathode ray screen with bright and lasting afterglow led to
A Concise
1939^0 work was
In
was envisaged
It
An
1.
It
Date Order
in
147
proceeding on the design of a 'radio lighthouse' on a wavelength of 50 cm,
narrow beams then obtained on
that with the
was decided
this
wavelength
should be possible
it
'map' of
aerial rotation to give a radar
synchronism with the
to rotate a time base in

aircraft.
surrounding
all
time base should take one of two forms:
that the
inductive or capacitive voltage split of
and Y vectors and recombination on an
electrostatically
deflected tube.
2.
At
that time 12-inch electrostatic tubes
mechanically rotated current time base on a magnetically deflected tube.
were not
fully developed;
it
were
CH
on
in use
was therefore decided
to
CHL
and
adopt the
and magnetic afterglow tubes
sets
scheme.
first
Experimental work was also carried out on 'strobing' a portion of the time base, amplifying
it
By
to another tube.
side
on a 12
was produced on
in tube)
being enlarged and
means an enlarged PPI was developed.
this
this area
the
appeared as
it
in
beamwidth of
to the 15
record that a system of
interesting to
and feeding
identify the area which was
on the other tube. Owing
is
it
'square' (approximately
tube by partial blackout to
first
full size
was not used, but
the polar diagram the system
dim
type was
this
operating in this country in 1941.
The PPI was next adapted

It
become one of
has
USA
and
it
seems a
the
for use in the
first
centimetre Al equipment and afterwards for
most widely used presentation systems
far cry
from the original 6
ft
H2 S
and ASV.
and the
for radar both in this country
rack to the compact, efficient airborne PPIs in use
today.
SOURCE:
'Radial time bases'
how they were developed
by
for radar'
W A Dummer and E Franklin
Wireless World p 287 (August 1947)
SEE ALSO:
1940
Odhams
Three Steps to Victory by Sir Robert Watson- Watt (London:
A H
'OBOE' NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEM
Press) p
268 (1957)
Reeves (UK)
Yet another high-precision method of radar navigation removed the necessity for the pilot to find the
even know where he was going, All of
target or
the
knowledge of
the pilot
who was
relieved of
of his attention to the controls of his

In this
system there are two fixed
circumference of a great
stations,
C. This station, which pushes the aircraft this

to the circle,
called the Cat station.
is
could be managed from ground stations without
and decision, and could devote the whole
strain
aircraft.
whose centre
circle,
this
much
The
and B. Station
at
is
A, and of P from
way and
stations
that, tracking
and
B send
is
recorded
at
B.
The Cat
series of
Morse dashes
of dots.
But
if
earphones.
ready to warn
aircraft,
moment
intervention at
(see figure 11.15).
all
The inventor of
this
Marshal)
D C T
SOURCE:
mark
for releasing the
H 2 S,
Science at War by
IIIA,
when
bombs.
he worked
AP
is
it
it
were, and making
greater than
AC,
A
its
it
keep
is
recorded
at
knowledge of
the pilot hears a
too near to A, he hears a series
reaches the target and should, as
It
may even
Mr A H
comes within
release the
Reeves.
in close collaboration
Bennett, the Pathfinder leader,
special targets,
SEE ALSO: 'Oboe

pt.
it
system, called Oboe, was
developments of Gee and
93,
as
it,
If the aircraft strays to the left,
gives the pilot a series of warning signals as he
It
signal at the right
aircraft to
along the
he keeps exactly on the circle he hears a high-pitched continuous buzz. The Mouse
watches the
the hole.
in his
fly
pulses which are picked up by the
station emits a signal as a result of
the distance PA. If the aircraft has strayed to the right, so that
down
enables the aircraft P to
magnified and returned. From these responses, the exact distance of P from
aircraft,
station
A, and whose circumference passes over the target
who
tried
were, dart
bombs without
the pilot's
Like Dippy and Lovell

with
and adopted
in
their
Group Capt (Now Air Viceit.
It
was used by Pathfinder
which could then be attacked by following bombers.
a precision ground controlled blind-bombing system'
p 496 (1946)
it
range, and then a final
HMSO)
(1947) p 58
by F E Jones Proc. 1EE vol
A Concise
148

N
.Dots area
Daslies orpa
200-300
200-300
miles
miles
"Cot7 or tracker
Cboe station
'Mouse," or release
Oboe station
OBOE
Figure 11.15.
1940
SKIATRON CRO
The
A H
Skiatron, or dark-trace tube,
on white' picture with
The Skiatron
was developed
to
meet
Rosenthal (USA)
a radar requirement for a large-screen 'black
a persistence of several seconds.
consists of a magnetically focused and deflected cathoderay tube with a screen consisting
of a translucent micro-crystalline layer of potassium chloride. This screen

the material in
vacuum on
An
to the tube face.
a picture by causing darkening in the areas
is
obtained by evaporation of
beam produces
intensity-modulated scanning electron
The
bombarded.
picture
episcopially projected using
is
external illumination from mercury-vapour lamps.
SOURCE:
'The Skiatron or dark-trace tube' by P
G R
King and
Gittins
IEE
J.
pt IIIA, vol 93.
p 822 (1946)
SEE ALSO: 'A system of large-screen television

A H Rosenthal Proc. IRE vol 28 p 203 (1940)
'Photography of cathode ray tube traces' by
H F
based on certain electron phenonema
Roberts and F
Richards
in crystals'
RCA Review
vol 6 p
by
234
(1941)
1941
BETATRON
A
betatron
is
D
an electrical device
normal to a magnetic
spiral orbit
in
which electrons revolve
field,
and have
in a
W Kerst (USA)
vacuum
enclosure, in a circular or a
their energies continuously increased
by the electric
force resulting from the variation with time of the magnetic flux enclosed by their orbits.
W Kerst of the University of
The betatron
This magnetic induction accelerator was
accelerates electrons to velocities approaching that of light.
comparable
to
an ordinary transformer
wherein the high voltage winding, or secondary, consists of an evacuated tube
in
which electrons moving
invented by
at
high velocity form the secondary circuit,
Illinois in 1941.
It is
The device has been designed
to accelerate electrons to
340
million electron volts.
SOURCE:
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Electronics and Nuclear Engineering by
Sarbacher (London:
Pitman) p 10 (1959)
1941
W S Butement (UK)
RADIO PROXIMITY' FUSE

One of
the
most
brilliant
proposed by Butement.
the shell
interval
is
It
innovations of
Army
radar
was
the
V-T
or self-acting radio fuse. This was
consists of a small radio transmitter and receiver fitted within a shell.
fired, the transmitter
emits radio waves.
These are
between the emission of the waves and the return of
reflected
from the
their reflections is a
target.
When
The time-
measure of the distance
A Concise
between the
and
shell
By
its target.
a certain value, the shell
made
is
when
arranging that the shell explodes

to
explode when
is
it
in
Date Order
149
the time-interval falls
below
within a certain distance of the target, and
therefore virtually sure to inflict damage.
This very ingenious invention was based on an application of the Doppler principle, and on the use
Both of these
of very rugged radio valves which could be fired in a shell without being destroyed.
were British inventions, the early successful rugged valves being made by the research
original features
team under
Mr D
Lawson of Pye
The
development and manufacture of
later
Many
engineers.
in
this fuse
were taken over by American
guns using
V-T
it
scientists
all
the flying-bombs approaching
and
could be produced reliably in
time to meet the flying-bomb menace to London, and
100 per cent of
that attack, nearly

anti-aircraft
Ltd.
very difficult problems had to be solved before
This was done just
quantity.
were made by the Research
Ltd, while important contributions
Company
Laboratories of the General Electric
end of
at the
London were being
shot
down by
fuses invented in England, and developed and manufactured in the United
States.
Our American
we
were able
allies
making 150000000 of
SOURCE:
1941
RADAR
to put
1500 persons on
more than 50 persons on
able to put
Science at
to the
same
development of
to the
task.
War by
Crowther and
R Whiddington
If
you could see
with spiral scan AI equipment,
air targets
in the
autumn of 1941 Dee arranged
flew from Christchurch Aerodrome, Hampshire.
HMSO)
(London:
A C B
Dee,
Blumlein
them? Accordingly,
the prodigy of
the special valves for these fuses.
NAVIGATION SYSTEM
(H 2 S)
no time were
this fuse; at
The Americans performed
why
et al
p 82 (1947)
Lovell,
AD
(UK)
not try to see ground targets with
that this
experiment be
After four minutes a
camp
tried.
The
aircraft
near Stonehenge and the
City of Salisbury were identified on the cathode ray tube.
Thus
the
was proved
it
waves from
others.
The
that in the
cathode ray tube picture of the general reflections from the ground of
a 9 centimetre airborne equipment, certain areas of
picture of the
definite features
mass of echoes from the ground was not
which corresponded
to different objects
Specific equipment for scanning the ground
bomber,
in the
place of the under-turret.
blister
flew with the
was born
1941
new equipment
to live
SOURCE:
equipment
is
for the
War by
MICROELECTRONICS
During World War
II,
first
it
had
or
dome on
heavy
the synthetic plastic material perspex,
to short radio
thus protected from the rush of the
under the name of
Science at
fitted into a blister
was made of
which has the valuable property of being transparent

rotating scanning
shimmering confusion,
on the ground.
was now made and
The
ground could be distinguished from

just a
waves, as well as visible

air.
light.
The
The bomber, Halifax V 9977,
time on 27 March 1942, and radar (magic eye) target- finding
H 2 S.
Crowther and
R Whiddington
(Thick Film Circuits)
the Centralab Division of
(London:
HMSO)
p 63 (1947)
Centralab (USA)
Globe-Union
Inc.,
developed a ceramic-based
circuit for
the National Bureau of Standards. This 'printed circuit' used screen-deposited resistor inks and silver
paste to support the miniature circuits in an
Army
proximity fuse (see figure 11.16).
The PC board
that
followed stimulated manufacturers to develop components with radial leads and tubular shapes.
SOURCE:
(23
1942
'Solid state devices
packaging and
materials' by
R L Goldberg
Electronic Design vol 24
November 1972) p 127
THEVELODYNE
The Velodyne
is
an electromechanical system
to an input voltage
shaft is a
F C Williams and A
by feedback methods.
In
in
which a speed of rotation
such a system the
measure of the time-integral of the input voltage.
total
is
Uttley
(UK)
held closely proportional
number of revolutions of
the output
A Concise
150
Figure 11.16. Proximity fuse
The Velodyne has been applied

analyser uses
it
to solve
simulators have been
to the solution
circuits
made
in 1945.
of differential equations, and the
made which obey
specific high-order differential equations
of solutions would have involved prohibitive
1942
SANATRON
Velodyne' by F
one semi-stable
The two
Williams and
IEE
Uttley Proc.
valves are arranged in the form of a multivibrator having one stable and
pulse and the semi-stable state
As
its
is
is
initiated
then maintained until the discharge of C2
is
circuit
and the
latter
by a negative trigger
completed when the
circuit
quiescent condition.
a time base generator the Sanatron leaves
with amplitudes up to 250

readily achieved.
circuit in
p 1256 (1946)
III A,
F C Williams and N F Moody (UK)
having the duration of the linear discharge of a capacitor C2. Operation
reverts to
vol 93, pt
former corresponding with the quiescent condition of the
state, the
and have been very
effort.
Linear Time Base Circuit
THE SANATRON.
differential
equipment where computation
useful, particularly in the design of complicated automatic flight-control
SOURCE: The
TRE
simultaneous differential equations of importance in propagation theory; many
The upper
available from a
limit of rate
little
to
be desired, a sweep waveform being available,
300-V supply
and rates from
line
may be extended even
which the control of the Miller integrator
is
V/s to 5 x 10 7 V/s are
further by using a modification of the
applied to the screen instead of to the suppressor
grid.
SOURCE: 'Ranging circuits, linear time-base

N F Moody (Abstract of supporting paper on
SEE ALSO:
1942
'Linear time-base generators and associated circuits'
PHANTRASTRON
The Phantrastron
is
properties of the Sanatron in a single valve.

it
a circuit
Its
Williams and
1EE p 320
J.
IEE
vol 93, Part IIIA, (1946)
F C Williams and N F Moody (UK)
Linear Time Base Circuit
THE PHANTRASTRON:
the Sanatron,
generators and associated circuits' by

circuit techniques) J.
which combines the Miller integrator and trigger
main use
lies in
delayed pulse generation and,
delivers a rectangular pulse during the linear sweep.
Due
to
its
simplicity
it
is
like
widely
used where a somewhat lower order of accuracy and linearity than that provided by the Sanatron
is
acceptable.
SOURCE:
IEE
'Linear time-base generators and associated circuits' by
vol 93, part IIIA, p
193 (1946)
Williams and
N F Moody
J.
A Concise
1942
LOR AN
151
MIT (USA)
LORAN
(Long Range Air Navigation), which marks the world's
into operation at four stations
GEE
successor to the
and sea lanes
air
system developed
in Britain
and given
USA
to the
1940 can,
in
MIT, picks up radio
developed
at
position
indicated.
is
SOURCE:
on
signals as pairs of 'pips'
when
a screen;
at
a natural
long range,
LORAN
The
give an aircraft pilot or ship's captain his position to within a few hundred yards.
goes
like streets,
LORAN,
between the Chesapeake Capes and Nova Scotia.
receiver,
the pips intersect, the
The Timetable of Technology (London: Michael Joseph, Marshall Editions) p 124 (November
1982)
1943
RELIABILITY
major technical breakthrough occurred
Abraham Wald, devised

problems.
Initial
his
now
application of the theory in analysing
an ideal tool for use
reliability
in the spring of 1943,
and economy
when
minimum
combat experience demonstrated
when
our history
To give
production were of the essence.
the
new
speed, precision,
thorough
tool a
number of
strategic
manufacturing firms for use
early success of the plan and the subsequent widespread
demands
for
in
trial,
was
the military released a multiple sampling plan based on Wald's sequential theory. This plan
released to a limited
US war
value in
its
of information, swiftly and economically. This seemed
in quality control at this crucial period in

in
the noted mathematical statistician,
celebrated basic theory of sequential analysis for analysing
obtaining reliable conclusions from a

like
A Wald (USA)
(Sequential analysis)
acceptance sampling.
first
The
use resulted in removal of
its
its
'restricted' classification in 1945.
SOURCE:
Proc.
1943
'The
reliability
and quality control
field
from
its
Ryerson
IRE p 1326 (May 1962)
TRAVELLING WAVE TUBE
R Kompfner, A
W Haeff and J R
Pierce (USA)
It
remains, however, for
Kompfner
to
take the decisive step of reasoned approach and effective
experiment which gave us the travelling-wave tube and led to a host of related devices.
Kompfner reasoned
that
an electromagnetic wave on a slow-wave structure, and especially a helix,
should interact powerfully with a

nearly the same.
He
built a tube
direction as the electrons.
beam of
electrons if the
wave
velocity and the electron velocity
and found a gain of around 10 dB for a wave travelling
mathematical analysis agreed with
The travelling-wave tube turned out
to
this
be a device which amplifies over unprecedently broad bands,
tube with a helix circuit can amplify over a frequency range of more than an octave.
SOURCE:
'History of the
SEE ALSO:
limited to
Mc
500-1000
is
were
same
performance.
and which can function over an astonishingly wide range of frequencies and powers.
bandwidth
in the
travelling-wave
More
typically,
by input and output couplers.
microwave tube
by
art'
'The travelling wave valve' by
Pierce Proc.
R Kompfner
IRE p 980 (May 1962)
Wireless World vol 52, p 369
(November
1946)
1943
PRINTED WIRING
This invention relates to the manufacture of electric circuits
switchboard
and
circuit
components such
(UK)
such, for instance, as that of a telephone
as inductances, resistances, magnetic cores
producing them by the methods of the printing
windings; and consists
in
methods
by which the conductor of the
that is to say,
Eisler
circuit is
art
brought into existence in
or a development of that form upon a plane or other surface, instead of being
conductor and afterwards given
its
of a development of
it
their existing
first
its final
produced as
form,
a linear
three-dimensional form.
typical instance of the invention comprises the steps of
circuit, or
and
or methods akin to them,
if it is
making a drawing of the
electric or
magnetic
of three dimensions: preparing from that drawing, by any of
A Concise
52
known methods
the well
printing surface;
SOURCE: UK
SEE ALSO:
1943
of the printing
and from
that imprint
No 639
Patent
in
Date Order
a printing surface;
art,
aid of the
178 (2 February 1943)
Technology of Printed Circuits by P Eisler (London: Heywood) (1959)
ULTRASONIC RADAR NAVIGATION TRAINING

DEVICE
One
making an imprint by the
producing the conductor.
W A Dummer and A W Smart
(UK)
H2S
of the most important of the radar navigation devices designed during the war was
RAF Bomber Command
system was used by
the accurate and heavy
To use
'Oboe'.
The H2S
bombing of Berlin and
this device, training
equipped with
flying training aircraft
H2 S
air.
water
in
trained either by
or by using a synthetic training device on the ground.
1943, was the
first
new
to use the
waves propagated through water
in place
principle of a
of electromagnetic
The long delay time of transmission of ultrasonic waves through
a liquid
H 2 S. The
velocity
to represent the radar delay times
of ultrasonic waves
This
possible
other targets beyond the effective range of 'Gee' and
training device, originated in February
waves propagated through
Germany and made
was necessary and navigator/operators could be
'miniature' radar system using ultrasonic
was used
for 'blind' navigation over
1.5
is
normally encountered
x 10 5 cm/s and as
that
of
in the operation
of electro-magnetic waves in
x 10'"
air is 3
cm/s the scale on which the trainer operated was
1.5
x 10 5
m
x 10 m
th
200000
of the radar scale. This meant that one 'ultrasonic' mile = 0.315
could be simulated
If
in a physical distance not
an X-cut quartz crystal
pulsed
is
at its
and a radar range of
in,
fifty
miles
exceeding 15 inches approximately.
resonant frequency under water and a reflecting object
placed in the path of the transmitted wave, an echo will be re-radiated from the object in the same
up on the
as in radar and picked
The
crystal
beam was
crystal.
projected on to a glass relief
map
so that the projection covered a range of 0.30
miles (0.10 in approximately), the crystal being used for both transmission and reception.
was
back 1.25
set
aircraft flying at
the area in
in.
from the axis of rotation
20000
On
ft.
the glass
Germany over which
to simulate
map was reproduced
training
was
to
sea areas were

crystal
left as
was then
Towns were
plain glass.
built
(to a scale
of 1:200 000) a simulation of
map was
sand-blasted or etched
up of granules of Carborundum glued
to the input stage
to the glass
and the
bottom of a tank of water. The pulsed
at the
60 rpm. synchronously with the
rotated at
crystal
be effected. The amount of reflection of the radiated
The map was placed
from the map were fed from the crystal
The
'ground returns' and picture as seen from an
energy was proportional to the 'roughness' of the glass surface, and the
to represent land masses.
is
way
radial time base,
of the IF amplifier
and the signals received

in the
H2 S
receiver and
thence to the PPI.
The
display produced
was an excellent simulation of
the actual
H2 S
picture seen in the air
when
flying
over Germany.
SOURCE:
'H 2 S trainer
use of
ultrasonic reflections from
submerged
relief
maps' by
WA
Dummer
Wireless World p 65 (February 1947)
SEE ALSO: 'Aids to training

Dummer Proc. 1EE vol 96, pt.
1943
COMPUTERS
(ENIAC)
the design of radar synthetic training devices for the
Ill,
RAF' by
No 40, p 101 (March 1949)

Moore School (USA)
(Electronic Numerator,
Integrator and Computer)
The ENIAC was developed and

of Pennsylvania, beginning
of
firing
and
in
built at the
Moore School of
1942 and completed
ballistic tables for the
in
1946.
Electrical Engineering of the University

Its
principal object
Aberdeen Proving Ground of the
was
the computation
US Army Ordnance
Corps. This
A Concise
Date Order
in
153
computation required the integration of a simple system of ordinary differential equations involving
arbitrary functions.
This equipment occupied a space 30 x 50 feet and contained 18 000 vacuum tubes. The computing
The input-output system
elements consisted largely of decade rings, flip-flops and pentode gates.

consisted of modified
SOURCE:
IBM
card readers and punches.
Pyrne Proc. IRE p 1044 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
H H
'The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann' by
1943
MAGNETIC AMPLIFIER (TRANSDUCTOR)
ASEA
(Sweden)
ASEA who
Pioneer work on transductors was carried out by the Swedish firm of
devised
many
techniques involving combinations of saturated reactors and metal rectifiers for supplying controllable
d.c.
power from
Much
systems.
and six-phase networks
single-, three-
of
pioneer work
this
development took place

for various small
in
power
Germany during
of the conventional mercury arc
1939-45 war on transductors
the
mainly
applications,
in place
described in the classic work by
is
'The Magnetic Amplifier' by
SEE ALSO:
'The Transductor' by
'Some fundamentals of
AG
A U Lamm
Milnes
1EE
J.
As
far as building a British
A U Lamm (AIEE
by
vol 96, part
establishment.
methods are
Much
initial
by other countries
is
after the war.
need to be, a true stored-program computer, but

vital
contribution of
COLOSSUS
SOURCE:
machine
is
COLOSSUS
shown
came
it
to the allied
government's Bletchley Park
subject to the Official Secrets Act because the
still
December 1943 and containing about 1500 thermionic
and
Trans.) vol 66 (1947)
enthusiasm came largely from a
at the
As
war
techniques were
far as electronic digital
concerned, the most interesting Bletchley cryptanalysis machine was the

in
rocket
M Newman, A Turing, T H Flowers

and A W M Coombs (UK)
code-breaking activity
of the Bletchley work
(or were) in use
The V2
alternator.
p 89 (1949)
I,
stored-program computer, the

in
VA
(Stockholm: Essalte Aktiebolag) (1943)
COLOSSUS CRYPTANALYSIS MACHINE
group of people who had been involved
150
Reynere (Rockcliff Pub. Corp.) p 17 (1950)
a theory of a transductor'
'Magnetic amplifier' by
1943
c/s,
rectifier
Considerable
as true magnetic amplifiers
association with servo systems.
in
incorporated a transductor for controlling the frequency of a 500
SOURCE:
Uno Lamm.
COLOSSUS,
COLOSSUS
valves.
was
quite close to being one.
effort has
operational
first
not,
and had no
The extraordinary
been told elsewhere.
view of the
in figure 11.17.
'The early days of British computers
1'
by S
Lavington Electronics
& Power
p 827
(November/December 1978)
SEE ALSO:
'The Colossus' by
90 (1976). Reprinted
The Ultra Secret by F
in
Randell University of Newcastle Computer Science Technical Report
condensed form
in
Scientist vol 73,
W Winterbotham (Wiedenfelt and
'Colossus: godfather of the computer' by
1944
New
Randell
Nicholson) (1974)
New
Scientist vol 73, p
HF
RELIABILITY SAMPLING: INSPECTION TABLES

After languishing in libraries for several years, the work of
and the work of Shewhart on control charts

the nationwide training
of the
finally
programmes sponsored by
pp 346-8 (1977)
346 (10 February 1977)
Dodge and
Dodge and Romig
was brought
to light
H G Romig
in
(USA)
acceptance sampling
during World
War
the Office of Production Research and
II
through
Development
War Production Board.
Although the underlying concepts were developed by

preceding decades, the genius of Dodge,
scientific investigators
Romig and Shewhart
and
statisticians in the
lay in their recognition of basic principles
54
A Concise
Figure 11.17.
view of the
COLOSSUS
machine (The Science Museum/ Science
as an aid to solving practical problems,
and
their ability to recognize
&
and formulate a systematic
approach.
SOURCE:
'Treating real data with respect' by J
SEE ALSO: Sampling

Wiley
1945
&
Henry Quality Progress p 18 (March 1976)
Inspection Tables 2nd edn by
H F Dodge
and
H G Romig (New
York: John
Sons) (1944)
COMPUTERS
von Neumann (USA)
(Theory)
Basic design of the electronic computer project of the Institute of Advanced Study incorporating ideas
underlying essentially
all
modern machines.
REFERENCE: 'Memorandum
on the program of the High Speed Computer' by von Neumann
(8
November 1945)
SEE ALSO:
'The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann' by
H H
1945
DECCA
W O'Brien (UK) and
Navigation system
Schwartz
(USA)
DECCA,
Allies'
internationally regarded as the best navigation system, under goes crucial tests during the
D-Day
landings on the
Normandy
Schwartz, in London and Hollywood,

in three
dimensions
radio signals, emitted
SOURCE: The
1982)
beaches.
DECCA
latitude, longitude
Developed by William O'Brien and Harvey
indicates
and altitude
and
on cockpit
is
dials the position of an aircraft
accurate to within a few yards.
from two transmitters, collide and are picked up
in
Waves of
phase.
A
1945
Date Order
155
MIT (USA)
COMPUTERS
(Whirlwind)
An
to build a real-time aircraft simulator
assignment
in
was given
Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Laboratory of MIT. Beginning
in
1945 to the Digital Computer
time a part of the Servomechanisms
at that
1947, the major part of the effort was devoted to the design and
in
known
construction of the electronic digital computer
as 'Whirlwind'.
The
project
was sponsored by
Air Force. The machine was put
the Office of Naval Research and the United States
in operation in
March 1951.
'Whirlwind
I'
was
vacuum
computer
a parallel, synchronous, fixed-point
digits plus sign (16 binary digits in all).
Physically,
some
tubes (mostly single pentodes) and
arithmetic 'element'
number
length of 15 binary
machine containing some 5000
000 semiconductor diodes.
1 1
and input-output control;
pulses or master clock supplying
utilising a
a large
consisted of an
It
a control element including central control, storage
including three registers,
control, arithmetic control
was
it
program counter
megapulses per second
a source of synchronising
element and
to the arithmetic
per second to the other circuits; an internal storage element or
megapulse
memory, terminal equipment; and
extensive test and marginal checking equipment.
SOURCE: 'The evolution of computing

IREp 1047 (May 1962)
machines and systems'
Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson
and Pyne
Proc.
Pascal to von
Neumann by H H
1945
COMMUNICATION
(Satellite)
Early interest in space
was concentrated upon
A C
the propulsion aspect, and the forthcoming marriage of
space and electronics had to await the publication of

in
1945.
The use of
transmission from
a satellite S
to S,
the 28-day orbit of the
at
A C
Clarke's paper on communications satellites
above the radio horizons of both
and from S
paper further pointed out that
Clarke (UK)
to B, thus bridging the
and
permitted microwave
oceans by microwave
moon, there was an
orbit taking
one day, so
Clarke's
link.
SPUTNIK
an orbital altitude intermediate between a 90-minute
and
that an easterly-launched satellite
above the Equator would give the radio engineer an imaginary mast 22 300 miles high on which
to
place his aerials.
SOURCE:
'Electronics in space' by
Hilton The Radio
and Electronic Engineer
No
vol 45,
10,
p 623 (October 1975)
SEE ALSO:
1945-
'Extra terrestial relays' by
AC
Clarke Wireless World vol 51,
POTTED CIRCUITS
No
10, p
305 (October 1945)
(UK) and (USA)
1950
wax or bitumen compounds was
many
The
potting of electrical apparatus in
it is
only recently that plastics suitable for this purpose have become available, in the form of cold-
polymerizing casting resins. There
is
no doubt
that the small sub-unit is
carried out for
now
years, but
as essential part of
modern
electronic equipment, and potting techniques lend themselves to this construction provided that
are available to dissipate the heat developed.
The
resins are relatively expensive,
economically are not attractive for casting exceeding a few inches
The
in
means
and mechanically and
major dimensions.
casting resins are converted into rigid plastics by the addition of a catalyst and accelerator,
without the application of the considerable pressures and temperatures normally associated with the
polymerisation of thermosetting resins.
SOURCE: 'New
constructional
techniques'
by
A Dummer
and
D L
Johnston Electronic
Engineering p 456 (November 1953)
SEE ALSO: 'How
plastics aid miniaturisation of electrical assemblies'
by
Bibbero and
E B
Chester
Mach. Des. p 127 (October 1951)

'Potted Circuits
(1951)
new development
in miniaturisation
of equipment' Wireless World vol 57, p 493
A Concise
56
'Cast resin
1946
embedments of
and components'
circuit sub-units
Elect.
ACE (AUTOMATIC COMPUTING ENGINE)

Turing joined the new mathematics division
computers
On
need or inclination to copy anyone else's design.
NPL
probably the
including a cost estimate of
200.
computer housed
result in a
Pilot
about designing a
19 February 1946, he presented to the Executive
complete design for an electronic stored-program computer,
first
It is
likely that Sir Charles
(ACE)
Turing's proposal for an Automatic Computing Engine
The
set
Turing had written an important theoretical paper on
1936 and, although familiar through personal contact with von Neumann, he had no
in
Committee of
would
M Turing (UK)
NPL, where he immediately
at
universal computer with characteristic energy.
Mnfg. vol 48, p 103 (1951)
ACE
at
NPL
NPL
Darwin, the
in
Director, thought of
terms of a single national effort that
and serving the needs of the whole country.
had a complicated 32-bit instruction format including provision for specifying one of
32 'sources', one of 32 'destinations' and the source of the next instruction. Instructions also specified
the duration of a transfer, so that prolonging a transfer over several cycles could give the effect
Many
of shifting or multiplying operands by small integers.
were straightforward
operations in the instruction repertoire
remaining instructions providing about a dozen conventional
transfers, with the
arithmetic or logical functions, including unsigned multiplication. Signed multiplication took just over
2 ms, being performed partly by subroutine. Other orders could be obeyed

/xs in the
The main
I/us digit period.
was extended
to
store consisted initially of 128
Pilot
It
SOURCE:
ACE
first
words
in
mercury delay
was sensible
it
to
in
make
1954.
program
in
May
with a
lines.
This
Since the
NPL
medium
cards the
contained 800 thermionic valves, the processor logic involving type

ran a
(1024
/is
serial,
for
ACE.
both input to and output from the Pilot
triodes.
bit
352 words by the end of 1951, and a 4k drum was added
already had a large Hollerith punched card calculator,
The
32
64
in as little as
worst case), depending on the position of the next instruction. Arithmetic was
The computer
1950.
1'
by S
ECC
81 double
illustrated in figure 11.18.
is
& Power
p 828
(November/December 1978)
SEE ALSO:
NPL
Sci.
Report Com.
COMPUTERS (CRT
REFERENCE:
1EE
by S
Turing Report E882, Executive Committee,
& Power
p 40 (January 1979)
B E
Carpenter and
pt.
Computing
(Reprinted in April 1972 as
Doran Computer J vol 20, pp 269-79 (1977)

.
F C Williams (UK)
Storage)
CRT
as a
memory
'A storage system for use with binary
vol 96,
INTPL
57.)
Storage of pulses on the face of a
Proc.
2'
'Proposals for the development in the Mathematics Division of an Automatic
Engine (ACE)' by
'The other Turing machine' by
1946
2,
No
device.
digital
computers' by F
Williams and
Kilburn
81, p 183 (1949)
Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
1947
DTN
HIGH QUALITY AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

The requirements of such an
amplifier
(1) Negligible non-linear distortion
up
may be
to the
Williamson (UK)
listed as:
maximum
rated output. (The term 'non-linear distortion"
includes the production of undesired harmonic frequencies and the intermodulation of
frequencies of the sound wave.)

within close limits up to
maximum
output
at all
frequencies within the audible range.
(2) (a) Linear frequency response within the audible frequency
power handling capacity

spectrum.
component
This requires that the dynamic output-input characteristic be linear
for neglible non-linear distortion at
spectrum of 10-20000
c/s.
(b)
Constant
any frequency within the audible frequency
A Concise
Figure 11.18.
(3)
ACE
stored
programme computer (The Science Museum/ Science
the sound, the

altered
same
is
complex steady-state sound does not appear
157
to affect the audible quality
of
may be profoundly
by disturbance of the phase relationship between component frequencies.
Good
transient response.
effective gain
In addition to
low phase and frequency
due
to current
and voltage cut-off
in
Low
output resistance. This requirement
transient response
is
any stages, the utmost care
realistic
which
to a
in the
in
design of iron-cored
minimum.
concerned with the attainment of good frequency and
from the loudspeaker system by ensuring
Adequate power reserve. The
distortion, other factors
wave-forms are the elimination of changes
components, and the reduction of the number of such components
(6)
&
Date Order
not true of sounds of a transient nature, the quality of which
are essential for the accurate reproduction of transient
(5)
in
Although the phase relationship between the
Neglible phase-shift within the audible range.
component frequencies of
(4)
that
it
has adequate electrical damping.
reproduction of orchestral music in an average room requires
peak power capabilities of the order of 15-20 watts when the electro-acoustic transducer
is
a baffle-
loaded moving-coil loudspeaker system of normal efficiency.
SOURCE:
'Design for a high-quality amplifier' part
by
D T N
Williamson Wireless World p 118
(April 1947)
'Design for a high-quality amplifier' part 2 by
1947
CHIRP RADAR TECHNIQUES
Williamson Wireless World p 161 (April 1947)

Bell Laboratories
The Chirp or pulse-compression technique

technique, in which long,
DTN
for radar originated at Bell
(USA)
Laboratories in 1947.
This
modulated pulses are transmitted and then compressed upon reception,
permitted pulsed radar systems to have long range and high resolution while avoiding problems
associated with generating and transmitting short pulses with high peak powers
SOURCE:
the Story of Bell Laboratories by
Bell Laboratories Inc.) p 179 (1975)
C Mabon
(Murray
Hill,
NJ:
A Concise
158
947
ECME
(Electronic Circuit
The process of John

approach
Making Equipment)
first
Sargrove (UK)
Sargrove for the automatic assembly of electronic apparatus was the
and five-tube radio receivers.
grit to
roughen both sides of the plates simultaneously. The plates were then triple-sprayed
with zinc to form the conducting surface.
The spraying machine consisted of
four to a side to allow simultaneous spraying of both sides of the plate once
to
form
modern
operation of Sargrove's machine was to prepare the |-in molded-plastic plates by blasting with
an abrasive
on the
first
automatic operation in electronic manufacturing. In 1947 he built and operated a machine
to
for the automatic production of two-
The
resistance, capacitance
plate.
typical plate
eight nozzles arranged
was positioned. Materials
and conductors were sprayed through stencils onto
shown
is
Figure 11.19.
SOURCE:
it
their proper positions
in figure 11.19.
typical sprayed plate (Sargrove machine).
Electronic Equipment Design
and Construction by
A Dummer, C
L K
Brunetti and
Lee (New York: McGraw-Hill) pp 192-3 (1961)
SEE ALSO: 'New methods
of radio production'
by
Sargrove
J.
Brit.
IRE
vol
p 2
7(1),
(January /February 1947)
'Automatic receiver production' Wireless World (April 1947)
1947
COMPUTERS (EDVAC)
The
University of Pennsylvania (USA)
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer, or
(University of Pennsylvania) between 1947 and
Aberdeen Proving Ground.

master clock operating
at
semiconductor diodes and
SOURCE:
It
is
a serial, synchronous
mega-pulse per second.
utilizes the binary
EDVAC, was
1950 for the
It
Ballistic
machine
contains
in
built at the
which
all
at
the
pulses are timed by a
some 5900 vacuum
number system with
Moore School
Research Laboratory
tubes, about
word length of 44 binary
1200
digits.
Pyne Proc. IRE p 1046 (May 1962)

Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
A Concise
1947
COMPUTERS
(UNIVAC)
P Eckert and
(Universal Automatic
159
Mauchly (USA)
Computer)
The development of
year.
The
who founded
UMVAC
first
the spring of 1951.
was
USA
now
became
later
Remington Rand
the
December of
in
Bureau of the Census and was put
(The Eckert-Mauchly Corporation

is
1947 by Presper
started about
Computer Corporation
the Eckert-Mauchly
built for the
forming the organisation which
UNIVAC was
Automatic Computer, or
the Universal
Eckert and John Mauchly
a subsidiary of
UNIVAC
that
in operation in
Remington Rand,
Division of the Sperry Rand
Corporation).
UNIVAC
was
a direct
descendent of the
ENIAC
Eckert and Mauchly had both had an important part
synchronous machine operating
at a rate
EDVAC
and of the
in the
of 2.25 megapulses per second.
and several times as many semiconductor diodes
development of which
University of Pennsylvania.
at the
and clamp
in logic
It
It
was
a serial,
contained some 5000 tubes
circuits.
One hundred mercury
delay lines provided 1000 twelve-decimal-digit words of internal storage. Twelve additional delay lines
were used as input-output
Aside from console switches and an
registers.
small amounts of information, the input-output
UNIVAC
SOURCE:
Proc.
machines were
electric typewriter providing
medium was metal-base magnetic
tape.
Forty eight
built.
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and Pyne
IRE pp 1048/9 (May 1962)
Pascal
von Neumann by
to
H H
1947
MOLECULAR BEAM EPITAXY
J Sosnowski, J Starkiewicz and
Simpson (UK)
Molecular beam epitaxy
(MBE)
is
term used
denote
to
the
epitaxial
growth of compound
semiconductor films by a process involving the reaction of one or more thermal molecular beams
with a crystalline surface under high
offers
much improved
may be
differences
using
MBE,
it
is
A^Gai-jjAs with
vacuum
MBE
conditions.
is
related to
vacuum
evaporation, but
control over the incident atomic or molecular fluxes so that sticking coefficient
beam
taken into account, and allows rapid changing of
possible to produce 'superlattice' structures consisting of

layer thickness as
low
as
lOA. Since
growing film with separate beams, the doping
profile
speeds.
many
For example,
layers of
electrically active impurities are
normal
to the surface
may be
GaAs and
added
to the
varied and controlled
with a special resolution difficult to achieve by more conventional, faster growth techniques.
SOURCE:
'Molecular
beam
epitaxy' by
A Y Cho
and
Arthur
J.
R. Prog, in Solid State
Chemistry
vol 16, part 3, p 157 (1975)
SEE ALSO:
'Lead sulphide photoconductive
cells'
by
L Sosnowski,
Starkiewicz and
Simpson
Nature vol 159, p 818 (14 June 1947)

'The structure and growth of Pbs deposits on rocksalt substrates' by
Elleman and
H Wilman
Proc.
Phys. Soc. (London) vol 61, p 164 (1948)
1948
COMPUTERS
(SEAC)
National Bureau of Standards (USA)
The Standards Electronics Automatic Computer, SEAC, was
built
by the
Laboratory of the National Bureau Standards. The design began

put in operation in
May
1950.
It
was
built
Department of the Air Force, principally

solving large logistics
SOURCE:
in
staff
of the Electronic Computer
June 1948 and the machine was
under the sponsorship of the Office of the Air Controller.
to carry out
mathematical investigations of techniques for
programming problems.
SEE ALSO:
The Computer from Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
A Concise
160
1948
TRANSISTOR
Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley
(USA)
Immediately
On
hostilities
ceased in 1945 Shockley organised a group for research on the physics of solids.
testing out experimentally Shockley's ideas,
was discovered
it
that the projected amplifier did not
function as Shockley had predicted; something prevented the electric field from penetrating into the
interior of the semi-conductor.
John Bardeen, a theoretical physicist, formulated a theory concerning the
nature of the surface of a semi-conductor which accounted for this lack of penetration of
field,
led to other predictions concerning the electrical properties of semi-conductor surfaces.
were carried out
to test the predictions of the theory.
Gibney observed
that
an electrolyte
an electric
in contact
field
would penetrate
with the surface.
one of
In
these, Walter
into the interior if the field
Bardeen proposed using an electrolyte
and also
Experiments
Brattain and
R B
was applied through

in a
of Shockley's amplifier in which a suitably prepared small block of silicon was used.
modified form
He
believed that
current flowing to a diode contact to the silicon block could be controlled by a voltage applied to an
electrolyte surrounding the contact. In the earlier experiments testing Shockley's ideas, thin films with
inferior electrical characteristics
had been employed. Brattain
Bardeen's suggested arrangement,
tried
and found the amplification as Bardeen had predicted, but the operation was limited
frequencies because of the electrolyte. Similar experiments involving
was opposite
the sign of the effect

in
to that predicted. Brattain
which a rectifying metal contact replaced the
germanium were
very low
and Bardeen then conducted experiments
and discovered
electrolyte
to
successful, but
that voltage applied to this
contact could be used to control, to a small extent, the current flowing to the diode contact.
again, however, the sign of the effect
results
on
was opposite
first
Here
Analysis of these unexpected
by the two scientists led them to the invention of the point contact
completely different principle from the one
to the predicted one.
transistor,
which operates
Current flowing to one contact
proposed.
controlled by current flowing from a second contact, rather than by an externally applied electric
is
field.
Brattain and Bardeen used extremely simple equipment, the most expensive piece of apparatus being
an oscilloscope.
The
Bell Telephone Laboratories
work has proceeded
rapidly.
The
announced the invention

first
in
June 1948, and since then, development
point-contact transistor had several limitations:
could not control high amounts of power and
it
it
was
noisy,
it
had a limited applicability. Shockley had meanwhile
conceived the idea of the junction transistor which was free of many of these defects and most of the
transistors
now made
SOURCE: The
are of the junction type.
Jewkes,
Sawers and R Stillerman (London: MacMillan
&
Co.) p 400 (1958)
SEE ALSO:
'The
First
Five Years of the Transistor' by
Kelly Bell Telephone Magazine
(Summer
1953)
1948
HOLOGRAPHY
D Gabor (UK)
With holography, one records not the optically formed image of an object but the object wave
This wave
of
this
recorded (usually on photo graphic film)
is
in
itself.
such a way that a subsequent illumination
record called a 'hologram' reconstructs the original object wave.
reconstructed wavefront then yields a view of the object which
is
visual observation of this
practically indiscernible
from the
original, including three dimensional parallax effects.
SOURCE:
Reinhold
The Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd edn) editor R
&
Litton Educational Pub. Inc.) p
SEE ALSO:
Optical Holography by
Besancon (New York: Van Nostrand-
426 (1974)
J Collier,
C B
Burzkhardt and L
Lin
(New
York: Academic
Press) (1971)
1948
EDS AC
(Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
MV
Wilkes (UK)
Calculator)
The
EDSAC
working
(electronic delay storage automatic calculator)
in the scale
is a serial
electronic calculating
machine
of two and using ultrasonic tanks for storage. The main store consists of 32 tanks.

each of which
about 5
is
It is
all.
number with 35 binary
161
long and holds 32 numbers of 17 binary digits, one being a sign
ft
gives 1024 storage locations in
accommodate
digit.
This
possible to run two adjacent storage locations together so as to

digits (including a sign digit); thus at
any time the store may
number only
Short tanks which can hold one
contain a mixture of long and short numbers.
are used
for accumulator and multiplier registers in the arithmetical united, and for control purposes in various
parts of the machine.
single address code
SOURCE: The
SEE ALSO:
London A,
1948
is
EDSAC,
used in the
orders being of the
Origins of Digital Computers edited by
same length
Randell (Berlin: Springer) p 389 (1973)
MV
'The design of a practical high-speed computing machine' by
vol 195, p
TRANSISTORS
as short numbers.
Wilkes, Proc. R. Soc.
274 (1948)
GK
(Single Crystal Fabrication
Teal
&
(USA)
Little
Germanium)
1948
In the latter part of
G K
Teal and
Little
They
structural perfection.
BTL
began experiments
They succeeded
single crystals, selecting the pulling technique.
germanium of high
of
also
to
grow germanium
growing large single crystals of
in
improved the impurity of the material by repeated
recrystallization methods.
At
BTL Teal,
working with
M Sparks, devised a unique method for preparing p-n junctions by modifying
his crystal-pulling apparatus to allow controlled addition of impurities
during crystal growth.
Using
ingots they prepared single crystals containing p-n junctions and soon afterwards n-p-n grown-junction
transistors
which had many of the properties predicted by Shockley.
SOURCE:
'Contributions of materials technology to semiconductor devices' by
R L
Petritz Proc.
ISE
p 1026 (May 1962)
'Growth of germanium single
crystals'
G K
by
Teal and
Little Phys.
vol 78, p
Rev.
647 (June
1950)
'Growth of silicon single crystals and of single crystal silicon p-n junctions' Phys. Rev. vol 87, p 190
(July 1952)
1948
COMMUNICATION
The term information Theory'

Historically
it
seems
C E Shannon (USA)
(Information Theory)
first
is
used
communication systems developed
with
in the current technical literature
to have been generally applied
1948 by Shannon.
to describe the specific
many
different senses.
mathematical model of
Shannon introduced
numerical measure, called by him and others entropy, of the randomness or uncertainty associated with
class of
messages and showed
facility
needed
that this quantity
main argument)
that this
SOURCE:
its
measures
in a real
sense the amount of communication
He
class.
measure of uncertainty agreed
showed
also
in certain aspects
intuitive notion of the 'information content of a message'.
words 'information content' as a synonym
work and
In this pioneering paper.
messages from the given
to transmit with accuracy
incidentally to his
common, vague
in
He
(quite
with the
accordingly used the
for the precisely defined notion of entropy.
As
a result, his
immediate extensions became known as information theory.
information Theory' by
B McMillan and D
SEE ALSO: The Mathematical Theory
IRE pp 1151/2 (May 1962)
Slepian Proc.
of Communication by
C E Shannon
and
W Weaver (Urbana,
IL:
University of Illinois Press) (1949)
1948
RCA
(Magnetic Film)
and others (USA)
Although magnetic recording was one of the oldest methods known,

that this
form of recording came into
fine grain, low-noise,
inches in width.
quality
its
own. During
this
it
was not
magnetic oxide, and a process for uniformly coating
Use of
this
new
until
it
on
World War
II
Germany
a thin flexible base
period there was developed
in
tape in properly designed recorders and reproducers resulted in sound
which was higher than had previously been obtained from either the film or the disk method.
A Concise
162
in
Date Order
Immediately after the war some of the German recorders were demonstrated
on
potential impact of magnetic recording
Early in 1948, oxide coated 35

It
was then possible
mm
became
film
to convert photographic
tried in motion-picture
to
combination units capable of recording
sound studios for original
The
'takes'.
practice in the industry,
SOURCE:
of magnetic recording
tests
more economical means of
original 'takes' to a composite photographic negative

little
in the
dynamic range,
high-quality and large
its
but also because magnetic film provided a more flexible and a

all
and the
recorders were converted as quickly as possible and
studios were immediately successful, not only because of
Since re-recording of
in this country,
was quickly recognised.
available for use in motion picture sound recording.
sound recorders
Many
either magnetic or photographic sound.
were
the motion-picture industry
was already
recording.
the accepted
inconvenience was caused by the change.
Batsel and
L Dimmick
IRE
Proc.
p 749
(May
1962)
1949
MICRO WIRE
Ulitovsky (USSR)
The microwire process
for producing ultrafine wires
Ulitovsky of the Baykov Institute.
It
was invented
in
Russia
important to realise that up to then
is
it
in
1949 by Professor
was
quite difficult to
obtain fine insulated wire of reasonable quality and price.
Three processes have been developed as advances over the

1.
Wollaston process
2.
Taylor process
3.
Microwire process
In the
is
Wollaston process wires are compound-drawn; that
drawn through wire
silver coated wire so
is,
produced
is
drawing techniques:
a platinum rod
dies, being finally subjected to a reduction
encased
in a silver tube
of between 20 and 40 to one. The
etched to remove the silver, leaving the fine platinum core behind.
This procedure will give platinum wires

In the
traditional die
Taylor process a composite rod
down
to 0.5/x.
made
is
consisting of a glass tube with a metal core cast into
This composite rod
position by being aspirated, pipette-fashion, from a melting pot.
is
attenuated in
a muffle furnace, using the technique of pulling and stretching as practiced in the glass fibre industry.
The metal usually has
lower melting point than the softening point of the glass, thus allowing the
capillary to be filled with cast metal. Wires of lead, antimony, bismuth, gold, silver, tin, copper and
others were successfully produced

In the
Microwire process
this
down
to 0.25//.
technique was improved.
The
basic procedure consists of melting the
core metal by induction in a crucible formed by the walls of a glass tube extended upwards to a glass
feeding device above the melt.
immediately since there
SOURCE:
is
The
fact that the process takes place in a vertical line is
less distortion of the melt
an improvement
and interference with the capillary by gravity.
A Dummer (New
York: Hayden
Book Co.) p 62
SEE ALSO:
'Glass-coated microwire' by
'Microwire.
A new
engineering material' by
'The structure of copper microwire' by

(12),
1949
H Wagner
R G S
Wire and Wire Productions (June 1964)

Clarke Electronic Components (September 1963)
Nadgorny and B
Smirnov Fizika Tverdogo
Tele,
vol 2
pp 3048-9 (1960)
DIP-SOLDERING OF PRINTED CIRCUITS

When Danko
and Abramson of the
Army
S F Danko and Abramson (USA)
Signal Corps invented dip soldering in 1949, a
new
era of
automation came into being.
SOURCE:
1972)
'Packaging and materials' by
RL
Goldberg Electronic Design vol 24, p 126 (23 November
A Concise
SEE ALSO:
94
Date Order
US
Autosembly.
163
Lanzalotti Electronics
(July 1951)
by S F Danko Proc. IRE p 937 (May 1962)
'Printed circuits and microelectronics'
No 2756485
Patent
assigned to
US Army,
31 July 1956
COLD CATHODE STEPPING TUBE

The
in
'Autosembly of miniature military equipment' by S F Danko and S
vol 24(7), p
1949
Remington Rand (USA)
published account of a multi-cathode stepping tube descibed a tube developed in America
first
The
by Remington Rand.
first
made
tubes to be widely used, however, were
For some ten years following
and by Ericsson Telephones.
in
England by
'Dekatron' became practically synonymous with the cold cathode stepping tube.
The
pulse 'Dekatron' was followed
kc/s.
were added
1955
in
in
1952 by the single-pulse tube operating up

of reversible scalers.
to simplify the construction
were introduced from which numerical indicators could be driven
SOURCE:
In
to
20
original double-
Routing guides
1962 auxiliary-anode tubes
directly.
M Neale The Radio and Electronic Engineer
'A survey of cold cathode discharge tubes' by
STC
introduction in 1949, the Ericsson
its
SEE ALSO:
'Poly-cathode glow tube for counters and calculators' by
No
Electronics vol 22,
1949-
Lamb and
Brustman
p 92-6 (November 1949)
1,
ION IMPLANTATION IN SEMICONDUCTORS
S Ohl,
W Shockley (USA)
1950
Ion implantation
modifying the properties of solids by injecting (implanting) charged
a technique for
is
The
atoms (ions) into them.
ions alter the electrical, optical, chemical, magnetic and mechanical
properties of a solid by the interactions they have with the solid both as they slow
their presence after they
have come to
rest.
The implantation
idea
is
not a
new one
down and by
work
at Bell
Laboratories during the late 1940s and early 1950s by Russel S Ohl and William Shockley pioneered
the application of ion implantation to semiconductor device fabrication.
SOURCE: ion
implantation' by
C Brown
and
A U MacRae
Bell Laboratories Research p 389
(November 1975)
SEE ALSO:
No 2787564
'Forming semiconductive devices by ionic bombardment'
ion implantation
42,
1950s
No
6,
refers to a
24-hour basis
in
semiconductor device technology' by
system
Stephen The Radio Electronic Engineer vol
minimum
of visible
In the 1950s, Ivan Getting, an

satellite transmitters
on ground,
it
air,
sea or land, an accurate position reading on a
IEEE
is
to
and time
equipped with a receiver
to all users
that
can
satellite signals.
fellow and the originator of
life
was deployed such
would be possible
a position
by
that provides all users,
weather conditions. The system uses a satellite-based radio positioning technique
in all
intercept a certain
way
Patent
Ivan Getting (USA)
to provide three-dimensional position, velocity
the
US
Shockley:
p 265 (June 1972)
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

GPS
(28 October 1954)
that a
know
minimum
GPS,
realized that
if
a system of
of four were always in sight to any receiver
the location of that receiver in three dimensions, similar to
determined using the
LORAN
system, a ground navigation system effective in a
limited geographical area.
The US Department of Defense approved funding

Navstar
GPS
GPS
satellites
at a cost
of
US$10
billion,
needed for the system
to
worldwide coverage by 1987, but due
and
in
for the
development and deployment of a complete
1978 launched the
to the
aviation
minimum
to provide
community.
the enthusiasm this system
New
18
complete
in satellite
1993.
until
The US Defense Department was doubtlessly unaware of

civil
of a series of a
Challenger disaster and the resulting delays
deployment, the system did not become fully operational
worldwide, far beyond the
first
The program was
be fully operational.
would arouse
applications emerge on an almost daily
A Concise
164
basis,
and military applications, which
now even
civil application
such a heavy investment
justified
base has
made
case to the
its
in
GPS, have
US DoD,
and
is
challenging the exclusive control of military authorities over the system.
The GPS market
US$10
mid-1970s
in the
been pushed to the sideline. The broad
billion
expected to grow by 45 percent
is
this year,
by the year 2000, with the military share being
SOURCE: 'GPS
shadow of
out of the
and
GPS
business
is
estimated to reach
less than 10 percent.
by
the Defense Department'
R K
Arora The Institute (IEE
Inc.)
p 3 (August 1996)
1950
FLOPPY DISCS
Floppy
Y Nakamats
discs, universally
used on microcomputers, were invented
in
1950
at the
Tokyo by Doctor Yoshire Nakamats, an inventor who boasts of having 2360
He granted
clubs and loudspeakers.
SOURCE: The Book

(UK: Queen Anne
the sales licence for the disc to
(Japan)
Imperial University in
patents which include golf
IBM.
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) p 124 (1990)
NOTE ON DEVELOPMENTS
Schugzat/IBM (USA)
1971
8 inch Floppy Disc
1978
5.25 inch Floppy Disc
Apple Computer, Radio Shack
Tandy (USA)
1984
3.5 inch
SOURCE:
1950
Sony (Japan)
Floppy Disc
Private
communication from E Davies, London.
COMPUTER GRAPHICS
The
art
Burnett (USA)
of computer graphics can be traced back to the graphics made for wallpaper by Burnett
These graphics were based on Lissajous
California from 1937 onwards.
Laposky who,
in 1950, really
founded the
art
Today,
animated graphics
graphics are quite
still
which
it
in
was Ben F
of computer graphics. Computer graphics are pure products
of computer technology, and a few years ago

financially).
But
figures.
represented something of a feat (both technically and
still
common
and can be produced on microcomputers. As for
are frequently used in television advertisements, for
example
these can be
so perfect and real that they are sometimes quite disturbing.
The work of the companies Robert Abel Associates,

has
now become famous
SOURCE:
(New
1950s
Inventions
Digital
Equipment Corporation and Sogitec (France)
in this field.
ULTRASOUND IMAGING
The
first
published experimental ultrasound examinations of
(1910-87) and his colleagues

that
Mark Young
in
Glasgow
in the late
Donald
et al
(UK)
women, undertaken by
Professor Ian Donald
1950s, used an industrial flaw detector to
show
echoes from within the patient's abdomen could be used to measure the size of ovarian cysts and
other tumours.
This
is
known
as a one-dimensional scan because
it
shows how
far apart things are
without producing an image. In two-dimensional scans actual images are produced by the technique of
moving
the ultrasonic probe in a series of sweeping
now used when you go
movements during scanning. Both techniques
Professor Stuart Campbell's (b 1936) work using the machine
about 1967, established

routing antenatal care.
seen to offer a safe
are
for a 'scan'.
many of
the procedures
In a period of heightened
way of examining
For example, in 1969, quintuplets,
all
now
in the
Science
Museum, made
which have made ultrasound an indispensable
in
part of
awareness of the dangers of X-rays, ultrasound was
pregnant
women
for multiple foetuses
later successfully delivered,
were diagnosed
and malformations.
at
nine weeks using
A Concise
The
the two-dimensional scan.
occurred after
first
this
1950
in 1975.
Ultrasound Scanner: Making of the Modern World
Cossons
The Vidicon,
the
TV
first
RCA
Tube
camera tube
change
different intensities produces a
activity, is
further developments, the Vidicon proves significantly
than previous
TV
Technology
Museum)
(USA)
by which
to use the principle of photoconductivity

in electrical
&
of Science
(Published by John Murray, in association with the Science
et al
VIDICONTV Camera
SOURCE:
(the partial or total absence of a brain) in
Milestones
SOURCE:
165
abortion of a malformed foetus after an ultrasound examination
machine disclosed a case of amencephaly
1972. Diagnosis of spina bifida followed
edited by
devised
USA
in the
more adaptable, more
sensitive
light
RCA.
by
of
After
and cheaper
cameras.
1982)
1950
HAMMING CODE
It
was simple human
Hamming's technique
first
which was
method
Hamming,
a result of his research in pure

tell
then a research mathematician
machine-caused errors
for correcting
spot electrical errors in the data and instructions and

it
Dr Richard
frustration that led
Bell Laboratories, to devise the
W Hamming (USA)
mathematics
in digital
enabled computers
where they occurred. And,
at
computers.
for the
first
to
time,
enabled computers to correct those errors and go right on solving problems without interruption.
20 April 1980, marks the 30th anniversary of Hamming's pioneering work, which has evolved
new
field
into a
of research called error-correcting codes.
SOURCE:
Labs marks 30th anniversary of computer error-correcting codes' Bell Laboratories
'Bell
Record p 152 (May 1980)
SEE ALSO:
p 103 (22
1950
COMPUTERS
during the late
a
intermediate-size, vacuum-tube computer
thousand 650s have been

serially
representation in storage
Electronics
by character on words of 10 decimal

is
was made
installation
late in
1954.
digits plus sign.
2-out-of-5 decimal
translated into a biquinary code in the operating registers, allowing a fixed-
the
bits per character.
The main
store of the
650
two-address instruction format accommodates, as part of
each instruction, the location of the next programme
anywhere on
first
workhorse of the industry
in service since then.
500 rpm 2000- word magnetic drum.
instructions
was considered
1949 and the
in
count check to detect the presence of more or less than 2

a 12
L Wall
IBM (USA)
1950s. Development began
The 650 operates
is
by Ernst
to microprocessor-based systems'
(IBM 650)
The IBM 650, an

Over
Hamming code
'Applying the
November 1979)
step.
program drum, and makes
it
This format allows the programmer to place

possible for
him
to
minimise access times to
successive instructions.
SOURCE:
Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
1950
PIN
DIODE
The
p-i-n
sometimes called as the
sandwiched between
Nishizawa (Japan)
J-I
a p layer
'pin'
diode
in
which an
intrinsic or a
and an n layer was invented by
high resistivity layer
Nishizawa
in
1950.
In the
is
same
year several manufacturing methods of the p-i-n diode, including the thermal diffusion, the chemical
treatment, the anodic oxidation, the ion implantation and the nuclear transmutation by the
bombardment
A Concise
166
of high energy particle were also invented by

realized the Si p-i-n diode, in
1.5
forward voltage drop
at
breakdown voltage and
reverse
100 A, by using the alloying method and the elaborate simple surface
passivation technology prior to the Westinghouse
by
group successfully
In 1958, his research
J Nishizaura.
which the characteristics were 2300
Company. Also
the
4000
was
p-i-n diode
realized
group with the development of the original high purity epitaxial growth technology
his research
using SiCl 4 and the hydrogen system.
The
p-i-n diode features a high reverse
breakdown voltage up
voltage drop and small junction capacitance.
It is
used
all
to ten
thousands
such as the industrial high power systems, which includes the famous Japanese bullet
its
power handling
efficient high
The
p-i-n diode
microwave
The
is
capability and also in
low
also used as a
consumer electronics products such
loss switching device, a phase shifter
fields
owing
train,
as
to
TV.
and an attenuator
in
systems and communication equipments.
circuits in radar
p-i-n photo diode also invented
for the recent optical
low forward
volts,
over the world for various application
by
Nishizawa
is
an excellent optical detector and
widely used
is
communication system. The fundamental patent also included the application of
the high resistivity layer into a transistor as pnip or npin type.
SOURCE:
'Semiconductor device having the high
Japanese Patent
SEE ALSO:
No 205068
1950
No 221722
Nishizawa and
the
IBM
vacuum
Watanabe;
Nishizawa and
September 1950)
226859 (1950)
IBM (USA)
IBM
operating late in 1951 and the
701 Data Processing System began

first
at the
production machine was delivered
end of 1950.
at the
model was
end of 1952. The heart of
701 system was a 36-bit single, address, binary, parallel, synchronous processor employing
tube flip-flops and diode logic at a rate of one megapulse per second.
Multiple pluggable
packages were used. The arithmetic registers employed a recirculating-pulse bit-storage
developed for the
NORC
in
which a combination of diode gating and pulse delay made
store, shift right, or shift left with
stored program of
SOURCE:
Dyne
(Application date:
(IBM 701)
The development of
circuit
Patent Nos. 221695, 223246, 226589, 229685, 235980, 236731 and
COMPUTERS
the
by
resistivity region'
December 1950)
'Chemical surface treatment method of semiconductor device' by
Watanabe; Japanese Patent
ALSO:
(Application date: 20
two
one triode per
bit.
Computation was governed by
it
circuit,
possible to
a single address
18-bit instructions per 36-bit word.
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Aastrahan, Patterson and
IRE p 1050 (May 1962)
Proc.
Pascal to von
Neumann by H H
University Press) (1972)
1950s
OL
THERMO-COMPRESSION BONDING
Anderson,
Christensen and P
Andreatch (USA)
In the 1950s,
O L Anderson,
new bonding technique
circuits.
Howard Christensen and
Peter Andreatch of Bell Laboratories, discovered
particularly useful for connecting transistors to other elements in electronic
The technique, pressing
the connecting wire to the transistor
mounting
at
low heat
levels,
provides a firm bond without introducing undesired electrical properties and has been widely used
throughout the electronics industry (see figure 11.20).

contamination, thus achieving long
SOURCE:
life
and
It
is
particularly advantageous in avoiding
reliability.
the Story of Bell Laboratories' by
C Mabon
(Murray
Hill,
department by
MIT
1950s
MODEM
(MODulation
The modem
as
we know
&
it
DEModulation)
today
is
a product of research
MIT
done
Bell
Labs (USA)
for the defence
Lincoln Laboratory and Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1950s.
Encouraged by advances
in
data
Date Order
in
167
Hi
wedge
.capillary
tube
balled
metal or semiconductor
wedge
nail
head or
eyelet
ball
Figure 11.20. Thermo-compression bonding.
processing technology, scientists
network.
great deal of study
handsomely. In
less than
1950s
in the late
that
to
SOURCE: 'Where
went
facilities
20 years,
reliable transmission speeds
MODEM'S
going' by
percent, from 1200
is
baud
Holsinger Telecommunications p 12 (June 1977)
Bell Laboratories
(USA)
two or four
sealed-in-
controlled by magnetised wire coils. Ferreed switches, used to switch phone calls
most electronic switching systems, are smaller,
in
jumped 700
in the early 1970s.
ferreed switch, invented at Bell Laboratories in the late 1950s comprises
glass contacts and
improve
and deriving new
into understanding telephone line parameters
FERREED SWITCH
The
to
of the nation's vast telephone
could work efficiently with these line parameters. This early work paid off
9600 bps
are
ways
these research centres concentrated on finding
and the accuracy of data transmission using existing
modulation techniques
1950s
at
the speed
faster operating
and require
power than older
less
switching devices.
SOURCE:
the Story of Bell Laboratories'
C Mabon
by P
(Murray
Hill,
1950s
APL
APL, which
way
and teach
stands for
a professor at
pithy
(A Programming Language)
Programming Language, was developed
Harvard University. He invented
to represent
Iverson (USA)
in the late
1950s by Kenneth Iverson,
this simple, elegant notational
system
mathematical expressions, describe and analyse various topics
fill
a need for a
his classes.
In 1960, Iverson joined
IBM
Corp. There, with the help of Adin Falkoff and other interested researchers,
an interpretive version of the language was adapted for the System/360. In 1973,
The appended SV
information.
More
stands for Shared Variables
means whereby
recently, the language has surfaced
of business computers, Digital Equipment Corp.'s

the
to
in data processing,
on
DEC
newly introduced Interactive Computer Systems
less
number of
IBM
users
released APLSV.
may communicate
expensive machines: IBM's 5100 series
system 2020, Hewlett-Packard Co.'s 3000, and
Inc.'s
System 900,
to
name
few of the computers
in question.
APL's
primitive functions, of which there are about 60,
fall
into
two categories,
scalar and mixed. Scalar
functions can be used with scalar arguments and arrays on an item-by-item basis.
to arrays with various ranks
shape.
The
and
may produce
results that vary
scalar functions can be subclassified as
Mixed functions apply
from the original arguments
monadic and dyadic, which
two arguments, respectively. The primitive operators, which currently number
in
are defined for

five,
rank and
one and
modify the action
number of new
of scalar dyadic functions and some mixed functions, resulting
in a great
APL
mathematical symbols to represent the
uses alphanumerics, Greek
easy to learn. With a
little
and some
uncommon
make APL programs appear
cryptic to the beginner; in fact, the language
practice, powerful routines can
be generated with a few simple key strokes.
functions and operators. These

is
letters,
functions.
A Concise
168
1951
in
Date Order
QUALITY CONTROL
First edition
of 'Quality Control Handbook' written by
M Juran
(USA)
Juran, published by McGraw-Hill,
New
York.
An
95
authorative treatise on
aspects of quality control.
all
AUTOMATIC CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY ('TINKER

TOY'
In
National Bureau of Standards (USA)
System)
1950 the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics asked the National Bureau of Standards to study further
automation of
The process
assembly.
circuit
was dubbed
the Bureau of Standards
inspection of circuit components, and
The system
followed in 1951
led to the
it
first
It
developed by
Robert Henry of
provided for the automatic assembly and
modular package (see figure
components mounted on
started with individual
1/16-inch thick.
that
Project Tinkertoy.
11.21).
ceramic wafers 7/8-inch square by
steatite
The components were machine-printed or mounted over
printed wiring.
Four
to six
wafers were then automatically selected, stacked and mechanically and electrically joined by machinesoldered riser wires, which were attached
at
notches along the sides of each wafer. The resulting module
generally had a tube socket on the top wafer.
Figure 11.21.
Though
this
modular approach
as the transistor
SOURCE:
p 126 (23
1951
began
to
Tinkertoy assembly model.
packaging was used
to replace the
vacuum
for production items,
faded
in the late
1950s
packaging and
materials' by
R L Goldberg
Electronic Design vol 24,
November 1972)
MICROPROGRAMMING COMPUTERS
Credit for the original microprogramming concept
Cambridge University's Mathematical Laboratory.
Computer Conference
Machine'.
it
tube.
in July
95
is
Wilkes (UK)
generally given to Britisher
In a paper he presented at
Wilkes discussed 'The Best
Way
to
Wilkes of
Manchester University's
Design an Automatic Calculating
Wilkes' intention, ironically enough, was to simplify the design of a hardwires machine.
Today microprogramming
is
used
to replace
hardwired logic altogether.

As Samir Husson notes
attracted
book 'Microprogramming Principles and
his
in
1960s because
attention before the
little
commercial microprogrammed computer was IBM's 7950, introduced

of microprogramming were
in
IBM
such machines as the
Practices',
was too expensive
it
in
to
1961
System/360, the
69
the technique
implement.
The
first
Other early appearances
RCA
Spectra/70, and the
Honeywell H4200.
variety of
store.
memory
Among
memory, and
technologies were used for the read-only memories needed for the microinstruction
these were traditional ferrite cores, cores cut into an E-shape to create a transformer
ROM
for several of
Microprogramming came
its
minicomputers early
to
ROMs, and
Equipment's PDP-11
The
line.
memory
its
such as Microdata's Micro 800,
2100 family, and
Digital
ROMs,
boom
to
in popularity.
to store the microinstruction
making
widespread use
it
Many
by
started'
is
used
it
was not
until the early
in the fields
first
to
emulate
area.
Durniak Electronics p 126 (9 November 1978)
MIT
Computerised image animation was
now
of the machines
easier for the user or the manufacturer
IBM-compatible computer
in the
IMAGE ANIMATION
1951. But
increasing availability of low-cost and fast semiconductor
SOURCE: 'How microprogramming
it
IBM, which devised
change the machine. Also, the ease with which microprogramming allows one machine
another has resulted in
1951
in units
mainframes and minicomputers today are microprogrammed.
use random-access
to
1970s
in the
the later 3200, Hewlett-Packard's
however, has recently caused the technique

all
novel approach was taken by
System/360 models.
which used diode arrays as
Virtually
arrays of diodes or capacitors.
card capacitor
experimented on
(USA)
the Massachusetts Institute of
at
Technology
in
1960s that the potential of the technique was fully understood. Today
of medicine, architecture (with models
in three
dimensions), space exploration
and chemistry.
SOURCE:
inventions and Discoveries 1993' edited by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing and Mark Young
Facts on File
1952
New
York p 2 1
ALLOYED TRANSISTOR
In
RCA
(USA)
1952 an announcement was made by the Radio Corporation of America
made
transistors
make
alloy regions with the
that they
had successfully
by heating small quantities of impurities, on the surface of germanium chips, so as
to
germanium. The resulting penetration of the chips was made from both
sides.
SOURCE:
1952
Semiconductors for Engineers by
MICROELECTRONICS
In a paper read at the
components
in
'At this stage,
work
in
would
Dunster (London: Business Books Limited) p 20
(Integrated Circuit Concept)
IRE Symposium
Great Britain'
I
D F
like to take a
semiconductors generally,
it
DC
on 5
May
1952, entitled:
'Electronic
stated:
peep into the
future.
seems now possible
block with no connecting wires. The block
and amplifying materials, the
Washington
in
A Dummer
W A Dummer (UK)
may
to
With the advent of the
transistor
envisage electronic equipment
and the
in a solid
consist of layers of insulating, conducting, rectifying
electrical functions
being connected directly by cutting out areas of the
various layers'.
SOURCE:
Proc.
IRE Symposium on 'Progress
in
Quality Electronic Components Washington, DC, p 19
(May 1952)
SEE ALSO: 'A history of microelectronics development at the

Dummer Microelectronics and Reliability vol 4, p 193 (1965)
'Solid circuits' Wireless
World (November 1957)
'The semiconductor story

p 137 (March 1973)
Royal Radar Establishment' by
3; solid circuits
new
concept' by
Dean and S White Wireless World
A Concise
70
'The genesis of the integrated
1952
circuit'
by
in
Date Order
F Wolff IEEE Spectrum p 45 (August 1976)
W G Pfann (USA)
ZONE MELTING OF GERMANIUM AND SILICON
W G Pfann discovered a simple method for repeating the action of normal

avoided handling the material between each operation. This resulted
which was then grown into single crystals bv the pulling technique.
levelling technique,
which
melting and freezing, which
in material
of extremely high purity
Pfann also developed the zone
He grew
distributes impurities uniformly through a rod.
single crystals in his
zone levelling apparatus using seeding techniques. The combination of zone levelling and horizontal
growth of single crystals has become the standard technique used
in today's transistor
manufacturing
operations.
SOURCE:
R L
Petriz Proc.
IRE
p 1027 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
J.
4,
1952
p423
one
illustrative
embodiment of
transistors, the collector
directly to the emitter
zones.
Pfann
(New
York: Academic Press) vol
(1957)
DARLINGTON PAIRS, DIRECT-CONNECTED

TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT
In
p 861 (August 1952)
'Techniques of zone melting and crystal growing' Solid State Physics

4,
'Segregation of two solutes, with particular reference to semiconductors' by
Metals vol
The device
S Darlington (USA)
this invention, a translating
device comprises a pair of similar junction
zones of which are electrically integral and the base zone of one of which
zone of the other. Individual connections are provided
to the other emitter
is
tied
and base
constitutes an equivalent single transistor having emitter and collector resistances
substantially equal to those of
one of the component
transistors, but
having a current multiplication
factor substantially greater than that of either of the components.
SOURCE:
'Semiconductor Signal Translating
Laboratories (dated 9
1952
May
Device'
US
DIGITAL VOLTMETER
The
digital revolution started in 1952,
took
to multimeters to scopes
No 2663806,
Bell
Telephone
digital voltmeter.
The model
A Kay (USA)
when Andy Kay unveiled
419 was crude, compared with today's DVMs. But both

formed around the idea
Patent
1952)
first
Non
Linear Systems
off like a rocket, Today, almost every instrument
digitised, thanks to
is
the
the idea and
Andy Kay and
to the
the
company
from signal generators
commercial
digital readout tube,
introduced by Burroughs (then Haydu) just one year before. (Burroughs' familiar Nixie tube actually
had a
rival in its early
days
the Inditron,
which was developed by National Union Radio Corporation
and which did not survive.)
SOURCE:
instruments'
by S Runyon Electronic Design vol 24, p 102 (23
November 1972)
1952
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK TONE CONTROL
J Baxandall (UK)
CIRCUIT
The
circuit to
be described
is
the
outcome of
a prolonged investigation of tone-control circuits of the
continuously-adjustable type, and provides in dependent control of bass and treble response by means
of two potentiometers, without the need for switches to change over from
features are the
wide range of control available, and the
both potentiometers at mid-setting.

shifted along the frequency axis
The
when
'lift'
to 'cut'.
Unusual
fact that a level response is obtained with
treble-response curves are of almost constant shape, being
the control
is
operated, and there
the curves to 'flatten off towards the upper limit of the audio range.
is
practically
The shape of
no tendency
curves, though not constant, varies less than with most continuously-adjustable circuits.
SOURCE:
'Negative-feedback tone control' by P
for
the bass-response
Baxandall Wireless World p 402 (October 1952)

1952
COMPUTERS
IBM, MIT
(SAGE)
Descendents of MIT's 'Whirlwind

the
SAGE
system began,
I'
was delivered by
IBM 701, the AN/FSQ-7 air defence computers for

IBM-MIT Lincoln Laboratories effort based upon
Laboratories SAGE, a real-time communication-based
and guides interception weapons. The
SOURCE:
IBM
(Lincoln Labs) (USA)
co-operative
computer control system, accepts radar data over phone
for operator decisions
171
and of the
in 1952, as a
previous studies and specifications by Lincoln

digital
information
lines, processes, displays
engineering model of the computer
first
1955, and production deliveries began in June 1956.
in

1952
TRANSISTORS
(Single Crystal
GK
FabricationSilicon)
Teal and
Buehler (USA)
Large single crystals of silicon and silicon p-n junctions were prepared by Teal and Buehler by an
extension of the pulling technique developed for germanium. These crystals were used by
to prepare p-n junction diodes
SOURCE:
L Pearson
by the alloy method.
R L
Petritz Proc.
IRE
p 1028 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO: 'Growth
of silicon single crystals and of single crystal p-n junctions' by
Buehler Phys. Rev. vol
1953
TRANSISTOR
Engineers
at
experimented
that
8,
General Electrics electronics advanced semiconductor laboratory
could be used
bipolar transitory
Teal and
UJT GEC (USA)
(Unijunction)
in the early
G K
p 190 (July 1952)
NY,
Syracuse,
in
1950s with germanium alloy tetrode devices in search of a semiconductor
frequencies higher than the 5-megahertz operating level of existing conventional
at
The
tetrode structures,
was found, produced
it
a transverse electric field that boosted
the device's cutoff frequency and lessened the semiconductor's input
impedance
the limiting factor
regarding frequency.
But
in
1953, while examining the waveforms on the structure's terminals,
was present on
noticed that an oscillatory signal
was removed,
new
the tetrode's emitter.
The
the oscillations persisted for a while.
switching-type device.
The
GE engineers
added
Lesk of the laboratory
And when
the collector supply
researchers realised that they had stumbled on a
to the
development tetrode models,
double-based
diode structure that was being studied because of a negative-resistance property.
SOURCE:
'Solid
State a switch
by
in time'
W R Spofford Jr and R A Stasior Electronics p
18 (19
February 1968)
1953
TRANSISTOR
Advancing
1953.
Philco (USA)
(Surface Barrier)
the early trend toward higher frequencies, Philco developed the jet-etching technique in
Here electrochemical machining was used to fabricate the necessary thin base
layers.
major
product of this process was the surface-barrier transistor, which boosted the upper frequency limit of
transistors into the
SOURCE:
megahertz region.
the processes' by
E A Torrero
Electronic Design vol 24, p 73 (23
November 1972)
1953
COMPUTERS
(IBM
IBM
The development of
the
system was delivered
in
point and indexing.
was followed
It
IBM (USA)
704, 709 and 7090)
704, descended from the 701, began in
November 1953 and
the
first
January 1956. The 704 featured higher speed, magnetic-core memory, floating
in
by means of Data Synchronizer units
1958 by the 709, featuring simultaneous read, write and compute

that
allowed the input-output channels to operate independently,
as well as several special operations, including a table look-up instruction and indirect addressing.
32768-word core memory was
installed
on a 704
in April
1957.
The IBM 7090,
the
first
units of
A Concise
172
which were delivered
in
709 on
faster than the
1959,
is
in
Date Order
a transistorised
typical problems, the
About
system compatible with the 709.
7090 incorporates
a 2.18-^ts core
five times
memory and improved
magnetic-tape units.
SOURCE:
Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
1953
AUTOMATIC ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS
Autofab (General
IBM
Mills),
Machine (IBM), United Shoe

Machinery Co., GE/Signal Corps,
and Mini-Mech (Melpar) (USA)
In attempting to
develop standards which would allow unrestricted electronics design and production
processes sufficiently flexible to permit rapid transition from design to manufacturing, the following
conclusions are reached:

1.
The use of
2.
basic to practically
is
commonly
automatic approaches.
accepted).
In conjunction with the standard grid pattern, standard
mounting dimensions
for
all
components and
must be used.
parts
The use of single-head component-insertion machines

modules through the
circuit
machines can be
unit for each
By
utilized.
this
which the manufacturer wishes
fundamental requirements. The
When
component.
evolutionary method one
to attain.
It is
is
higher volumes are obtained, several
able to create any degree of automation
possible to stop with the production ot the printed circuit
one or several component-attaching or inserting machines. Dip-soldering can be mechanised
to use
or performed manually.
automatic production
producers,
many
will satisfy these
of such a machine permits the insertion of a variety of components by recycling the printed-
flexibility
and
all
generic grid pattern to govern circuit layout must be used in order to prevent obsolescence of
tooling (0.1 and 0.025 in are

3.
board
a printed-circuit
it
is
would be impractical
It
at the
to consider taking the giant step into completely
beginning of the factory's use of automation principles.
Even
for
mass
necessary to develop specific procedures for particular requirements documented by
years of experience in the step-by-step evolution toward a mechanised operation (see figure
11.22).
SOURCE:
Electronic Equipment Design
and Construction by
A Dummer, C
Brunetti and
L K
Lee (New York: McGraw-Hill) p 185-6 (1961)
SEE ALSO:
Proceedings of Symposium on Automatic Production of Electronic Equipment, sponsored
by Stanford Research
1953
MASER
Institute
and the
US
Air Force (April 1954)
C H Townes and J Weber (USA), N

Basov and A M Prokhorov
(Microwave Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation)
(USSR)
The
first
clear recognition of the possibility of amplification of electromagnetic radiation by stimulated
emission seems to have been by a Russian, Fabrikant,

not published until 1959) and
who had
who
filed a patent in
1951 (although
discussed various aspects of his thesis of 1940.
it
However,
was
his
attempts to produce optical amplification in caesium were unsuccessful.
The
first
statement
in
the
the detailed proposals of
open
literature
about amplification was by Weber
Basov and Prokhorov
for a
beam-type maser
excitement was caused by the short article of Gordon, Zeiger and Townes,
the operation of the
first
arrangement three years

immediately following
practical success
was
maser using ammonia.

earlier,
many
in
in the
Townes had conceived
based on his experience
in
in
1954.
1953, followed by
However, the
same
year,
real
announcing
the required experimental
microwave spectroscopy.
In the years
other techniques were studied, but the only one to give any degree of
the three-level
maser of Bloembergen which resulted
in the
ruby maser amplifier.
A Concise
Figure 11.22. Sylvania
SOURCE: 'Lasers and optical

No 10, p 538 (October 1975)
SEE ALSO: 'Mekhanizm
in-line
173
assembly system (courtesy Sylvania Corp.).
electronics'
by
W A Gambling The Radio & Electronic Engineer vol 45,

V A
izlucheniya gazovogo razryada' by
Fabrikant in Elektronnye
ionnye
pribory (Electron and ion devices); Trudy Vsesoyuznogo Elektrotekhnicheskogo Instituta (Proceedings
of the All-Union Electrotechnical Institute) vol 41, p 236 (1940)
'Evolution of masers and lasers' by
B A Lengyel and V A
Fabrikant Am.
J.
Phys. vol 34, p 903 (1966)
'Amplification of microwave radiation by substances not in thermal equilibrium' by
Weber IRE
Trans,
on Electron Devices vol PGED-3, pp 1-4 (June 1953)

'Application of molecular
Basov and
beams
Prokhorov
J.
'Molecular microwave oscillator and
P Gordon, H
Zeiger and
'Proposals for a
new
by
to radio spectroscopic studies of rotation spectra of molecules'
Exp. Theor Phys. (USSR) vol 27, pp 431-8 (1954)
new
C H Townes
hyperfine structure in the microwave spectrum of
Phys. Rev. vol 95, pp 282-4
type solid-state maser' by
N Bloembergen
(1
Phys.
NH
'
by
July 1954)
Rev.
vol
104, pp
324-7 (15
October 1956)
'Forgotten inventor emerges from epic patent battle with claim to laser' Science vol 198, p 379 (28
October 1977)
1953
CONNECTION TECHNIQUES
(Wire Wrapped
RF
Mallina
.23)
was investigated very extensively
et al
(USA)
Joints)
The mechanical
by workers
is still
basis of the wire
at Bell
wrapped
joint (see figure
Telephone Laboratories 20 years ago. Their very
full
analysis of the joining system
considered to be essentially correct. The work includes photoelastic observations on
wrapped
74
joint
model
to investigate strain patterns
produced by wrapping, and the study of
stress relaxation as a
function of time and temperature.
WRAPPED
SINGLE
BOUND JOINT
JOINT
4=1
i^J"
DOUBLE
MATERIALS
TYPICAL
WRAPPING
14-32
BOUND JOINT
TWIN
WRAPPED JOINT
POST
WIRE
BRASS (NICKEL FLASHED OR ELECTRO TINNED)

NICKEL SILVER -MONEL METAL- PHOSPHOR BRONZE
SINGLE CORE TINNED COPPER,

COPPER/NICKEL IRON (COPPER CORED)
S.W.G.
Figure 11.23. Wire-wrapped
The wire wrapped
which
joint consists of a wire
Sufficient deformation
is
engendered
is
tightly
many notches
in the
joints.
wrapped around
The wrapping
to create metal to metal interfaces with a high level of integrity.
several times during wrapping before final positioning in the wrap,
The
during wrapping.
stretched wire
SOURCE:
vol
1,
which
'Wire wrapped joints
'Solderless
Introduction:
a review' by
caused remains
which
is
in the
bent
stress
wire after wrapping because the
it.
M A Sollars Electrocomponent Science and Technology
Structure
wrapped connections' The Bell System Technical Journal (May 1953)
McRae
&
Tools by
R F
Mallina
Part 2 Necessary conditions for obtaining a
1953
is
wire,
under a high level of tensile
is
p 17 (1974)
SEE ALSO:
Part
tensile strain
locked by the notches formed in
is
a sharp cornered terminal.
created by the terminal in the wrapping wire
Part 3 Evaluation
&
TRANSISTORS
(Floating
Performance
tests
by
permanent connection by
WP
Mason and T F Osmer
R H Van Horn
Zone Refining of
Silicon)
Keck,
Emeis and
HC
Theurer (USA)
An improved
was developed which produced material of
silicon purification technique
that alloy silicon transistors
sufficient quality
could be fabricated with good yields. This was a novel variation of zone
refining called 'floating zone refining' developed
by P
H Keck
R Emeis
and independently by
and
H C
Theurer. This operation employs a vertical system and uses surface tension to support a stable liquid
zone formed by induction heating. Hence, the crucible

of
ohm-cm
resistivity
is
completely eliminated. Silicon with thousands
and minority carrier lifetimes of greater than 100 ps can be produced by
this
method.
SOURCE:
p 1028
R L
Petritz Proc.
IRE
(May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
'Crystallisation of silicon
Rev. vol 89, p 1297 (March 1953)
from
a floating liquid zone'
by P
H Keck
and
E Golay Phys

'Growing single crystals without
'Removal of boron from
silicon
a crucible' Z. Naturforsch.
vol
9A
175
p 67 (January 1954)
by hydrogen water vapour treatment'
J.
Metals vol
8,
p 1316 (October
1956)
1954
TRANSISTOR
The
father of the interdigitated transistor
When,
in
1954, he
hit
power handling
the
N H
(Interdigitated)
N H
is
Fletcher, an engineer with Transistor Products Inc.
upon the idea of elongated emitter
capability of devices, not a
Fletcher (USA)
way
was seeking
areas, Fletcher
means
to increase
boost their cut-off frequency levels.
to
His discoveries were applied by other firms to most transistor types over the next decade, but his
company
realised
SOURCE:
'Solid
few benefits from

state fingers
SEE ALSO: 'Some
own
his work.
by
in the die'
aspects of the design of
E Tatum
power
Electronics p
by
transistors'
N H
94 (19 February 1968)

Fletcher Proc.
IRE p 551 (May
1955)
1954
TRANSISTOR RADIO SET

1954 the
In
success,
it
Regency (USA)
transistor radio, the
first
Regency, appeared on the market.
Although not
commercial
introduced the transistor into the consumer market and gave transistor makers the impetus
they needed to develop mass production techniques. That, coupled with an awakening of interest by
the military, increased transistor sales meteorically in the mid-fifties.
SOURCE:
germanium
'Silicon,
Electronic Engineer p 30
1954
&
silver
the
25th anniversary'
transistor's
C P Kocher
by
The
(November 1972)
SOLAR BATTERY
Chapin,
GL
S Fuller and
Pearson (USA)
As an outgrowth of work on
Pearson
in
transistors, Bell Laboratories scientists
1954 invented the silicon solar battery
into electricity.
an
Chapin,
S Fuller and
G L
efficient device for converting sunlight directly
Arrays of these devices are used to power
satellites
and as energy sources for other
uses.
SOURCE:
C Mabon
(Murray
Hill,
NJ:
1955
CRYOTRON
A
D Buck
super-conducting switching element was
however,
The
it
was not
until
rod
wound with
examined by de Haas and Casimir-Jonker
becomes
niobium wire At
the
niobium wire
is
1935;
on the existence of a
critical
magnetic
field
above which
normal conductor. The original cryotron utilized a small tantalum
liquid
helium temperatures the tantalum wire has a
the order of several hundred gauss, whereas that of
when
in
1955 that Buck demonstrated a practical device which he called the cryotron.
basic principle of the cryotron depends
the superconducting metal
first
(USA)
niobium
is
pulsed with a suitable current, the magnetic field that
destroy the superconductivity in the tantalum but not in
critical field
of
of the order of 2000 gauss. Consquently,
itself.
The
it
creates
is
sufficient to
current in the niobium wire can be
smaller than that in the tantalum wire so that a small current can control a larger one, thus producing
a current gain in the device.
SOURCE:
'Solid state devices other than semiconductors' by
B Lax and
Mavroides Proc. IRE
p 1016 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
'The cryotron
p 482 (April 1956)
a superconductive
computer component' by
D Buck
Proc.
IRE
vol 44,
176
1955
INFRA-RED EMISSION FR OM GALLIUM

ARSENIDE SEMICONDUCTORS
Braunstein (USA)
Radiation produced by carrier injection has been observed from GaSb, GaAs, InP and the Ge;Si alloys
at
room temperature and 77
K.
The
maximum
spectral distributions of the radiation are
at
close to the best estimates of the band gaps of these materials; consequently, the evidence
radiation
SOURCE:
1956
due
is
recombination of electron-hole
to the direct
'Radiative transitions in semiconductors' by
Braunstein Phys. Rev. vol 99, p 1892 (1955)
of III V impurities into germanium and silicon by Fuller
germanium and
Reis (USA)
Research on the diffusion
BTL, and by Dunlap
at the
at
GE
The BTL was
foundation for transistor fabrication using diffusion as a key process step.

fully integrate these results into
S Fuller and
device technology was the diffusion process.
in
that the
pairs.
DIFFUSION PROCESS
The next major advance
energies
is
laid the
the
first
to
silicon transistors.
Diffusion techniques have proved to be one of the best controlled methods for preparing p-n junctions.
Because the
common
doping impurities diffuse very slowly
semiconductors
in
at rates
which can be
varied by adjusting temperatures, close control and reproducibility of the impurity distributions can be
Hence, control over the
achieved.
The
to
electrical
form base regions only
ability to
may be
parameters of the resulting devices
a fraction of a
maintained.
micron thick allows very high-frequency transistors
be fabricated.
SOURCE:
R L
Petritz Proc.
IRE
p 1029 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
'Diffusion processes in
Control of composition
germanium and
by
silicon'
C
N B
Reis and
semiconductors by freezing methods edited by
in
S Fuller. Chaper 6 of
Hannay.
(New
York:
Reinhold Pub. Corp.) (1959)
1956
D A McLean
SOLID ELECTROLYTE CAPACITOR

From
the time transistors
began
to
and F S Power (USA)
be produced commercially, the need for a solid electrolytic capacitor
as a coupling capacitor or a bypass capacitor for electronic
equipment has increased. Since McLean
and Power announced the development of the tantalum solid electrolytic capacitor
this capacitor
began
to
appear with great frequency
the solid capacitor gradually
SOURCE:
began
in literature
in
1956, studies of
through the world and applications of
to spread.
'Miniaturised aluminium solid electrolyte capacitors using a highly effective enlargement
technique' by
Hirata and
Yamasaki IEEE Trans, on
Parts,
Hybrids
&
Packaging vol PHP- 12
No
3,
SEE ALSO:
'Tantalum solid electrolyte capacitor' by
D A McLean
and F S Power Proc. IRE vol 44.
p 872 (July 1956)
1956
VALVES VAPOUR COOLING

vapour-cooled tubes were made by Beutheret
The
first
mm
square tapering to 5
was
to stabilise the
known
mm
square over 20
mm
anode temperature and prevent
Beutheret (France)
who used an anode
with teeth approximately 10
protruding from the surface.

a
The
sudden catastrophic increase
in
object of the teeth
anode temperature
as calefraction.
SOURCE:
Electronic Engineer's Reference
Book (London: Newnes-Butterworth) Chapter
7,
pp 7-47
(1976)
SEE ALSO:
1956
'The Vaportron Technique' by
Beutheret Rev. Tech.
'FLOWSOLDERING' OF PRINTED CIRCUITS

In the
Flowsolder dipping
difficulties inherent in the
unit,
Thomson-CSF
vol
24 (1956)
Fry's Metal Foundries Ltd (UK)
developed by Fry's Metal Foundries Ltd which avoids some of the
conventional
flat
dipsoldering of printed circuits, a stationary
wave of molten
A Concise
solder
is
pumping
created by
Date Order-
Ill
upwards through a rectangular nozzle and the pre-fluxed
the metal
panels are passed through the crest of the wave.
developed
in
It is
claimed
which
that this unit,
fluxes, facilitates the soldering of printed circuits, free
from
is
circuit
used with specially
faulty joints or bridging (see
figure 11.24).
Figure 11.24.
systems of wave-soldering.
& A
F C Barnes Electronic
Strauss
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE FUNCTION
J Giacoletto and J O'Connell
CAPACITOR
A semiconductor junction
(USA)
SOURCE:
'Flowsolder Method of Soldering Printed Circuits'
Engineering vol 28,
1956
Two
No
345, pp 494-6
when biased
the junction, leaving
and hence the

rise to a
electrical
in the reverse
When
can be varied by the bias voltage.
away from
(November 1956)
uncompensated
charge of
this
(non-conducting) direction
is
which
a capacitance
biased in this direction the mobile charge carriers are
moved
The width,
fixed charges in a region near the junction.
space-charge layer, depends on the applied voltage, thus giving
junction transition capacitance.
SOURCE:
'History, present status
and future developments of electronic components' by P S Darnell
IRE: Transactions on Component Parts p 128 (September 1958)
SEE ALSO: 'A variable capacitor germanium junction diode

RCA Review vol 17, p 68 (March 1956)
1956
TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE CABLE
for
UHF' by L J
Giacoletto and
O'Connell
(UK/USA)
(TAT-1)
25 September 1956 was an auspicious date for international telecommunications being the day
transatlantic telephone cable
The
history of the Atlantic cables started in 1858 with the laying of the
did not have a very long
life
that the
(TAT-1) entered service.
first
first
but did prove the feasibility of the operation.
telegraph cable which
By 1956
there
were 28
transatlantic telegraph cables.
As
far as a telephone service
was concerned
the
main problem
lay with the fact that repeaters
necessary to amplify the already weak signals on their long journey,
were
in the
was
felt that
the repeaters
using 51 American
the water for
its
made
this
repeaters.
in
Then
first
life
required of them for deep water service.
Scotland under the Atlantic to Clarenville

the line goes overland to Terenceville
journey to Sydney Mines
repeaters, the
impetus development work was brought to the point where
would exhibit the 20 year
Consequently, TAT-1 runs from Oban
made
in
Nova
two of which are buried
in
Scotia.
in
Newfoundland,
where again
to
Canada.
takes to
Newfoundland.
in the transatlantic
while from Clarenville the cable becomes a 60-circuit single cable system,
Newfoundland
it
In the latter run the cable uses 16 British
For the cable's 36 telephone channels two cables are used, one for each direction,
section
were
repeatered telephone links
course of preliminary experiment. In 1946 a repeatered link was laid between the United
Kingdom and mainland Europe. With

it
By 1920
connecting
A Concise
178
In the
main section one telephone channel had been reserved
From Sydney Mines,
link.
the circuit takes a short radio
allow circuits to be directed to Montreal and
Although
New
family of
TAT
cables,
Kingdom-Canada
Spruce Lake where
to
it
is
telegraph
divided to
York.
1956 the 36-channel cable was hailed as an
in
latest in the
as a United
hop
historical
achievement only 20 years
later the
TAT-6, sports over 100 times the capacity while TAT-7 and TAT-8
are already being considered.
SOURCE: "TAT-U
1956
20 years
old'
ITU Telecommunication Journal
MAGNETIC MATERIALYTTRIUM IRON

GARNET
The
vol 43, XII, p
F Bertaut and F Forrat (France)
crystallographic structure of yttrium iron garnet (YIG)
was discovered by Bertaut and Forrat
1956 and very soon afterwards large bulk crystals (several centimetres
grown by
the molten flux technique.
Yttrium iron garnet was found
in
to
one dimension) began
have a saturation magnetisation of 1750 gauss, and, unlike the previously available
materials, to
have a ferrimagnetic resonance linewidth of the order of
SOURCE:
'Epitaxial magnetic garnets'
No
SEE ALSO:
Sci. Paris,
by
Collins and
'Structure of ferrimagnetic ferrites of rare earths' by
vol 242, p
new breed
oersted
at
10
ferrite
GHz.
Smith The Radio and Electronic
F Bertaut and F
Forrat C. R. Acad.
382 (1956)
Telephone Laboratories
the Leprechaun, the
in
be
12 p 707 (December 1975)
TRANSISTORIZED COMPUTER
Bell
A B
to
be cubic, to be essentially an
insulator, to
Engineer vol 45,
1956
734 (1976)
first
in
New
Bell Laboratories
(USA)
York, the place where the transistor was invented in 1947, builds
experimental transistorized computer. The on-off switching transistor fathers
IBM, Philco and General
of more reliable, more economical machines.
Electric quickly
follow suit with 'second generation' computers.
SOURCE:
1982)
1956
RADIO PAGING
Multitone (UK)
Concurrently with the development of two-way radio communication, there has been a remarkable
development of radio-paging equipment and

mid-1950s using
around 70 kHz.
Hospital,
100000 paging
of the
to
first
of these systems was installed by the Multitone
MHz
450
bands.
Development
receivers in use in Britain alone.
is
now
The
in the
Company
at St
Thomas's
very widespread with over 2000 systems and
receivers involved are very small, weighing only
few ounces.
of mobile radio' by
Brinkley The Radio and Electronic Engineer vol 45,
1975)
FULL FREQUENCY-RANGE ELECTROSTATIC

LOUDSPEAKER
Much work was done on
to
paging systems were established
be served and operated on very low frequencies
1956. Later the technique changed to v.h.f. radiating system using frequencies in
in
SOURCE: 'Fifty years

No 10, p 556 (October
1957
first
The
services.
magnetic loop around the building
One
London
the 27, 150 and
electrostatic loudspeakers in the
Walker (UK)
1920s and 30s, but
have made the mistake of assuming the basic principle
to
all
early workers
Inventors sought to
the non-linearity distortion inherent in this square-law relationship by
employing push-pull
arrangements,
plates
in
is
which the diaphragm,
at a
high and constant
DC
voltage,
was placed between
of fixed perforated electrodes across which the audio programme voltage was applied.
was only achieved

in practice
seem
be necessarily that the force between
proportional to the square of the voltage between them.
two capacitor
overcome
if
confined
the vibration amplitude
all
was kept small compared with
a pair
But linearity
the plate spacing, and this
these early electrostatic loudspeakers to high audio frequencies only.
A Concise
F V Hunt of Harvard
Professor
University seems to have been the
The
voltage.
principle
diaphragm had a constant

is
that all parts of the
move about on
to
Walker and
DTN
in a
that gives
Williamson discovered
low
the
if
instead of being held at a constant
it
proportional to the product
is
There
situated.
is
it
diaphragm surface, thus preventing each
the
by making the diaphragm of very thin

charged up
which
field in
179
diaphragm amplitudes,
diaphragm move equally. This does not happen
under the desired constant-charge condition
charge on
then simply that the force on a constant charge
of the charge and the strength of the electric
however,
electric
Date Order
appreciate that the above
first to
non-linearity could theoretically be totally removed, even for very large

electrically conductive
in
part of the
a tacit assumption,
is
in practice,
causing charge
diaphragm from operating
distortion.
that this latter
major cause of distortion could be removed
plastic film, treated to be sufficiently
conductive to allow
to
it
be
reasonable time, but not sufficiently to allow any significant moving about of charge
during a low-frequency audio cycle.
It
frequencies with very low distortion.
damage occurring
then
The
became possible
plastic
to
high signal levels, and led ultimately, after
at
been solved, to the marketing of the
achieve large acoustic outputs
at
bass
diaphragm also greatly reduced the danger of spark
many
other engineering problems had
successful full-frequency-range electrostatic loudspeaker in
first
1957.
Recent improvements by P
Walker have been largely concerned with making the polar radiation
characteristic of the loudspeaker vary less with frequency than in the earlier designs,
and controlled manner. The electrode area

being fed to the outer sections via a delay
line.
and
in a
smooth
divided into a number of annular sections, the signals
is
The wavefront
radiated
located behind the loudspeaker, but since the actual radiating area
is
is
then as
if
from
quite large, high
a point source
volume
levels
can be produced.
SOURCE: Communication
SEE ALSO: Walker P
from P
Baxandall, Malvern (22 July 1982)
'Wide Range Electrostatic Loudspeakers' Wireless World (May, June, August
1955)
Walker P
Walker P
No
'New Developments
and Williamson
in Electrostatic
DTN
Loudspeakers'
'Improvements Relating
J.
Audio Eng. Soc. (November 1980)
to Electrostatic
Loudspeakers' British Patent
815, 978. (Application dated 20 July 1954. Complete filed 19 October 1955. Complete published
8 July 1959)
Hunt F
1957
Elect roacoustics Chapter 6 (Cambridge,
MA:
Harvard University Press/John Wiley) (1954)
PLUMBICON TV CAMERA TUBE

Philips introduce the
Vidicon.
BBC
which soon becomes universal
SOURCE: The
TV
Plumbicon
In Britain the
bases
Philips (Holland)
camera tube,
all
its
colour
in
a greatly
improved version of
plans for the development of colour
TV
its
TV
predecessor, the
on the new tube,
design.
1982)
1957
PLATED- WIRE MEMORIES

The plated-wire memory uses
digital information.
The
UF
Gianole (USA)
the principle of the direction of magnetization in a material to store
original concept of the wire
memory was
invented
in
1957 by
U F
Gianole
of Bell Laboratories. Plated-wire memories require no standby power, are non-volatile, inexpensive to
manufacture and will work
SOURCE:
in a high electrical noise
environment.
C Mabon
(Murray
Hill,
NJ:
Bell Laboratories) p 179 (1975)
1957
RESISTORS (Nickel-Chromium Thin

It
is
well
Ashworth
known
that
nichrome
is
Film)
the material
R H
most used today
Alderton and
F Ashworth (UK)
in thin-film resistors.
Alderton and
stressed the importance of the following parameters: the source temperature, the degree of
180
vacuum maintaining
the vapour phase
350C and
than
in the
They
system, and the temperature of the receiving surface during deposition from
state that stable films
vacuum
the
in the
can only be made
system better than 10~ 4
surface resistivity that produced stable films
the substrate temperature
if
They
torr.
was 300S3/Q These
also stated that the
results are
still
is
greater
maximum
used today as a guide
production of nichrome films. Alderton and Ashworth measured the reistivity as a function of
in the
thickness and obtained a temperature coefficient of resistance from 100-200ppm/"C.
SOURCE:
'Resistive thin films and thin film resistors
Electronic
Components p 748 (September 1964)
SEE ALSO: 'Vacuum

Brit. J.
1957
history, science
deposited films of a nickel-chromium alloy' by
Applied Physics vol
SPUTNIK
8,
R H
Bennett
Alderton and F Ashworth
p 205 (1957)
(USSR)
1 Satellite
Launched 4 October 1957.
First artificial
Study of ionosphere, radio wave propagation.
satellite.
Decayed on 4 January, 1958.
Batteries. Transmitted for 21 days.
SOURCE:
and technology' by
Table of Artificial Satellites Launched Between 1957 and 1976 (Geneva:
International
Telecommunication Union) (1977)

1957
SPUTNIK
Launched
(USSR)
2 Satellite
November
1957. Study of ultraviolet rays and X-rays from the sun. Study of cosmic rays.
Medico-biological study of the dog Laika. Transmitted for seven days. Decayed on 14 April 1958.
SOURCE:
International
1957
TRANSISTORS
Another important technological advance

by
(Oxide Masking Process)

in this period
was
the
J Frosch (USA)
development of oxide masking
for silicon
Frosch of BTL. He observed that a thermally grown oxide on silicon impeded the diffusion of
certain impurities, including boron
and phosphorus. This technique, coupled with photograshic masking
against etching, provides a powerful tool for silicon processing.
SOURCE:
p 1030
SEE ALSO:
L Derick
1958
first
'Surface protection and selective masking during diffusion in silicon' by
Field Effect
commercial
employed by CFTH,
was
Petritz Proc.
IRE
Frosch and
Electrochem. Soc. vol 104, p 547 (September 1957)
J.
TECHNETRON
The
R L
(May 1962)
germanium
volts, a gate
(FET)
FET was
S Teszner (France)
produced
a General Electric
alloy semiconductor.
in
France
Company
It
had
1958, by Stanislas Teszner. a Polish scientist
in
Called the Technetron, Teszner's device
affiliate.
transonductance of 80 micro-ohms, a pinchoff of 35
leakage current of 4 microamps, and a low gate capacitance of 0.9 picofarads. The low
trans-conductance and high leakage severely limited

closer to the operating levels of
some
tubes, and
its
its
applications. But the high pinchoff voltage
was
be operated
at a
gate capacitance permitted
it
to
few megahertz.
SOURCE:
'Solid state
an
old-timer
comes of
age' by
Cohen Electronics p 123 (19 February
1968)
1958
W C Dash (USA)
PEDESTAL PULLING OF SILICON

The
'pedestal'
method was devised
to avoid
oxygen contamination and
high perfection attainable with the Czochralski technique.

heated
mound
The support
is
In this
at
the
same time achieve
method the melt
is
the
an inductively
held on top of a solid silicon support by surface tension and electromagnetic levitation.
sectored to inhibit electromagnetic coupling to the pedestal.
seed
is
inserted and the
A Concise
growing
crystal
is
withdrawn
SOURCE: 'Growth of silicon

No 4, p459 (April 1959)
WC
SEE ALSO:
1958
Dash
which may vary from
at a rate
per minute during the major part of
its
cm
per minute
the start to 3 or 4
at
from dislocations' by
crystals free
Dash.
Appl.
J.
Phys.
vol 30,
L
sequence came the tunnel diode,
form
to
first
Esaki (Japan)
now (USA)
Again with
described by Esaki in 1958.
between two such highly-doped
a p-n junction
regions that, in equilibrium, the continuity of the Fermi level across the junction would result
energy barrier to the flow of carriers

at
mm
Appl. Phys. vol 29, p 736 (1958)
J.
hindsight, what a beautifully simple idea
impedance
growth.
TUNNEL DIODE
First in chronological
Date Order
in
low forward
in
The device
the 'forward' direction.
bias, progresses
in
an
thus presents a high
through a region of negative impedance and then into a
normal 'forward' region of positive resistance.
fairly
SOURCE:
'Semiconductor devices
SEE ALSO: 'New phenomenon
in
by
portrait of a technological explosion'
Radio and Electronic Engineer vol 45,
No
10,
Mackintosh The
narrow germanium p-n Junctions' by
Esaki Phys. Rev. vol 109,
p 603 (1958)
1958
FIELD-EFFECT VARISTOR
This device, closely related
makes
it
in principle to the field-effect transistor,
ideally suited for a current regulator in circuits
over wide
high,
Bell Laboratories
limits.
making
It
can also be used as a current limiter or pulse shaper.
principles developed by Shockley,
SOURCE:
1958
'History, present status and future
first
based on the
is
very
field effect
development of electronic components' by P S Darnell
'A Field Effect Varistor' Bell Labs. Record vol 36, p 150 (April 1958)
VIDEO TAPE RECORDER

The
impedance
Its a.c.
is
Dacey and Ross.
IRE Transactions on Components Parts
SEE ALSO:
has a constant-current feature which
where either the load or supply voltage varies
useful as a coupling choke or as an ac switch. This device
it
(USA)
Ampex (USA)
Ampex, was
battery of 'video' tape recorders, a system called
television studios early in 1958. This system used tape
moving
at
American
installed in the largest
a speed of
200 inches per second but
only half an inch wide; the recording being done on three tracks, two for storing the video signals and
one for sound.
special
machine
for the cutting
and editing of the tape had
edited visually like cine film. Today, the majority of television
before transmission,
in
black-and-white as well as
also easily be transferred on to videotape.

difference; the quality
An
is
live, film
is
can
programme
for
homes and
with 'cassettes', which are inserted into a special
Ampex
tape, the other 8
sound and vision, electronically recorded. The
third
mm
film with
system a British-German
venture, works with a fast-rotating (1500 rpm) disc and a pickup, providing a
SOURCE: A
could be
or video, the viewer cannot detect the
the 'canned' television
Two work
replay unit plugged into the television set; one system uses
programme of up
it
on videotape
in colour; cine-film material shot for television
Whether
important development of video recording
parallel tracks for
devised as
are recorded
equally high.
schools, There are three rival systems.
two
to be
programmes
monochrome
or colour
to 12 minutes.
History of Inventions by
Larsen (London:
Dent
&
Sons/New York: Roy
Publishers)
p 330 (1971)
1958
EXPLORER
Launched
(USA)
Satellite
February 1958. Measurement of cosmic radiation and micrometeorites. Discovery of the
than Allen radiation
belt.
Batteries. Transmitted
up
to
23
May
1958.
Decayed on
31
March 1970.
182
SOURCE:
International

1958
VANGUARD-1
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 7 March 1958.
atmosphere. Batteries and solar
SOURCE:
Year Programme.
Part of the International Geophysical
Studied the earth and measured the
discovery of the 'pear-shaped' earth.

cells.
Transmitted
until 12
'far out'
Permitted the
density of the
February 1965.
International

1958
AUTOMATIC CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY
US Army
Signal Corps (USA)
('Micro-Module' System)
By 1957 the goal for packaging had shifted from automation to miniaturisation. Working with the
Army Signal Corps, RCA suggested an approach that was similar to Tinkertoy's but with smaller
wafers. Using wafers 310 mils square, spaced 10 mils apart,
RCA
encapsulated the assembled module
with an epoxy resin to increase mechanical strength and provide environmental protection.
With
RCA
as the
prime contractor for an $18-million contract, the Signal Corps promoted micromodule
as a standard package.
Danko and Weldon Lane,
Signal Corps team headed by Daniel Elders, Stan
established a continuing development
programme
4-3 Mc IE AMPLIFIER
for the
micromodule (see
figure
1.25).
CIRCUIT.
NEUTRALISING
INPUT O-
NEUTS/kLISING
OUTPUT
O OUTPUT
teOpFfJ
(HIGH)
INPUT
(HIGH)
OUTPUT
(LOW)
H"
INPUT
(LOW)
F AMPLIFIER
MICROMODULE
f=
0-36
- 3-75 v
(O-36'M
AUDIO AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

'8-2K
-oVc
INPUT O
1|
>
-O OUTPUT
3?
2-2/-F
I-8K
:39K
b+l-25v
AUDIO AMPLIFIER MICROMODULE
0-3G
Figure 11.25. Typical micromodule
The micromodule approach combined high packaging

It
was
the
first
attempt
at
circuit assemblies.
density,
machine assembly and modular design.
functional modular replacement, where the entire
module was
treated as a
A
single component.
shaped
The programme
chance of achieving sufficient volume for a competitive
SOURCE:
packaging and
SEE ALSO:
materials' by
R L Goldberg
Satellite
Launched
October 1958.
11
RCA
DA-36-039-SC-76968
Signal Corps. Contract
PIONEER- 1
1960s, the IC deflated
its
Camden, NJ
(USA)
Moon
probe. Failed to reach the
Decayed on 12 October 1958 coming back
SOURCE:
in the early
price.
November 1972)
p 126/7 (23
1958
183
established a compact universal packaging system using standard-
But just as micromodule was gaining popularity
parts.
Date Order
in
to earth
moon. Sent data
and burning
in the
43 hours. Batteries.
for
atmosphere.
International

1958
SCORE
(USA)
Satellite
Launched
December
18
communication
SOURCE:
satellite.
1958.
Signal
Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment.
First
Transmitted taped messages for 13 days. Decayed on 21 January, 1959.
International

1958
MOSSBAUER EFFECT
The Mossbauer
bound
effect
in
the
Mossbauer (Germany)
phenomenon of recoiless resonance fluorescence of gamma
The extreme sharpness of
in solids.
accuracy
is
RL
gamma
the recoiless
made
observing small energy differences
the
transitions
Mossbauer
and the
rays from nuclei
and
relative ease
effect an important tool in nuclear
physics, solid state physics etc.
SOURCE:
1958
LASER
The Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd edn) edited by
&
Reinhold
Besancon (New York: Van Nostrand,
Litton Educational Pub. Inc.)
AL
(Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
Schalow and
C H Townes (USA)
of Radiation)
Because of the great
interest
aroused by masers
it
was not
1957
until
was
that further serious attention
given to the idea of producing an optical version of the maser.

In their classic article of
1958 on the principles of laser action Schalow and Townes suggested potassium
vapour as a possible medium and much
effort
was devoted
were rather puzzling, especially as other works
this failure
to
Another medium under consideration was ruby (Cr 3+
predicted.
it
the surprise and general jubilation, therefore,

laser action in 1960.
announcing
his
Maiman's own
first
found caesium vapour
in
Bell Telephone Laboratories concluded that the existing material
of success and the experts of the time expected that the
The reasons
but with no success.
later
ALO3) although an
was much too poor
laser
was
would be based on a
short-lived as the manuscript
for
behave as
internal report at
to give
when Maiman, who had persevered with
jubilation
to
any hope
gas. Great
was
ruby, achieved
which he prepared
remarkable result was rejected by Physical Review Letters and an historic scoop of
journalism was achieved by the journals Nature and British Communications and Electronics
scientific
which carried the
Some months
few years
first
later the
announcement
in the established scientific literature.
helium/neon laser was successfully operated and there followed over the next
tremendous explosion of publications on
laser transitions in
hundreds of different materials
and on the properties of laser devices.
SOURCE:
No 10,
45,
'Lasers and optical electronics' by
A Gambling
The Radio and Electronic Engineer vol
SEE ALSO:
infrared and optical masers' by
p 1940 (15 December 1958)
A L
Schalow and
C H Townes
Phys.
Rev.
vol
112,
A Concise
84
infrared and optical masers'
Quantum
Electronics edited by
C H Townes (New
Columbia
York:

'Stimulated optical production in ruby' by
1958
T H Maiman
Nature vol 187, p 493 (6 August 1960)
PACEMAKER
The
A
was invented
cardiac pacemaker
1958 by Doctor Ake Senning of Sweden. The
in
The pacemaker
took place in the early 1960s.
Senning (Sweden)
is
implants
first
capable of stimulating other organs as well as the
heart.
In
October 1986 a baby was born
It
was given
a cardiac
SOURCE: The Book
NOTE: The
first
was only
three days old. This
&
Macdonald
version, the
of the
IN
was by Chandack, Gage and Greatbach
Meanwhile
COLOUR
1960.
in
1958, two years
Ampex (USA)
name
VR
Ampex.
1000 B.
It
It
was presented
was followed
1963 by a transistor
in
10.
the Japanese had been steadily
in
1958 Toshiba announced the
in
19S9
in
1962 Shiba Electric (now Hitachi),
JVC
in
Modern World' Science Museum/John Murray (1992)
video recorder, under the
VR
heart.
operation to be
first
Co.) p 96 (1990)
colour video recorder must also be credited to
first
after the first
was the
child.
self-contained pacemaker
VIDEO RECORDER
The
it
Press,
SOURCE: 'Making
1958
Manchester suffering from a congenital malformation of the
young
carried out in Europe on such a
(UK: Queen Anne
in
pacemaker when
developed the
first
first
working on video recorder technology:
singlehead video recorder;
two-head video recorder, the KVI;

in
cooperation with Asahi Broadcasting, presented a professional
transistorised video recorder;

in
1964 Sony marketed the
in
1965 Shiba Electric marketed a small portable video recorder;
in
Europe Philips launched
SOURCE: The Book
1959
first
their
video recorder for the general public;
VR
650
in 1964.
&
(UK: Queen Anne
Press,
INTRINSIC
PHOTOCONDUCTORS
Telluride
10/z
Macdonald
Co.) p 240 (1990)
W D Lawson, S Nielsen, E H
(Cadmium
and Mercury Telluride)
The elements mercury, cadmium and
Putley,
S Young (UK)
compounds CdTe
tellurium have been purified and crystals of the
and HgTe, and of the mixed compounds CdTeHgTe have been prepared. X-ray and cooling-curve data
have established
that coefficient
and conductivity measurements show
that
HgTe
is
(~
100).
HgTe
with a very low activation energy (0.01 eV) and a high mobility ratio
infrared radiation out to a wavelength of 38/x, but the
in position
with composition from 0.8/u
in
pure
CdTe
mixed
crystals
SOURCE:
Nielsen,
1959
'Preparation and properties of
E H
Putley and
S Young
J.
HgTe and mixed
circuitry
interconnections are
all
is
opaque
is
to
made from
crystals of
the
mixed
90 per cent HgTe.

crystals.
HgTe-CdTe' by
Lawson, S
Phys. Chem. Solids, vol 9, p 325 (1959)
THIN FILM CIRCUITSTANTALUM

Tantalum film
semiconductor
show absorption edges which vary
to 13/x in crystals containing
Photoconductivity has been observed in filamentary detectors
Bell Laboratories
(USA)
a single material technology in that capacitors, resistors and elementary
derived from tantalum. Use of tantalum for this purpose
is
based on
its
chemical
A Concise
and
structural stability,
to protect
and adjust
and on
capability of being anodized to
its
and
dielectrics for capacitors,
In addition to the general value of tantalum film circuitry, tantalum film
resistors.
and resistance networks, especially when sputtered
resistors
form
185
in nitrogen,
have independent
interest as
exceptional circuit elements.
SOURCE:
IEEE
'Developments
SEE ALSO:
vol 3, part 6,
1959
D A McLean N
tantalum nitride resistors' by
in
Schwartz and E
Tidd
March 1964)
International Convention (26
'Microcircuity with Refractory Metals' by
D A McLean IRE
Wescon Convention Record
pp 87-91 (1959)
MICROELECTRONICS (INTEGRATED
J S Kilby (USA)
CIRCUIT-PATENT)
it
is,
therefore, a principal object of this invention to provide a novel miniaturised electronic circuit
body of semiconductor material containing
fabricated from a
components of the electronic
SOURCE: US
SEE ALSO: US
1959
No
Patent
Patent
LUNIK-1 (Mechta)
3 138
No
743
filed
6 February 1959
261 081 patented 19 July 1966
SOURCE:
wherein
all
S Kilby)
(J
S Kilby and Texas Instruments).
(USSR)
In solar orbit.
Moon
studying circumterrestrial and circumlunar space.
moon. Emission of
(J
Satellite
Launched 2 January 1959.
a diffused p-n junction
completely integrated into the body of semiconductor material.'
circuit are
sodium vapour cloud.
probe passed within 600
No
magnetic
field
km
detected
of moon. Equipment for
when
passing close to the
Batteries.
Table of Artificial Satellites Launched Between
1957 and 1976 (Geneva:
International

1959
DISCOVERER- 1
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 28 February 1959.
mission not fully accomplished.
Stabilization defective:
Decayed
early
March 1959.
SOURCE:
International

1959
PLANAR PROCESS
At Fairchild, Dr Jean
mesa
transistors.
A Hoemi (USA)
Hoerni, a physicist, was trying to develop a family of double-diffused silicon
But instead of mounting the base layer on top of the collector, the traditional mesa
approach, Hoerni diffused
it
down
into the collector
and protected the base-collector junction on the
top surface with a layer of boron-and-phosphorous diffused silicon oxide. This
was
less brittle than the
mesa and
far
more
reliable
first
planar transistor
dust or other foreign matter could not contaminate
the protected p-n junction. In 1959 Fairchild started marketing planar transistors and shortly thereafter
applied the planar technique to the
SOURCE:
'Silicon,
germanium
&
new
integrated circuits.
silver
the transistor's 25 anniversary' by
C P Kocher
The Electrical
Engineer p 30 (November 1972)

1960
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
Military (USA)
Computer-aided design (CAD) began
in the
1960s
in the
context of
US
military aeronautics design
programs.
The term
refers to a set of techniques that can
be used
designed, to manipulate that data in a conversational
to create data that describe an object to be
mode and
to arrive at a finished
form of the
design.
After
It
its
adoption by military,
CAD
penetrated civil aeronautics and the auto and computing industries.
enables an object (for example, a car) to be drawn in three dimensions and to be examined
in a
A Concise
86
number of
great
in
Date Order
even before the building has begun. Today
theoretical circumstances,
CAD
plays an
essential role in almost all fields of industry.
SOURCE:
(New
1960
Inventions
HD
NEURISTOR
may be
neuristor
The
Mark Young
is
visualised as a channel having energy available to
it
everywhere along
its
length.
channel includes certain triggerable (active) processes arranged so that when any section
line or
of line
Crane (USA)
triggered the locally available energy
neighbouring sections of line are activated.

to as a discharge, since
converted into 'trigger form'. Thus, successive
is itself
signal propagating in this
manner
is
generally referred
continually regenerated by discharging available energy into the line as
it is
it
propagates.
SOURCE:
'Neuristor
H D
by
a novel design and system concept'
Crane Proc. IRE vol 50, p 2048
(October 1962)
SEE ALSO:
AD240306
'Neuristor studies' by
H D
Crane Stanford Electronics Lab.
Rept.
Tech.
No
1056-2
(11 July 1960)
'An integrable
MOS
neuristor line' by
Kulkarni-Kohli and
Newcombe
Proc.
IEEE p 1630
(November 1976)
1960
FEMITRON
Microwave devices incorporating
The term
and Dyke.
field-emission cathodes have been described by Charbonnier et al,
'femitron' was, in fact,
in particular
it,
used by Dyke to describe a microwave amplifier
first
resembling a 2-cavity klystron but incorporating a

femitron and derivatives of
W P Dyke (USA)
Microwave Amplifier)
(Field Emission
emission cathode in the input-cavity gap. The
field
frequency-multiplying devices, have also been investigated
by Fontana and Shaw.
SOURCE:
'Field emission
Electron Devices vol
SEE ALSO:
J
No
microwave
p
5,
a reappraisal' by
amplifier:
5 1 (September
Sangster IEE Solid-State
'Basic and applied studies of field emission at microwave frequencies' by
P Barbour, L E
'Field emission, a
Garrett and
newly
W P Dyke Proc.
IEEE
practical electron source'
'Microwave devices with
field
&
977)
vol 51,
by
emission cathodes' by
P Dyke IRE
M Charbonnier,
pp 991-1004 (1963)
Trans, vol 4, pp 38, 45 (1960)
Fontana and
Shaw
Trans. Amer.
Inst.
Engrs. vol 81, pp 43-8 (1962)
"The carbon
1960
fibre field emitter'
by F S Baker
et al J.
Appl.Phys. vol
SUB-MILLIMETRE PHOTOCONDUCTIVE
DETECTOR
E H
Photoconductivity has been observed using a cryostat
fitted
and harmonic generator operating
room temperature and
The sample dimensions were
cm x
.0
cm
faces.
at
mm
and 4
a black polythene
0.5
cm x
The magnetic
0.5
cm x
field
with a light pipe so that a specimen 2 could
and 4.0
0.1
mercury lamp and grating spectrometer covering the range
0.5
Putley (UK)
(n-Type InSb)
be illuminated with radiation of wavelength between
filter at
pp 2105-15 (1974)
7,
0.1 to
mm. The
filter in
1.0
cm
was applied
mm. The sources of radiation were a

.4 mm. and a Philips DX151 klystron
light-pipe
the helium to
was
fitted
with a black paper
remove short-wave
and indium electrodes were applied

at right
radiation.
to opposite
angles to the direction of current flow
and of the incident radiation. The radiation was directed along the long direction of the sample. For
the majority of these experiments the radiation
amplifier and phase sensitive detector.

n-lype indium antimonide.
was modulated
at
800
c/s
and detected using
a tuned
When
was reduced
the temperature
at
below
to
was about 10-30S2.
the sample resistance
minimum
1.5
mm
SOURCE:
and lO"
at
Date Order
187
and a magnetic induction of 6-8000 gauss applied,
The sample was
able to detect the applied radiation the
x 10~ 10
detectable energy per unit bandwidth being approximately 5

10
in
0.5
at
mm,
5 x
10"
4 mm.
impurity photoconductivity
in n-type InSb' Proc.
Phys.
No
vol 76, part 5,
Soc.
491
(1

1960
COMPUTERS (CD
CDC
The
1604
general-purpose data-processing system manufactured by the Control-Data
is
The
Corporation.
Control-Data Corporation (USA)
1604)
first installation
was made
The
diodes and 25 000 transistors.
in
January 1960. The entire system includes some 100000
number system
internal
There are 62 24-bit one-address instructions (2 per word) each including a
bits.
and 15
a three-bit index
bits for the address.
Arithmetic
are provided.
is
Indirect addressing
Addition requires 4.8 to 9.6
32768 words of magnetic-core
including storage access.
six-bit operation code,
and
six index registers
in the parallel
synchronous mode
built-in
is
performed with fixed or floating point
concurrently with other operations.
word length of 48
the binary, with a
is
multiplication 25.2 to 63.6 /xs
(is,
storage are provided. Input-output equipment
includes paper-tape typewriter, punched cards, magnetic tape (up to 24 units) and a
667-1000
lines-
per-minute printer.
SOURCE.
Dyne
1960
IRE p 1054 (May 1962)
Proc.
PRINTED WIRING MULTILAYER BOARDS
Photocircuits Corp.
Miniaturised replacement for back-panel wiring in computers
sandwiches produced
are being
in
made by
many
new development
complicated interconnections
among
levels in a multilayered circuit are
will
Sea Cliff Ave., Glen Cove,
31
have uses
closely spaced
New
York.
The
having multiple crossovers and
in circuits
component
made through use of
Connections between different
leads.
Tuf-Plate plated-through-holes.
sandwich measures only 0.026 inch
layered printed circuit
may be accomplished by printed circuit

and pressure. The components
layers and laminated together under heat
Photocircuits Corporation,
manufacturer believes the
(USA)
typical six-
in thickness compared with a thickness of
0.062 inch for a conventional single circuit board.
SOURCE: 'On
1960
the market
PC sandwich six-layered
COMPUTERS (HONEYWELL
The Honeywell 800
is
p 90 (8 April 1960)
unit' Electronics
Honeywell (USA)
800)
a general purpose data-processing system capable of running as
programmes simultaneously without
special instructions.
The
installation
first
many
was made
as 8 distinct
in
December
1960.
The system includes 30000 diodes and 6000

number
digits.
are
structure
These 48
59 basic
is
excluding peripheral equipment. The internal
transistors,
binary and binarycoded decimal with a word length of 48
bits are assignable to
bits,
or 12 decimal
numerical, alphanumerical or pure binary information.
instructions, each consisting of a twelve-bit operation core
There
and 3 twelve-bit addresses.
Eight index registers are available for each of the 8 programmes which can be run concurrently. Other
special-purpose registers are available. Arithmetic
mode, concurrently with other operations.

storage access.
Up
to
is
performed
in a
Addition requires 24
32000 words of magnetic-core
synchronous parallel-serial-parallel
/xs,
multiplication 162 ps including
storage can be used.
includes punched cards, paper tape and a 900 lines-per-minute printer.
Up
to
Input-output equipment
64 magnetic tape
units
can be connected to the system.
SOURCE:
Dyne
Proc.
IRE p 1054 (May 1962)
188
1960
CIRCUITRY
Various (USA)
(Linear Integrated Circuits)
came
Linear ICs
own
into their
op amps,
Starting with
in the 1960s.
grew
steadily
two manufacturers
Texas
linear monolithics
complexity and functions.
in
Monolithic op amps were
the result of the
acceptance
first
more
introduced in the early
first
Instruments and Westinghouse
were
selling models.
an industry accustomed
its
development led
Talbert.
came out with
but use resistors and capacitors
and diodes, even matched transistors and diodes
particularly those of large value
limited
stories in
Rather than translate a discrete
sorts.
design into a monolithic form, the standard approach, Widlar played the linear microcircuit
different set of rules: use transistors
the 702,
The 702 found
one of the biggest success
to the 709,
them. The 709 was a revolution of
to
least
Fairchild, in 1964,
Bob Widlar and Dave
collaboration between
significantly,
At
1960s.
Then
only where necessary.
use of a big resistor seemed inevitable, Widlar put a dc-biased transistor in
its
place.
game by
with impunity,
He
Even where
exploited the
monolith's natural ability to produce matched resistors and only assumed loose absolute values.
SOURCE:
1960
E A
integrated circuits' by
Torrero Electronic Design vol 24, p 77 (23
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

known
has been
It
some time
for
that rectifying contacts to
through them (Wolff el al 1955). Experiments
at this
November 1972)
W Allen and P E Gibbons (UK)
GaP
emit light when current
is
passed
laboratory and elsewhere suggest that the electronic
transitions involved in this electroluminescence are different for the
two directions of current
flow.
We
consider alloyed or point-contact junctions on n-type GaP. Then the light emitted with forward bias has
a
spectrum which
is
a comparatively
present in the GaP. If the junction

certain voltage
which has
is
a very
is
Beyond
reached.
narrow band, the position of the band depending on the impurities

biased in the reverse direction the current flowing
broad spectrum extending from the infra-red
(Loebner and Poor 1959).
would seem
It
and orange
this voltage the current increases rapidly
down
to the absorption
that electroluminescence in the
is
small until a
light is emitted
edge or beyond
forward direction
is
radiative recombination of injected carriers via impurity levels, while that in the reverse direction
by
to emission
'hot' carriers
SOURCE: 'Breakdown
and
produced by an avalanche break down (Chynoweth and
light
Journal of Electronics vol VII,
1960
COMPUTERS
The
UNIVAC
Solid State 80/90
a central processor, a
SOURCE:
1960
in
gallium phosphide diodes' by
Launched
to
due
1956).
W Allen and P E Gibbons
Sperry Corporation (USA)
was designed
as a
medium-sized dataprocessing system.
The term
use of 'Ferractor' magnetic amplifiers and transistors. The system consists of
read-punch
450 card-per-minute card reader and
unit, a
installation
was made
in
for either the
600 lines-per-minute
80-column or the 90-column punched-card
January 1960.
Proc.
TIROS-1
first
is
p 518 (December 1959)
The card equipment can be obtained
system. The
Dyne
6,
(UNI VAC Solid State 80/90)
'solid-state' refers to the
printer.
emission
No
McKay
due
IRE p 1053 (May 1962)
(USA)
Satellite
April 1960.
First
meteorological
satellite.
Sent
22952 photos up
to 17
June 1960. 9000
solar cells. Batteries.
SOURCE:
Table of
Artificial
Satellites
Launched Between 1957 and 1976 (Geneva:
International

1960
ECHO-1
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 12 August 1960. Passive telecommunication

70
solar cells
SOURCE:
and
satellite.
Relayed voice and television signals.
batteries.
International

1960
COURIER-IB
189
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 4 October 1960.
First active repeater
communication
satellite.
Operated for 17 days. 19 152
solar cells. Batteries.
SOURCE:
International

1960
TRANSIT-IB
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 13 April 1960.

Batteries.
Decayed on
SOURCE:
First navigation
Transmitted
satellite.
12 July
until
1960.
Solar cells.
5 October 1967.
International

1960
EPITAXIAL CRYSTAL
GROWTH
HH
H Christensen, J J
& H C Theurer (USA)
Loor,
Kleimock
Until 1960 the semiconductor industry followed a pattern of starting with a crystal as pure as needed in
the initial stage, and each step
added impurities
new method of
Laboratories announced a
from the gas phase with controlled impurity

laboratories, but
was not
it
semiconductor industry.
until the
Its
in a controlled
manner. In June 1960, the Bell Telephone
fabricating transistors using epitaxial single crystals
This technique had been studied
levels.
1960 announcement
unique advantage
that the potential
grow very
the ability to
is
was
fully
at a
grown
number of
grasped by the
thin regions of controlled
purity.
SOURCE:
R L
Petritx Proc.
IRE
p 1030 (May 1962)
SEE ALSO: 'New
advances
Theurer. Presented
at the
'Epitaxy
approach
a fresh
by
in diffused devices'
IRE/AIEE
semiconductor
to
H H
Loor,
Christensen,
J J
Kleimock and H
Solid State Device Research Corp. Pittsburgh,
PA
(June 1960)
Motorola S/C Products
circuit design' Materials Dept.
Division International Electronics p 24 (March 1964)
1960
TELEPHONE ELECTRONIC SWITCHING SYSTEM
Bell
Labs (USA)
Historically, electronic switching systems for telephone
communications began
pioneering development undertaken there. The world's
first
place in Morris,
(No 101 ESS
111
(1960), and the
first
equipment
is
now found
is
in the
proceeding rapidly
80 percent of the world's switching

'ESS: 'Minimonster' by
One
many
countries, the bulk of
of the most significant developments
PBX
Suppl,
No
flexibility,
and here the
US
made
possible
accounts for over
entities.
A E
Joel Jnr.
IEEE Spectrum
'Morris electronic telephone exchange' by
IEEE 107
'Electronic
in
US. More than 82 percent of the world's telephone
by electronic switching has been stored program control
SEE ALSO:
their
switched electronically, as well as more than 48 percent of the world's electronic central
office systems, are located in the United States.
Proc.
and saw
production system was placed in service in the United States
While the development of electronic switching
SOURCE:
US
in 1963).
installed electronic
lines that are
in the
electronic switching field experiment took
20, p 257
p 33 (August 1976)
Keister,
Ketchledee and
C A
Lovell
(November 1960)
telephone switching systems (ESS 101)' by
A Depp
and
M A
Townsend IEEE
Trans. Communications, vol 83, p 329 (July 1964)
1960-
CIRCUITRY
Various (USA)
(Logic Circuits)
1964
Much
of the early activity was involved with digital logic families. Almost from the beginning, a host
of semiconductor manufacturers were attempting to establish the dominance of one logic family over
the other or
were second-sourcing the strong
suit
of a competitor.
A Concise
90
At the
start resistor-transistor logic
were strongly promoting

formed Signetics, and
took
it
High Level Logic (SUHL)
(RTL) seemed
Then
it.
in
way
to be the
diode-transistor logic
go Fairchild and Texas Instruments

1962 from the recently
in
(TTL) emerged
Transistor-transistor logic
off.
to
(DTL) appeared
1963 and again, more permanently,
in
Sylvania's Universal
in
Texas Instruments' 5400
series in
1964.
SOURCE:
1961
integrated Circuits' by
Torrero Electronic Design vol 24, p 76 (23
TAPE CASSETTE
It
was
in
1961 that the Dutch
was unveiled
in Berlin,
of charge so as
SOURCE:
(New
to
November 1972)
Philips (Holland)
company
long and designed for stereo and
1961
E A
mono
Germany
Philips developed the
first
mini tape cassette, which was 3.9 in
recordings. This cassette, along with the
in 1963. Philips
first
cassette recorder,
decided to allow manufactures to use
its
patent free
encourage the spread of the system throughout the world.
Inventions
Mark Young
York: Facts on File) p 138.
B K
TRANSFERRED ELECTRON EFFECT

The
possibility of obtaining negative resistance effects in a
The
principle of the
is to
when they have
they transfer
SOURCE:
method
Ridley and
new way
in
T B Watkins (UK)
semiconductors
is
discussed.
heat carriers in a high mobility sub-band with an electric field so that
a high
enough 'temperature'
'The possibility of negative resistance effects
to a higher
in
energy low mobility sub-band.
semiconductors' by
B K
Ridley and
T B
Watkins Proc. Physical Soc. vol LXXVIII, p 293 (1961)
SEE ALSO: H Kromer

1961
Phys. Rev. vol 109, p 1856 (1958)
TRANSFERRED ELECTRONIC DEVICE

some semiconductors
In
the conduction
band system has two minima separated by only
and the lower minimum has associated with

At high
electric fields
it
C Hilsum (UK)
it
a smaller electron effective
a small energy,
mass than the upper minimum.
should be possible to transfer electrons to the upper
minimum where
they will
have a power mobility. The conductivity of a homogeneous crystal bar can therefore decrease as the
field is
increased and
it
is
semi-insulating GaAs.
SOURCE:
It
The
conceivable that a differential negative resistance could be obtained.
conditions needed for obtaining negative resistance are examined, and calculations
made
for
GaSb and
appears that negative resistances should be observable in both these materials.
'Transferred electron amplifiers and oscillators' by
C Hilsum
IRE
Proc.
vol 50,
No
2,
p 185
(February 1962)
SEE ALSO:
'Proposed negative mass microwave amplifier' by
H Kromer
Phys. Rev. vol 109, p 1856
(March 1958)
indium phosphide:
State
&
semiconductor for microwave devices' by
Electronic Devices vol
'Three-level oscillator: a
Lett,
1961
vol 6, p
1,
No
new form
1,
of transferred-electron device' by
Rees and
Hilsum and
some
The
Gray IEE Solid
H D Rees
Electron.
GaAs and Ge from
the
resulting technology has been found to posess advantages over vapour-phase epitaxy in
applications
film interface.
Nelson (USA)
apparatus and procedures have been developed for the epitaxial growth of
liquid state.
277 (1960)
LIQUID PHASE EPITAXY

An
H D
(September 1976)
demanding highly doped
In this connection,
impurities and mechanical
it
is
epitaxial films
and high-quality p-n junctions
at the substrate-
an important feature of the liquid phase process that chemical
damage of the
substrate are
the substrate surface prior to epitaxial growth.
removed when
material
is initially
clean interface p-n junction
is
dissolved from
thus obtained.
Since
liquid-phase epitaxy also favours the achievement of high doping and a steet concentration gradient
at
the p-n junctions, the process has proved itself eminently suitable for application in the manufacture
A
of
Ge
GaAs
In its application to the fabrication of the
tunnel diodes.
advantage of the liquid-phase process that the interface p-n junction
As
consequence,
this
planes of the wafer.

junction)
p-n junction
perfectly planar
is
An optimum geometry
Date Order
laser diode,
formed on
and also perpendicular
it
191
an additional
is
a (100) crystal plane.

to the (110) cleavage
(plane-parallel ends perpendicular to a perfectly
thus insured for diodes cleaved from (100) oriented
is
is
in
GaAs
flat
p-n
wafers whose p-n junction has
been formed by liquid-phase epitaxy.
SOURCE:
'Epitaxial
by
laser diodes'
SEE ALSO:
growth from the liquid
Nelson
'Epitaxial
RCA
state
and
its
application to the fabrication of tunnel and
Review p 603 (December 1963)
growth from the liquid phase' by
Nelson Solid State Device Conference
Stanford University (26 June 1961)
and applications III-V compound films deposited by liquid phase epitaxy' by
'Properties
H
1961
Kressel and
Nelson Physics of Thin Films vol 7 (New York: Academic Press) (1973)
VENUS-1
(USSR)
Satellite
Launched 12 February 1961. Automatic interplanetary
May
Minimum
1961.
distance to Venus
100000 km.
in the
second half of
Investigation of the radiation belts and of space radiation.
of solar corpuscular radiation.
measurements. Investigation of meteoristic dust. Solar
SOURCE:
Reached Venus
station.
Investigation of interplanetary ionised gas and
Magnetic
cells, batteries.
International
1961
VOSTOK-1
(USSR)
Satellite

after
one
orbit
SOURCE:
and
1.8
First
hours
in
manned
satellite.
Pilot Yuri Gagarin.
Returned
space on 12 April 1961 near Smelovka, 800
km
USSR
to earth in the
south-east of
Moscow.
International

1961
ELECTRONIC CLOCK
According
moving
P Vogel
to the present invention there is
parts
which comprises an
means arranged
distributing
to
&
Cie (Switzerland)
provided an electronic clock comprising no macroscopic
oscillator for delivering electrical
pulses at a given frequency,
be controlled by said oscillator for delivering
at
outputs thereof the
pulses delivered by the oscillator, a counting device arranged to be controlled by the oscillator for
delivering signals of a frequency of n cycles per hour, where n
is
an integral factor of 60, and
cycle
per minute, an electronic switch arranged to be controlled by the distributing means for delivering
signals corresponding to the state of the counting device said signals being associated with hours and
minutes successively,
SOURCE:
made
in the
MERCURY-ATLAS-4
Launched
13
USA
SOURCE:
docks'
(USA)
Satellite
stations).
on 13 September 1961.
in or relating to electronic
(No 94832) on 10 March 1961.
September 1961. Test of
performance (tracking
orbit
No 995 546 'Improvements
Application
1961
to a distribution matrix for controlling a display device.
a cabin with a
Cabin recovered
dummy
on board. Checking of ground equipment
in the Atlantic
260
km
east of the
Bermudas
after 1st
Batteries.
International

1961
OSCAR-1
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 12 December, 1961.
Decayed on 31 January 1962.
Orbital Satellite Carrying
Amateur Radio. Transmitted
for 18 days.
A Concise
92
SOURCE:
in
Date Order
International
1961
MINICOMPUTER
It
is
generally accepted that the
12-bit
a
Digital
4K word memory machine
machine of
this type,
first
15 000.
and the market blossomed rapidly with
specialised machines with 8, 12 or 16 bits and varying

still
the
MSI and
SI logic,
strides
(USA)
in
1961
applications were found for
number of manufacturers designing

The
1500,
direct descendants of such

a reduction of 10:1
i.e.
was made possible by
which allowed computers

early days
Many
sizes.
available at prices around
same time increasing performance. Since those
and peripheral support great
memory
ten years. This price reduction, and/or increase in performance,
of integrated circuits,
Inc.
minicomputer was designed by Digital Equipment
selling for approximately
machines, with increased power are
Equipment
to
become
over
the introduction
physically smaller while
when machines had very
little
at
software
have been made with the addition of extras, such as disks and
magnetic tapes which allow the provision of operating systems running high level languages.
SOURCE: 'How
minicomputers can produce an integrated solution
Evans. Paper read
1962
SATELLITE
The
first
satellite,
and
the
(Telstar
earth satellite
was launched by
the
USSR
on 4 October 1957. Telstar
new form of
lb satellite
is
expected to remain
was powered by nickel-cadmium
the
first
communication
batteries,
(a
in orbit for
some 200
recharged by 3600 solar
I,
now
years;
cells,
and
travelling-wave tube for amplifying signals).
July 1962, 16 European countries were exchanging live television with the United States and
Telstar 2, launched on 7
satellite.
May
1963, paved the
way
commercial communication
for the world's first
Early Bird.
SOURCE:
1962
I,
global communication by sound and vision. Telstar
contained 1064 transistors and a single electron tube
By 23
successfully transmitted high-definition television pictures across the Atlantic on 10 July 1962,
has orbited the Earth about 17 000 times and
170
running of a business' by
Various (USA)
I)
successors promise a
its
silent,
at
to the
Seminex, London (25 March 1976)
'The scope of modern electronics' by F
MERCURY-ATLAS-6 'FRIENDSMP-7'
astronaut John
H Glenn
Jr.
& Power p
13 (January 1969)
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 20 February 1962. Investigation of man's

spacecraft:
Benson Electronics
capability in space.
First
Capsule recovered on 20 February 1962
United States manned

after three orbits
and
4.6-hour lifetime. Batteries.
SOURCE:
International
1962
OSO-1
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 7 March 1962. Orbiting Solar Observatory. Measurement of

in the ultraviolet,
data on 75 solar flares until 6 August 1963.
SOURCE:
solar electromagnetic radiation
X-ray and gamma-ray regions. Investigation of dust particles
I860 solar
in space.
Transmitted
cells.
International

1962
RELAY-1
Satellite
Launched
13
December 1962. Active telecommunication
Measurement of energy
components.
microwave communications.
satellite to test
levels of space radiation. Study of radiation effect on solar cells and electronic
Transmission of one television broadcast.
teleprinter circuits
SOURCE:
(USA)
8215 solar
cells, batteries.
12 simultaneous 2-way phone calls or 144
Experiments conducted
until
Table of Artificial Satellites Launched Between 1957 and
February 1965.
1976 (Geneva:
International
A Concise
1962
MOS
(Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)
CIRCUIT
Who made
the
MOS
first
INTEGRATED
1962
RCA
the
at
SOURCE:
1962
multipurpose logic block of 16
MOS'
first
'DUANE' RELIABILITY
by
MOS
first
succeed in
to
transistors into a silicon chip,
GROWTH THEORY
Historically, the subject of reliability
in
T Duane (USA)
T Duane
in 1962, the literature
on
this subject
has proliferated.
However, these
had no
efforts
statistically
on
actual data
developed theory
reliability to fix their initial or starting points for their
growth curves.
in the structural reliability analysis, data relative to inherent or analytical reliability
available and evolving since 1955. This data
obtained from
first
time
late
mils.
growth theory of electronic systems has received an abundance of
to test their models.
of inherent or analytical design
50 x 50
October 1962.
investigators developed reliability growth analysis techniques based
and used these data
However,
Hofstein and Frederick P
Socolovsky The Electronic Engineer p 56 (February 1970)
attention and concern. Beginning with
Duane and other
F P Heiman (USA)
Stanley, head of the Integrated Electronics
1962 Electron Devices Meeting
their success at the
'The
Electronic Research Laboratory in Princeton, NJ, were the
in integrating a
They reported
Hofstein and
Undoubtedly, Drs Steven
integrated circuit?
Heiman, who working under the direction of Thomas
Group
193
became
static structural tests
has been
available with the publication of Jablecki of data
of major aircraft structural subsystems under relatively
controlled conditions at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in the years 1940 to 1949.
SOURCE:
'A theory of
Reliability
and Maintainability Symposium p 106 (1980)
SEE ALSO:
growth
reliability
in structural
systems' by
H B Chenoweth
'Learning curve approach to reliability monitoring' by
Aerospace vol
2,
Proceedings Annual
T Duane IEEE
Transactions on
p 563-6 (1964)
'Analysis of premature structural failures in static tested aircraft' by
S Jablecki Dissertation Die
Eidgenossichen Technesche Hochschule, Zurich, Switzerland (1955)
1962
B D Josephson (UK)
JOSEPHSON EFFECT
In spite of the fact that the history of the
(1962) for
its
Josephson effect
is
quite long,
theoretical prediction. Prior experimental results published
it
is
attributed to
Josephson
by Hahn and Meissner (1932)
by Dietrich (1952) and by Giaver and Megerle (1961) have been given without definite conclusions or
doubt about
effects, so that they
the Josephson absorption effect
1963) for
first
in
could not be decisive for discovery. The experimental confirmation of
(known
published results.
The
as the a.c. Josephson effect)
current discontinuities
in
is
attributed to Shapiro (1962,
the current-voltage characteristic
of the Josephson junction, introduced by the macroscopic quantum absorption effect, thus became
the generally accepted fact in physics.
In
emission effect (frequently termed as the
addition Janson el al (1965) described the Josephson
Josephson
d.c.
effect).
Further,
first-order
discoveries
based on the Josephson effect have been: the Mercerau effect or macroscopis quantum interference,
frequency multiplication (Mercerau
measurements (Langenberg
ratio
paper
in
1964), frequency mixing (Grimes and Shapiro 1966),
et al
et al
1966), followed by a series of other applications.
Josephson voltage introduction
is
published by Finnegan et al (1971).
The
e/h
crucial
This paper presents
clear and firm experimental evidence that the Josephson voltage stability exceeds the best Weston-cell
batteries used as national primary voltage standards.
SOURCE:
'An analysis of the inflexion point structure of Josephson absorption effect current
Ranko Mutabzija
Int.
SEE ALSO: 'New

I
Electronics vol 42,
Finnegan,
Giaver and
No
superconducting devices' by
Dietrich Z. Phys. vol 133, p
TF
I
J.
3,
B D Josephson.
Wireless World p
D N
by
484 (October 1966)
499 (1952)
Denenstein and
steps'
p 241 (1977)
Langenberg Phys. Rev.
Megerle Phys. Rev. vol 122, p 1101 (1961)
vol 4, p 1487 (1971)
A Concise
194
C C Grimes
and S Shapiro Phys. Rev. vol 169, p 186 (1966)
R Hahn
W Meissner
and
B D Josephson
DN
J
Physics
Langenberg,
E Mercerau, R C
vol
Lett,
An
B N
Taylor Phys. Rev. vol 150, p 186 (1966)
Lambe and A H
which each
SOURCE:
Cie (Switzerland)
unit comprises or consists of a layer of semi-conductive material, the layers being

their interfaces insulated
No:l 057 453 'Electronic Timepieces'.
MICROELECTRONICS
SOURCE:
as the
Yung Tao
and originally had 10
1/8 inch
(Flat-Pack)
modern
to lack sufficient heat sinking
a standard package size,
selected points at
made
Application
in
circuit
Tao (USA)
element of the early 1960s, transistor packages
and adequate interconnections. To dissipate heat and provide
created the flatpack in 1962 while at Texas Instruments.
It
was
1/4
leads.
packaging
and materials'
R L Goldberg
November 1972)
p 127 (23
SEMICONDUCTOR LASER
R N Hall, J D Kingsley, G E Fenner,

T J Soltys and R O Carlson (USA)
Coherent infrared radiation has been observed from forward biased

for this behaviour
is
GaAs
beam
pronounced narrowing of the spectral distribution of
upon
light,
the
increases abruptly, and upon
beam beyond
this
Evidence
p-n junctions.
based upon the sharply beamed radiation pattern of the emitted
observation of a threshold current beyond which the intensity of the
emission
at
November 1962
With the emergence of the IC

were found
from each other except
connected together.
electrically
Switzerland (No 13423) on 16
the
&
P Vogel
electronic timepiece, comprising an oscillator unit; a frequency divider unit and a time display
which the units are
by
274 (1964)
Silver Phys. Rev. Lett, vol 12, p
vol 11, p 80 (1963); Phys. Rev. vol 169, p 186 (1967)
Lett,
sandwiched together and having
1962
p 251 (1962)
ELECTRONIC WATCH
unit, in
1962
1,
Parker and
Jaklevic, J J
S Shapiro Phys. Rev.
1962
vol 74, p 715 (1932)
Z. Phys.
The stimulated
threshold.
believed to occur as the result of transitions between states of equal wave number in the
is
condition and valence bands.
SOURCE:
J
SEE ALSO:
R O
Carlson Phys. Rev.
Nathan and
1962
No
9,
p 366
G E
Hall,
Fenner,
GaAs
Kingsley,
November 1962)
(1
is
increased.
p-n junction.
As
We
is
the narrowing of
have observed such narrowing of an emission
the injection current
narrows by a factor of more than 20 to a width of
line
increased, the emission line at
is
We
less than kT/5.
believe that this narrowing
direct evidence for the occurrence of stimulated emission.
SOURCE:
R N
junctions' by
vol 9,
characteristic effect of stimulated emission of radiation in a fluorescing material
from a forward-biased
is
Lett,
Lasher (USA)
the emission line as the excitation
77
GaAs
'Coherent light emission from
Soltys and
Burns, F
'Stimulated emission of radiation from
MARINER-2
Dill Jr
and
p-n junctions' by
No
1,
fields,
p 62
1,
(1
Nathan,
P Dumke,
November 1962)
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 27 August 1962.

magnetic
GaAs
Lasher. App. Phys. Lett, vol
Data on interplanetary space during
charged particle distribution and intensity flux and
density of solar plasma and energy of
its
particles.
1962. Contact lost on 3 January 1963 at 87
Flew by
trip to
the planet
390000 km from
Venus, survey of the planet;
momentum
earth.
of cosmic dust, flow and
and scanned
9800
it
on 14 December
solar cells (222
W)
batteries.
SOURCE:
195
International

1962
MARS-1
(USSR)
Satellite
Launched
November
1962.
Long-term space exploration.
radiocommunications. Lost earth lock
SOURCE:
106
at
Mkm.
Establishment of interplanetary space
Passed within 193 000
km
of planet. Solar
cells.
International

1962
ARIEL-1
(UK)
Satellite
Launched 26 April 1962. Ionspheric

X-ray and cosmic data
until
satellite
November
launched by United States rocket. Transmitted ionospheric.
1964. Solar cells.
Decayed on 24 May 1976.
SOURCE:
International

1963
RG
INK JET PRINTING PROCESS

In the early 1960s,
Sweet developed
Sweet (USA)
method of forming, charging and
electrostatically deflecting a
high-speed stream of small ink drops to produce high frequency oscillograph traces
signal-recording system. Each drop
is
given an electrostatic charge that
The drop
value of the electrical input signal to be recorded.
amount
depends on the magnitude of
that
of the charge.
is
As
charge and
its
is
is
in a direct-writing,
a function of the instantaneous
then deflected from
its
normal path by an
in a direction that is a function
moving
deflected drops are deposited on a strip of
chart paper, a trace
of the polarity
is
formed
that
representative of the input signal.
Lewis and Brown extended Sweet's technique

are stored in binary
form
to permit the printing of characters.
in a character generator.
to select a desired character.
An encoded
The binary image of
Character images
signal addresses the character generator
that character is then
used to generate the drop
charging signals necessary to deflect drops to the appropriate character matrix positions.
SOURCE: 'Application of ink jet technology to a word processing output printer'

D Hill, T H Williams and J W Woods IBM Journal of Research & Development p
SEE ALSO:
'High frequency recording with electrostatically deflected ink
Electronics Laboratory Technical Report
No
1772-1. Stanford University,
'High frequency recording with electrostatically deflected ink
CA
by
Buehler,
R G Sweet
Stanford
(1964)
R G Sweet
by
jets'
jets'
by
2 (January 1977)
Rev. Sci.
Inst,
vol 36,
131 (1965)
'Fluid Droplet Recorder' by
R G Sweet US
'Electrically operated character printer'
1963
Lewis and
GUNN DIODE OSCILLATOR

The observation
semiconductors.
frequency appear
is
described of a
When
Communications
SYNCOM-1
vol
shown
new phenomenon
in
B Gunn (USA)
the electrical conductivity of certain III V
oscillations of current in III
semiconductors' by
B Gunn
Solid State
p 88 (1963)
(USA)
Satellite
synchronous orbit but then

is
Patent 3 298 030 (1967)
specimen current.
Launched 14 February 1963,
A D Brown US
the applied electric field exceeds a critical value, oscillations of extremely high
in the
SOURCE: 'Microwave
1963
by
Patent 3 576 275 (1971)
in figure 11.26.
active telecommunication satellite.
lost contact
Successfully injected into a near
with ground station. 3840 solar cells (135
W)
battery.
Syncom-
A Concise
196
in
Date Order
Figure 11.26. Syncom-3 (courtesy Mark Williams, Space Technology Consultant, and Hughes Aircraft).
SOURCE:
Table of
Satellites
Artificial
International
1963
ELECTRONIC CALCULATOR
The
first
Bell
electronic calculators, containing discrete semiconductor
boards were produced
under licence
in
in
Punch Co (UK)
components wired
to printed circuit
1963 by a British firm, the Bell Punch Company. The machine was produced
America and
in
Japan, where the advantage of cheaper Japanese labour for the hundreds
of connections required led to a Japanese domination
in the
manufacture of calculators throughout the
1960s. Integrated circuitry was, of course, the perfect technology for the calculator, and
but
more compact and cheaper than bipolar
technologies.
The
first
By
integration
the most appropriate of the integrated circuit
the second half of the sixties, calculators using
American company
from a warehouse
in
to
make
calculators
was
MOS
integrated circuits were available.
a firm called Universal
immigrant labour from Vietnam and South America, assembled
five or six
company
a particularly vicious race
Valley.
Commodore
make
supplier,
was
the
Canadian
firm,
also used a Texas Instruments
Bowmar.
for
making
calculators itself and had found no interest in
in
thousand calculators a week
to enter
what was
Commodore, newly moved from Toronto
MOS
a particularly
of electromechanical calculators. Although these
from about $100
Data Machines, operating
Chicago. The company bought chips from Texas Instruments and, using cheap
for sale through a local department store. Probably the second
component
MOS slower
its
first
to
become
to Silicon
chip, but adopted a technology developed
compact
calculator.
technology
among
Bowmar had chosen
by
not to
the established manufacturers
mass-produced calculators dropped rapidly
in price
1971 to $40 or $50 the following year, the profits of these small entrepreneurial
A Concise
in
Date Order
197
companies remained high.
The
situation had to
market
change as
became
it
By 1972 Bowmar was
lay.
staringly obvious
where the
it
had
had not demonstrated the

ever have taken place
or,
SOURCE:
in
Revolution
new
viability of the
product,
it
calculator provides
semiconductor industry, but
in the
is
if
small firms
doubtful whether such integration would
indeed, whether the calculator would ever have gained the acceptance
Miniature
The History
&
new
farmed out and
earlier
was joined by other semiconductor manufacturers, including Texas Instruments. The

perhaps the best example of rapid vertical integration
exploding
profits in the
struggling to get back into the business
it
has
Impact of Semiconductor Electronics by E Braun
and S Macdonald. To be published by Cambridge University Press.
SEE ALSO: 'Coming
of age
Supplement vol 68, 975, pp
ALSO:
1963
the Calculator business'
in
by
Valery
ION PLATING OF PLASTIC & METALS
DH
new
stems from the
interest in ion plating
characteristics or colours the ion plated coats
Among
these properties are:
such as metals on plastics;
(1) excellent adhesion of incompatible substrates
many
Scientist Calculator
Mattox (USA)
have when compared with films produced by other coating techniques.
(2) irregular surfaces of
New
World vol 78, 1442, p 357 (1972)
'Electronic Calculator' Wireless
World-wide
(1975)
ii-iv
types such as screw threads, bearings and tubes can be coated in one
operation because of the good 'throwing power' obtained in the process;

(3)
compact pin-hole-free
structures are
soldering to the metal coat

(4) oxides
is
formed with outstanding
and ceramic coating
can be produced;
(6) high rate production of coatings
is
for periods
up
when good adhesion
30 minutes
to
Although the technique was invented
New
possible because the soft
times are not necessary. However,
must be ion etched
in
1963
to
in the
remove
vacuum required means
with a rotary
commences.
the oxide before deposition
United States by
M Mattox of Sandia Laboratories,
until quite recently.
In the
just like a conventional evaporation one, in that the bell jar is evacuated
is
pump and
pump
that long
to metals is required, the metal substrate
Mexico, the true potential of ion plating had not been appreciated
beginning, the process
and wear characteristics and
possible with reactive ion plating;
is
(5) high corrosion resistant coating
down
friction
no problem;
5
After the pressure reaches about 10"
then a diffusion pump.
admitted through a needle valve until the pressure rises to about 2 x 10~ 2
torr.
torr,
first
argon
This soft vacuum
is
is
kept
constant by controlling the needle valve and partially opening the baffle valve to the diffusion pump.
In the case
of a metal, ion etching of the substrate
substrate and top and base plate.
is
carried out
negative voltage of from
by striking a discharge between the
first
kV
to
kV
is
applied to the substrate,
and the argon ion discharge remains so long as the cathode voltage or the argon pressure
to fall too low.
The bombardment of
the substrate with neutral and ionised argon
metal oxide and metal and etches the surface.

filament
is
SOURCE:
1963
switched on and the metal

'Ion plating
coat of
many
is
When
cleaning and etching
filed a patent application
colours'
describing a
and Ultrasonics
in
my
in
department
New
Scientist p
588
complete, the metal source
(9 June 1977)
H Rowen
and E
number of Surface Acoustic Wave devices
in a post deadline
paper presented
at
Santa Monica, California, October 14-16 1964.

at that
not allowed
evaporated into the argon discharge.
SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE DEVICES

and described these structures
is
is
atoms sputters off
time, constructed working
the 1964
Sittig
in
(USA)
December 1963
Symposium on Sonics
Dr Ehrhardt
Sittig,
who worked
models of these devices and subsequently
filed
an application describing an interdigital electrode structure for balanced (vs unbalanced) excitation of
Rayleigh surface waves on such devices.
work by
believe these efforts, which predate Professor
at least three years, constitute the original
invention of surface acoustic
wave
White's
devices.'
198
SOURCE:
NJ dated 20
Hill,
'Tapped ultrasonic delay line and uses therefore'
July 1977
H Rowen USA
NOTE: Lord
White's paper,
EK
device'
Rayleigh
waves along the
Sittig
No
Patent
14
boundary of a semi-infinite, isotropic and perfectly
summarised
elastic-wave propagation in
flow,
is
cadmium
computed
(in a piezoelectric
The
sulfide.
elastic
and the
cadmium
drift field in
Some
amplifiers are discussed.
semiconductor) are
Computed curves show
the
electric fields associated with surface
interaction impedance, relating the external electric
for propagation
on the basal plane of CdS and found
comparison with values characteristic of electromagnetic slow-wave
continuous
elastic solid. Professor
as follows.
dependendence on distance from the surface of the
power
December 1967
3 360 749 dated 26
Surface elastic-wave propagation, transduction and amplification
in
289
described the equations governing the propagation of surface elastic plane
first
stress-free
in 1967, is
USA
discussed with emphasis on characteristics useful in electronic devices.
field to
No
Patent
November 1966
wave delay
'Elastic
Date Order
from Bell Laboratories, Murray
Letter
SEE ALSO:
dated 29
in
sulfide is reported
circuits.
to
be low
Amplification with a
and differences between surface and bulk-wave
operating characteristics and fabrication techniques for making electrode
transducers on piezoelectric crystals are given, together with experimental results on several passive
surface-wave devices.
SOURCE:
wave propagation and
'Surface elastic
No
Devices vol ED- 14,
SEE ALSO: 'On waves

London Math. Soc.
amplification' by
White IEEE Trans, on Electron
4, p 181 (April 1967)
propagated along the plane surface of an elastic solid' by Lord Rayleigh Proc.
vol 17, p
4 (November 1885)
'Surface waves in anisotropic media' by
L Synge
(Dublin) vol A58, p 13
Proc. Royal Irish Acad.
(November 1956)
'Surface waves in anisotropic elastic media' by
V T Buchwold
Nature vol 191, p 899 (August 26 1961)
'Design of surface wave delay lines with interdigital transducers' by

Collins,
11, p
Reader and
Shaw IEEE
Trans,
on Microwave Theory
'Passive interdigital devices using surface acoustic waves'
Series 2 edited by
D P Morgan
Gerard,
The technology of
ESFI
MOS
such
as:
The
principal advantage of
absence of
technology
in 1963.
(epitaxial silicon films
except
silicon,
TECHNOLOGY
Various (USA)
silicon-on-insulating substrates, specifically silicon on sapphire, dates back to the
beginning of practical
SIS,
IEE Reprint
(May 1976)
SILICON ON SAPPHIRE
lines
J H
MTT17, No
Smith,
865 (November 1969)
(Peter Peregrinus)
1963
Techniques vol
&
SOS
The technology
insulators),
is
known by
SOS, SOSL
(silicon
different abbreviations,
on
spinel), etc.
circuitry is the inherent dielectric isolation, both dc
in the active
and essentially eliminates the
on
and
ac.
The
device areas, significantly reduces parasitic capacitance between
parasitic capacitance to the substrate. Diffusion of device electrodes
through the silicon film to the sapphire reduces electrode capacitance by several orders of magnitude
because of the reduction

capacitance enables
in junction area.
many
This significant reduction
devices to achieve their
maximum
in electrode
and interelectrode
band-width and frequency response;
minimum speed-power products (below 0.5 pJ) on SOS CMOS and

elements (/r > 2 x 10 9 Hz) such as dual-gate MOSFETs (tetrodes).
allows for very high speeds,

very high frequency linear
SOURCE:
'Recent
SOS
technology advances and applications' by
R S Ronen and F B
it
for
Micheletti Solid
State Technology p 39 (August 1975)
SEE ALSO:
and
Early publications on
Mueller and P
(1964)
SOS Technology
e.g.
Material and Devices, include:
Simpson, 'Single crystal silicon-on-Sapphire substrate'
Robinson 'Grown-film
silicon transistors
J.
Manasevit
Appl. Phys. vol 35, 1349 (1964);
on sapphire' Proc. IEEE vol 52, p 1487
A
1964
NIMBUS- 1
Launched 28 August 1964. Meteorological
achieve a precise continuously earth-pointing
satellite to
camera system (AVCS)
to provide
improved pictures of
by means of automatic picture transmission (APT) and to evaluate the high resolution
local clouds
infrared radiometer
batteries,
SOURCE:
199
(USA)
Satellite
orientation to evaluate the advanced vidicon
W)
Date Order
in
(HRIR) system
mapping global night-time cloud cover. 10 500
for
27 000 cloud cover photos returned
solar cells (450
23 September 1964.
until
International
1964
VOSKHOD-1
(USSR)
Satellite
Launched 12 October 1964. Manned
spacecraft.
Yegorov. Landed after 16 orbits (24.3 hours) 305
SOURCE:
V Komarov, K
three-man crew:
First
km
Feokistov,
northwest of Kustanay, Kazakhstan.
International
1964
PACKET-SWITCHNG-COMMUNICATIONS
Packet-switching
demands
different
telecommunications patterned. The
at
There
it,
it
on
its
network
may be
from
To make
some form of computing devicewhich can accept
way according
a connection
to the address
between two subscribers
established for the duration of the call.
and kept so
the
and instructions
to
normal
the same; but the switching

a packet,
carries.
it
however, also another major difference. The traditional communications network
is,
serial.
and send
communications
of
channels, whether wire or radio,
points and exchanges have 'intelligence'
look
kind
P Baran (USA)
is
essentially
such a system requires that the connection be
This means that the right switches have to be opened/closed
for that duration.
Such a requirement
is
not necessary with a packet-switched system or network. In this latter case you
transmit your data to the network, which then takes over, either sending
it
on or holding
The speed of transmission
addressee's receiver facilities are free and able to take
it.
function of the weight of loading within the network.
At the conceptual
thus
it
until the
becomes
level, this is quite a radical
approach to telecommunications.
To have
a fail-safe network, in the terms that
Baran proposed there should be 'over connection'.
other words, there should be not just one path in or out for a packet, but several.
determine the routing

reliability
can be
far
is
the availability of a channel at a particular time.
how many
this sort
In
then
of network, the
lower than would be necessary for a 'normal' linear communications system.
People have been trying to build such networks

certain
With
What would
are being planned or built,
high expectations are packetswitched
now
for around 10 years. Today, though no-one can be
most of the communications networks of which we have
among them the experimental Arpanet
in the
United States, the
commercial Telenet network (also American), Europe's interbank, Swift networks, Euronet, and the
European Informatics Network.
SOURCE:
1964
'Packet-switching's unsung hero' by
GEMINI-1
Launched
of the
R Malik New
8 April, 1964. Testing of the

spacecraft.
606
(8 September, 1977)
(USA)
Satellite
GEMINI
Scientist p
The
GEMINI
launch vehicle compatibility and the structural integrity
satellite re-entered the
atmosphere and disintegrated on 12 April 1964.
Batteries.
SOURCE:
International
A Concise
200
1964
'IMPATT' DIODE
RL
C deLoach
Johnston and B
(USA)
R L
In 1964, Bell Laboratories scientists
Johnston and
Avalanche Transit Time) diode, subsequently shown
Read
Jr,
directly
also of the Laboratories.
when
DC
voltage
diodes
applied to them
is
microwave systems because of
SOURCE:
IMPATT
are
IMPATT
discovered the
by an
effect
semiconductor devices
their high reliability
B C deLoach
to operate
that generate
becoming increasingly important

and low
(IMPact
proposed earlier by
WT
microwaves
in the
design of
cost.
C Mabon
(Murray
Hill,
NJ:
SEE ALSO:
vol 37,
1964
W T Read Bell Syst.
'A proposed high frequency, negative resistance diode' by
Tech.
H K Gummel
TRANSISTOR MODELLING
Since the original paper by
Gummel
in 1964, a great deal
(USA)
of literature has appeared on the subject of
Gummel was
fundamental, or exact, transistor modelling.
the
to solve the
first
semiconductor
partial
difference equations with no basic simplifications in their one-dimensional steady-state form.
appeared
integral formulation
in
an improved form
in the
work of De Mari, who then went on
which he could obtain
a current driven transient solution for a diode.
was used and solutions were obtained
for
scheme and
scheme.
Gummel
a pure implicit first-order
implicit time integration methods, a
difference formulation.
finite
No
4,
iterative
vol
'An accurate numerical steady

State Electronics
1,
M Stark Philips Research Reports
(1976)
SEE ALSO: 'A self-consistent

by H K Gummel IEEE Trans,
scheme
ED-1
state
for one-dimensional steady state transistor calculations'
pp 455-65 (1964)
1,
one-dimensional solution of the p-n junction' by
de Mari Solid State Electronics vol
Finite Difference
York:
Wiley
&
1964
de Mari Solid
Sons
Inc.)
pp 101
et
arbitrary transient conditions'
pp 1021-53 (1968)
G E
Forsythe and
R Wasow (New
seq (1970)
Read diode
oscillator'
by
D L
Scharfetter and
H K Gummel IEEE
ED- 16, 64-77 (1969)
TRANSISTOR
The overlay
Army
11,
Methods for Partial Difference Equations by
'Large-signal analysis of a silicon

Trans, vol
pp 33-58 (1968)
'An accurate numerical one-dimensional solution of the p-n junction under

by
Crank Nicolson
This was followed by the analysis of a Read diode
'Fundamental one-dimensional analysis of transistors' by
Supplements
from
simple spatial discretization
and Scharfetter, also using a 1-dimensional implicit scheme, but introducing a new and
important spatial
SOURCE:
two
His
to tackle
the time-dependent 1-dimensional system. This required the use of a finite-difference formulation
by
J.
p401 (1958)
RCA
(Overlay)
transistors, first introduced in
Electronics
Command,
output stages then used
Ft
in military
at
100
MHz
at
RCA
under
a contract
Jersey, as a direct replacement for the
transmitting equipment.
produced 10 watts of output power

interdigitated structures of that
1964, was developed
Monmouth, New
(USA)
The
first
at
100
tube
commercial overlay, the 2N3375,
and could handle 4 watts
day were capable of 5 watts
from the
vacuum
MHz
at
400 MHz. Comparable
and 0.5
MHz
and 0.5 watts
at
400 MHz.
SOURCE:
'Solid state
a worthy challenger for
RF power
honors' by
transistor'
by
D R
Carley Electronics p 100
(19 February 1968)
SEE ALSO:
'The overlay
new
UHF
power
O' Brian Electronics p 70 (23 August 1965)
D R
Carley, P
L McGeough and
A Concise
1964
MICROELECTRONICS
(Beam Lead)
between the IC and
in
Date Order
201
Lepselter (USA)
Telephone Laboratories invented the beam lead as a mechanical and
In 1964, Martin Lepselter of Bell

electrical interconnection
SOURCE:
packaging
its
case.
R L Goldberg
and materials'
November 1972)
p 127 (23
SEE ALSO: 'Beam
lead technology' by
P Lepselter The Bell System Tech. Journal
XVL, No
vol
2,
1964
TELEMEDICINE
Various
The development of telemedicine
(USA
et al)
1964-69,
the United States can be divided into three stages:
in
1969-73 and 1973-present.
The
first
involved experimentation by medical practitioners on the clinical applications of
stage
The primary concern was
telecommunications technology.
two-way transmission
the feasibility of
of diagnostic information and clinical encounters via microwave links and video equipment.
Starting in 1964, the
out
Hospital,
In
TV
link
away
12 miles
interactive
first
a closed-circuit
1967, an interactive
TV
telemedicine project for the delivery of health care was carried
between Nebraska Psychiatric
under financing by
TV
was
link
installed
Institute,
Omaha, Neb., and Norfolk
State
the National Institute of Mental Health.
between Massachusetts General Hospital and Logan
International Airport, Boston, Mass., with financial support
from the United States Public Health Service
VA
Hospital link with Veterans Administration
expanded
(later
to a
Massachusetts General-Bedford
funds).
While
Nebraska
the
telemedicine
administrative purposes,
programme
used
link
in
to
the
system
was used primarily
Massachusetts General
use telemedicine
in
consultation
and
Hospital-Logan Airport system was the
first
psychiatric
for
physical diagnosis and general patient care.
The medical procedures
physical diagnosis that were found to provide effective treatment over the interactive
TV
were teleradiology, telestethoscopy and teleauscultation, speech therapy, teledermatology and
The
telepsychiatry.
successful demonstration of physical diagnosis procedures provided additional
incentives for Federal agencies to encourage further developments in the
The second telemedicine
stage
was characterised by
field.
knowledge
trend toward the exchange of
and experience among the participants, and by Government support and sponsorship of research
and demonstration programmes.
The major supporter was
the Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
the Health Care
Technology Division
projects during 1972: Illinois Mental Health Institute, Chicago,
111.;
Case Western Reserve University.
Cleveland, Ohio; Cambridge Hospital, Cambridge, Mass; Bethany/Garfield, Chicago,

Clinic, Waconia,
of Medicine
Minn; Dartmouth Medical School's
New
York,
NY.
refer patients to
Home
Janover
111.;
NH; and Mount
Lakeview
Sinai School
Science Foundation funded two telemedicine
project for geriatric patients in nursing
home
that usually
Boston City Hospital, and the Miami-Dade project between Dade County and Jackson
Memorial Hospital, Miami

During
INTERACT,
In addition, the National
projects in 1973: the Boston Nursing
in
which funded seven research and demonstration
Fla.
this stage, issues other than technical
ones received some attention. These included consideration
of the appropriate organisational and environmental settings for telemedicine implementation, manpower
mixes and the role of non-MD, providers, and rudimentary approaches

impact on healthcare delivery. The contributions of telemedicine
presented,
but although
some evaluation
significant efforts to investigate or
The
initial
projects were
document those
to evaluation of telemedicinels
to society as a
started during
this
whole were variously
period,
there
were no
benefits.
evaluation efforts did not reveal conclusive results, but a comparison between the telephone
and interactive
TV
encounters showed the former to be of shorter duration and more efficient for some
aspects of patient care.
A Concise
202
The
third,
and present, stage started
an innovative
or
mode
telemedicine has to
later,
in
1973 and
become
characteristic feature
its
Two
of medical-care delivery.
factors
must be
self-supporting, or at least economically viable
method of evaluation
the evaluation of telemedicine has to follow the concepts and

field
i.e.
evaluation in terms of structure, process and outcome variables
telemedicine has
programmes
It
become
economic
its
to survive, they
have had
viability
to
how
make
to
has been recognised that various problems in medical care
it
its
own; and
medical-care
The major new challenge
itself.
To
for
date, for telemedicine
may be
redressed by telemedicine, but
For those persons where time and distance barriers
access to medical care, telemedicine
difficult to obtain
pay for
it
on
in the
be heavily subsidised.
these depend on the vantage point of the user.
make
the idea of telemedicine as
is
dealt with during this stage; sooner
obviously very useful. The providers
is
recognise potential benefits, including greater opportunities to interact with other physicians, to consult
with specialists without worrying about the possibility of closings their patients, to have more free time,
and
work of
to supervise the
the system of medical care
a nurse practioner or physician assistant in a
lie in
by the various health actors or providers in
SOURCE: 'Coming
1964
by
Allen
1964
benefits to
it
1976)
B Rogers (USA)
Bryant (Buck) Rogers fostered the invention of the DIP while
p 127 (23
The
IEEE Spectrum p 33 (December
(DIP) (Dual-In-Line Package)
originally had 14 leads and looked just as
SOURCE:
clinic.
their respective roles.
the era of telemedicine'
MICROELECTRONICS
remote
the greater ability of the system to co-ordinate the activities undertaken
at
Fairchild Semiconductors in 1964.
It
does today.
packaging
and materials'
R L Goldberg
November 1972)
'ETCH-BACK' TECHNIQUE IN PRINTED WIRING

PLATED THROUGH HOLES
The interconnection of
the internal layers of circuitry
Autonetics (USA)
made
is
at the area
where the
drill
penetrates
through the copper pad exposing a cylinder of copper equivalent to the diameter of the drilled hole
times 0.0044 (as times thickness of one ounce of copper). This small area of exposed copper can also
be contaminated with epoxy smeared onto
it
during the drilling operation which can affect the resultant
adhesion of the copper to the electroless copper deposit. Therefore, a smoothing process was developed
at
Autonetics which would expose a greater amount of copper
more
reliable bond. This,
coupled with the fact
that the
at the
interconnection areas to provide
smoothing operation also removes from the
copper any smeared epoxy, provides for a more reliable interconnection than the standard T-joint.
SOURCE.
'Electroplating of plated through-hole interconnection circuit board' by
Quintana
AFS
Proc. p 175 (1964)
1964
WORDPROCESSOR
One
IBM (USA)
specialised office application that attracted computers
dominant manufacturer of
electric typewriters,
is
was word processing.
IBM,
already a
credited with creating the market in 1964
when
it
introduced a magnetic-tape typewriter. This unit could store information on magnetic media for later
modification and automatic retyping.
SOURCE:
1965
SYNTHESIZER
Moog, Deutsch and Carlos (USA)
Despite a few earlier attempts, the history of sound synthesis (the creation of sounds from electric
pulses) did not begin until the early 1950s, with experiments carried out at the University of Bonn,
West Germany. The
Through
first
electronic music studio
complex assemblage of generators and
together manually afterward on magnetic tapes.
Robert
Moog (US)
(in collaboration
was
set
filters,
up
the
Because
1951
in
at a
West German radio
station.
composers created sounds which they put
this
was
with the composers Herbert
a very slow process, the engineer
Deutsch and Walter Carlos) had the

idea of bringing together
the necessary
all
Minimoog, which became available
SOURCE:
(New
1965
Inventions
equipment
when
the
word
was
'synthesizer'
first
in the
used.
Mark Young
THE MOUSE
The mouse
is
However,
in 1983.
designed the mouse
was
it
at
is
Its
Englebart (USA)
desk and which makes
it
possible to interact
used was popularised by Apple with the Lisa and the Macintosh models
American inventor Douglas Engelbart who conceived and
the little-known
was
the Stanford Research Institute in the mid-1960s. His brilliant idea
computer operator place
mouse
on
a small device that slides in all directions
naturally with the computer.
the
203
one instrument. His research culminated
in
1965, and that was
in
his or her
hand on
a small
box or mouse.
used to measure movements which are then transmitted to the computer via a lead
of the mouse. These movements are translated to the cursor on the screen:
mouse
the right the cursor goes to the right; if the
is
have
to
sphere on the underside of the
if
the
mouse
is
the
tail
pushed
to
pushed away from the user the cursor moves up,
and so on. This revolutionary input device, originally found only on Apple computers, was adopted by
IBM
in 1987.
SOURCE: The Book

(UK: Queen Anne
1965
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) (1990) p 124
WIEGAND WIRE
About 10 years ago, John Wiegand discovered
Wiegand (USA)
by properly work hardening a magnetic wire,
that
it
is
possible, along the exterior 'shell' of the wire, to produce a coercive force significantly greater than
the coercive force in the wire's core.
By
virtue of this magnetic differential,
and depending on certain
external conditions, the direction of magnetisation in the core of the wire can be the
to that in the shell.
And
switching from one state to the other
same or opposite
easily and repeatedly induced at
is
well-defined magnetic-field levels.
Short lengths of wire exhibiting the Wiegand effect can serve as the heart of magnetic pulse generators
that
have distinct advantages over similar devices, including non-contact operation and a
being 'read' by detection devices having virtually no input power.

that pulse signals are not rate sensitive,
facility for
Other important advantages are
meaning the amplitude of the pulse
signal remains the
same
regardless of speed of operation; they offer any combination of pulse-generation direction and polarity,
that
is,
unidirectional or bidirectional, unipolar or bipolar.
And such
polarity are available for pulse generation.
environments, including temperatures from

material composition and
at levels
95F
SOURCE:
direction and
+300F. Over the years, Wiegand has developed
work hardening procedures
to a point
where brief pulses (10~ 4 duration)
With properly-designed detectors, peak voltages of 500
of 2 milliwatts can be produced.
millivolts in the
to
Thus any combination of
devices are capable of withstanding severe
50-ohm load have been observed.
'Wiegand Wire: new material
E Wizen
by P
for magnetic-based devices'
Electronics p 100
(10 July 1975)
SEE ALSO: 'Wiegand

1965
effect
pushing
its
way
into
new
products' Electronics p 39 (14 April 1977)
SMOOTH-SURFACED WIRE DRAWING
Olsen,
RF
Jack and
EO
Fuchs (USA)
technique for producing wire with a very smooth surface by drawing
an ultrasonically agitated Squid has been devised

cleans the wire and dies so that the drawn wire
at Bell
is
Laboratories.
relatively free of
through dies submerged
it
The
in
agitated liquid continuously
embedded
particles
and surface
scratches.
Reduction of surface imperfections
smooth
in
wire improves
finish is desirable in those types of
its
properties in
some
instances.
For example, a
magnetic memories that store information on a thin film
of metal plated onto a wire. The wire finish should be as smooth as possible so that the film can be
deposited evenly.
A Concise
204
In this technique, the ultrasonic
contacts a solid surface.
energy forms extremely minute vapor cavities
The expansion and
the wire clean of foreign particles before
it
collapse of these cavities
enters the dies to be reduced.
them from collecting
the particles suspended in the liquid and prevents
thus they do not score the wire as
SOURCE:
it
drawn through
it
The
wherever
as cavitation
it
'scrubs'
ultrasonic agitation keeps
in the entry area of the dies;
the dies.
new drawing
'Very smooth-surfaced wire produced by
in the liquid
known
technique' Bell Laboratories Record
Copyright 1965, Bell Telephone Laboratories,
1965
SATELLITEINTELSAT
The
first
internationally
(International)
owned
It
INTELSAT
satellite,
geo-stationary equatorial orbit, that

for transatlantic operation.
Reprinted by permission of Bell Laboratories Record.
Inc.
is at
was put
I,
an altitude of
had a mass of 39 kg (85
22400
into operation in 1965.
primary power 45
lb)
could be maintained
it
was
to ascertain
in a
West
system was to some
whether reliable communication
of the high path loss of 200 dB; however, the Earth stations employed
in spite
now well-known
the
Firstly,
was placed
W from solar cells and was
INTELSAT
capable of relaying 120 voice circuits or one television channel. The

extent experimental for two main reason.
It
miles, in a longitudinal position 30
parabolic reflector type aerials diameter
noise amplifiers and in this respect
it
was
transmission delay, Earth-satellite-Earth, of 250
ms was
85-100
Secondly,
a great success.
ft
it
with cryogenic-cooled lowwas
determine whether the
to
The decision was
operationally acceptable.
taken to continue with satellites in the geostationary orbit and this
used for
is
all
internationally
owned
satellites today.
SOURCE:
'Fixed communications' by
S Pudner Radio and Electronic Engineer vol 45,
No
10,
p 547
(October 1975)
1965
SELF-SCANNED INTEGRATED PHOTODIODE
P Weckler (USA)
ARRAYS
The
forming image sensors from arrays of silicon photo diodes on a single silicon chip
possibility of
has been recognised for

fifteen years ago.
that
It
years, probably since the inception of integrated circuit technology

that the array size
was
limited, not by the
them
To circumvent
in to a single
problem was
that
P Weckler
this
problem,
it
was necessary
to scan the diodes, that
function.
in
integration had been used in the Vidicon for
1965 that
this
on an integrated
The
SOURCE:
first fully
some
years,
and
and m.o.s.t's to perform the
circuit with the diodes
'Applications of self-scanned integrated photodiode arrays' by P
No
4,
it
was pointed out
now
serial
to include a
multiplexing
Fry The Radio and
pp 151-60 (April 1976)
'Operation of p-n junction photodeteclors in a photon flux integrating mode' by
No
3,
pp 65-73 (September 1967)
'Development and potential of optoelectronic techniques' by P
1965
second
technique could be used with photodiode arrays, the switching being
Weckler IEEE J Solid State Circuits SC-2,
8,
self-scanned arrays using this technique were announced in 1967.
Electronic Engineer vol 46,
SEE ALSO:
to multiplex
of detecting the minute photocurrents produced by the necessarily very small diodes.
achieved by m.o.s. transistors. The one step necessary to complete the picture was
shift register
is,
output lead by means of switching circuitry on the same integrated chip.
The technique of charge
No
some
number of diodes
could be included on the silicon, but by the number of output leads necessary to form connections
to these diodes.
by
many
was quickly apparent
Noble Component Technology 2
pp 23-8 (December 1967)
PROTON-1
(USSR)
Satellite
Launched 16 July 1965. Investigation of
solar
cosmic
rays.
chemical composition of particles of primary cosmic rays
in
Investigation of the energy spectrum and
theeneray range up
to 10
14
eV. Investigation
of nuclear interaction of ultra-high energy cosmic rays up to 10 12 eV. Determination of the absolute
intensity
and energy spectrum of electrons of galactic
origin.
Determination of the intensity and energy
A Concise
spectrum of
on
11
gamma
in
Date Order
205
Decayed
rays of the galaxy with energies over 50 million eV. Solar cells, batteries.
October 1965.
SOURCE:
International
1965
ELECTRONIC TYPEWRITER
IBM
launched the
72BM
stored on magnetic tape.
IBM (USA)
typewriter with a
1965.
In
1972 Rank Xerox developed the
the
first
first
memory, which was
electronic typewriter with a live
Andrew Gabor
daisy wheel, which was invented by Dr
memory. This machine
also featured the
first
(US). In 1978 the Italian
company
and the Japanese company Casio marketed the
Olivetti
typewriters with rapid-access memories.
SOURCE:
(New
1965
72BM was
The
in
Inventions
They featured
is
and Discoveries 1993 edited by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing and Mark Young
Military (USA)
possible today to be 'absorbed' by a computer and
universe.
game
This concept
called virtual reality.
is
industry; however,
the one hand, a
its
is
It
best
move around in an imaginary and

known through its applications in
origins are in military applications.
computer generates synthetic images, and on the
through the intermediary of receptors placed
in a
The concept
is
synthetic
the video
simple enough.
other, the user controls these
On
images
glove (Dataglove), and visualises the result with
stereoscopic glasses that have listening devices (Eyephone). Each

is
electronic
VIRTUAL REALITY
It
first
'type wheels' rather than balls.
movement of
the fingers or the head
transmitted to the computer, which consequently interprets and modifies the surroundings.
It is
thus
possible to touch or displace objects or to change the field of vision.
SOURCE:
(New
1966
Inventions
OPTCAL FIBRE COMMUNICATIONS
K C Kao
and
G A Hockham
Another method of providing guidance, and of cunningly circumventing the problem of

in straight lines, is to
for the
As
Advancement of Science,
publication of the classic article of
August 1964,
early as
in
Kao and Hockham of STL
a formidable one; the attenuation of existing fibres

fibre
attenuations of 2
light travelling
an address to the British Association
the author speculated on the use of light and glass fibres in the
telephone network, instead of electric currents and wires, but developments did not
be low and
(USA)
use a fibre consisting of a glass core having a high refractive index surrounded
by a cladding of lower index.
to
Mark Young
bundles were
fragile.
in 1966.
start in
earnest until
At the time the problem seemed
was about 1000 dB/km,
the bandwidth
Since then enormous strides have been
made
was expected
resulting in fibre
dB/km produced as a matter of routine, bandwidths of GHz in a km length of fibre

^m, and fibres coated with nylon which are too strong to be broken by hand.
1
having a diameter of 100
Such
fibres are flexible
bandwidth of
and capable of being incorporated into simple but effective forms of cable. The
a single fibre is
cables and the diameter
is
much
and the attenuation lower, than existing copper coaxial
greater,
considerably smaller.
could be very greatly increased, with
little
Thus
the capacity of the present telephone network
additional installation expense, by the gradual introduction
of optical fibre cables.
SOURCE:
No 10,
45,
'Lasers and optical electronics' by
SEE ALSO:
'Dielectric-fibre surface
Proc. Instn. Elect. Engrs. vol
1966
Gambling The Radio and Electronics Engineers
vol
BIOSATELLITE-1
13,
waveguides
pp
for optical frequencies'
K C Kao
and
G A Hockham
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 14 December 1966.
by
151-8
To determine
the effects of the space environment
processes and study the effect of weightlessness on the
life
on various
life
processes of certain organisms and the
206
effects of radiation
on organisms
in weightlessness.
SOURCE:
Due
to failure of the retro-rockets to fire,
it
was
Decayed on 15 February 1967.
not possible to recover the capsule. Batteries.
International
1966
ATS-1
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 7 December 1966. Experiments
to
advance the
of spacecraft communications (aircraft
fields
and ground), meterology (photos, transmission of weather facsimile) and control technology. Number
of scientific experiments to measure the orbital environment of the
22 000 solar
satellite.
cells
(185
W)
batteries.
SOURCE:
International
1966
LUNAR ORBITER-1
(USA)
Flying photographic laboratory.
of various types of surface on the
SURVEYOR
moon
10 856 solar
SOURCE:
APOLLO
spacecraft; monitored the meteroids and radiation intensity in the vicinity of the
provided precise trajectory information for use

field.
Obtained high resolution photographs
to assess their suitability as landing sites for
and
moon;
improving the definition of the moon's gravitational
in
cells, battery.
International
1966
NITRIDE-OVER-OXIDE SEMICONDUCTORS
After more than three years of legal proceedings between
Corporation, the
US
thus reaffirming
GE's
In
one form of the
silicon dioxide in
GE
Patent and Trademark Office has upheld

right to the patent,
GE
Horn (USA)
and International Business Machines
GE's claim
to priority of the invention,
number 3597 667.
inventions a thin film of silicon nitride
is
placed between the gate and
metaloxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). This structure virtually
eliminates the contamination by alkali ions that previously caused widespread failure of the tiny devices.
In another application of the invention, these nitride-overoxide layers are
transistors
The
GE
used
in
standard bipolar
and junction-sealing passivation layers Both the manufacturing yield and
of modern integrated circuits and semiconductor devices are 'substantially enhanced' by
reliability
the
as a surface
invention.
original
GE
patent application
problems between
instability
GE
was
filed
scientists
on
March 1966, following
Dr Dale
a discussion of
semiconductor
Brown and Dr Horn, during which Dr Horn
suggested silicon nitride over silicon dioxide as a passivation technique for overcoming these problems.
The
idea
was
tried
SOURCE: GE
and successfully demonstrated shortly
Public Information Release
thereafter.
(GE Research
&
Development Center, Schenectady,
NY
12301) p 2 (11 October 1976)
1966
TIROS-1
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 3 February 1966. Meteorogical
satellite
Environmental Survey
Satellite.
9100
TIROS
May 1967,
Part of the
Operational System (TOS), Advanced vidicon camera system (AVCS). Switched off on 8
solar cells, batteries.
SOURCE:
Table of
Artificial
Satellites
International

1966
FLIP-FLOP BONDING TECHNIQUE (FLIP-CHIPS)
207
GA
Wiessenstern and
Wingrove (USA)
The
bonding structure and method was invented and subsequently patented
flip-flop
in
1906 by
Wiessenstern and Wingrove. Since that time nearly every semiconductor manufacturer has experimented
with various forms of flip-flop bonding for the purpose of assembling integrated circuits, and possibly
some
To
discrete components, into larger subsystems.
this day,
no successful method of
flip-chip
bonding has become generally utilized on the open market.
SOURCE:
'A multichip package utilizing In-Cu flip-chip bonding' by
F Greenman. Proc. IEEE
SEE ALSO:
No
vol 57,
9,
P Youmans, R E Rose and
'Semiconductor device assembly with true metallurgical bonds' by
US
S Wingrove
Patent
No
Weissenstern and
3256465, 14 June 1966
L F
'Joining semiconductor devices with ductile pads' by
Miller 3rd Annual Hybrid Microelectronics
Symposium (29 October 1968)

1966
SURVEYOR-1
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 30 May 1966. Soft landed on

3960
13 July 1966.
SOURCE:
W)
solar cells (77
the
moon on
2 June 1966. Transmitted
150 photos up to
batteries.
Table of Artificial Satellites Launched Between 1957 and
1976 (Geneva:
International

1967
LASER TRIMMNG OF THICK FILM RESISTORS

The trimming of
electronic
components
the trimming of thick film resistors with

installed in the General
started in
C0
(USA)
1967 when the
lasers.
Two
Motors Delco Electronics plant
first
experiments were conducted on
years later 'Q-switched' laser systems were
in
Indiana for the manufacture of thick film
voltage regulators for automobiles.
SOURCE:
'Bright future for laser trimming' by
B Cozzens
Electronic Engineering p 58 (February
1976)
1967
SOYUZ-1
(USSR)
Satellite
Launched 23 April 1967. Manned

Pilot:
V Komarov,
SOURCE:
killed.
spacecraft. Re-entered
24 April 1967
after 17 orbits. Failed to land.
Solar cells.
International

1967
AUDIO NOISE REDUCTION SYSTEM

Utilizing the
masking
effect, together with signal
A301 achieves noise reduction
(a)
Dolby (USA)
compression and expansion, the Dolby Laboratories
by boosting low-level signal components during recording whenever
possible (compression), followed by complementary attenuation during playback (expansion), and (b)
by the masking
effect
whenever
the signal level
is
already so high that compression and expansion are
not possible.
Since masking
it
is
is less
effective with noise frequencies
somewhat removed from
the signal frequency,
necessary to deal with the various portions of the spectrum independently.
system then yields a lower
and apparently constantnoise
level, the classical
The
noise reduction
hush-hush or swish of
normal compression and expansion being absent.
The A301 system

in
splits the
audio spectrum into four bands and compresses and expands each of these
an essentially independent manner. Separate bands are provided for the
hum and rumble frequency

medium high frequencies
range (80 Hz, lowpass), for the mid-audio range (80 Hz-3 kHz, band-pass), for
(3
kHz, high-pass), and
for high frequencies (9
cannot prevent noise reduction
in
kHz, high-pass).
high-level signal in one band hence
another band in which the signal level
may be
low.
A Concise
208
From another
point of view, the system effectively produces a recording equalisation characteristic
which continuously conforms
incoming signal
itself to the
in
such a way as to improve the signal to
noise ratio during playback.
SOURCE: Dolby
SEE ALSO: 'An
Laboratories Technical Report A301.
audio noise reduction system' by
'Audio noise reduction: some practical aspects' by Ray

'The Dolby noise-reduction system
its
Dolby
J.
Audio Eng. Soc. vol
15,
p 383 (1967)
&
Dolby Audio magazine (June
July 1968)
impact on recording' by John Eargle Electronics World (May
1969)
Dolby noise reducer
part
1967
ION
(An introduction
to the
Dolby noise reduction system) by Geoffrey Shorter
(May 1970)
Wireless World pp 200-5
BEAM COATING
KL
Chopra and
Randlett
(USA)
The
history of Ion
Beam
Coating (IBC) covers a period of more than ten years beginning with metallic
coatings reported by Chopra and Randlett.

initially
when Spencer Schmidt

is
Carbon deposition with 'diamond
reported by Aisenberg and Chabot in 1970 and 1971.

et al
showed
bombarded with an energetic
that essentially
properties
like'
Rapid expansion of the
was
field resulted
any solid material can be deposited when a target
ion.
Although ion beam milling has been accepted for several years as the most desirable technique when
compared with chemical or plasma etching

circuitry in both research
and production
micron or submicron
for the fabrication of high resolution
installations, ion
beam
deposition
by research laboratories as the single economical process which affords
is
just
real
now
being accepted
flexibility in thin
film
High resolution microfabrication process with electron beam or x-ray lithography require
fabrication.
improved deposition technology. The answer may be ion beam coatings both
for research
and production
R Thompson.
Jr Solid State
applications.
SOURCE:
'Ion
beam
A new
coating:
deposition method' by George
Technology p 73 (December 1978)
SEE ALSO: 'Duoplasmatron ion beam source for vacuum sputtering

M R Randlett Rev. Sci. lustrum, vol 38, No 8, p 147 (1967)
of thin films' by
K L Chopra
and
S Aisenberg and
R Chabot
J.
S Aisenberg and
R Chabot
J.
Spencer and P
Appl. Phys. vol 42, p 2953 (1971
H Schmidt
J.
Vac. Sci. Tech.
'Deposition and evaluation of thin films by
E
1967
Spencer Solid State Technol. vol
'ROTATOR' CIRCUIT
This paper presents a
new
vol 6, p 112 (1970)
Vac. Sci. Techno!,
15,
DC
No
7,
vol 8, p
ion
beam
368 (1971)
sputtering'
NETWORK
linear, reciprocal, active
a nonlinear resistor, inductor, or capacitor is
is
Castellano and
Chua (USA)
They have
the unique property that
connected to one port of an R-, L-, or C-rotator,
respectively, the resulting two-terminal network behaves as a

characteristic curve
two-port network element called a rotator, of which
there are three types: an R-rotator, an L-rotator, and a C-rotator.
whenever
P H Schmidt, R
p 39 (1972)
new
resistor, inductor or capacitor
that of the original resistor, inductor or capacitor rotated
whose
by a prescribed angle
about the origin.
The
rotator
is
capacitances.
realizable by either a ^--network or a

It
can also be realised by a balanced
T-network of
lattice
linear resistances, inductances or
network of linear elements.
Operational
laboratory models are reported, and experimental data agree remarkably well with theoretical predictions.
The
sensitivity,
power
rating,
and
stability
performances of rotators are considered
in detail in this
paper and practical stability criteria are given. They are shown to be indispensable building blocks for
realising multi-valued elements
and some potential applications are described.
A Concise
SOURCE:
new 'Network Component" by L
'The rotator a
Chua
in
Date Order
IEEE
Proc.
vol 55,
209
No
9,
p 1566
(September 1967)
1967
TRAPPATT DIODE
Transit
The
(Trapped Plasma Avalanche
Time Diode)
mode was discovered
trapatt
J Prager,
KKN
Chang and S
Weisbrod (USA)
in
1967 by Prager, Chang and Weisbrod.
has permitted the realisation
It
of high-efficiency solid-state microwave oscillators and amplifiers. Dc-rf conversion efficiencies as high
60%
35%
as
as
are obtained at frequencies of 1-2

at
GHz, and
several authors have reported efficiencies as high
X-band frequencies.
Trapatt action occurs
when
breakdown voltage
applied across the depleted diode.
is
a rapidly increasing reverse-bias voltage of magnitude greater than the
An
avalanche zone sweeps rapidly from the
junction, through the depletion layer to the substrate, leaving in
The diode drops
electrons and collapsing the electric field.
the carriers are said to be trapped, as their drift velocities
fall
wake
its
dense plasma of holes and
low voltage high-current
state,
and
well below their saturated values.
As
into a
the carriers drift slowly out of the active region under low-field conditions, the electric field within the
diode recovers.
the cycle
When
spend a long part of the cycle with
much lower
is
than in the impatt mode, since the carriers
J J
SEE ALSO:
'High power, high efficiency silicon avalanche diodes
Purcell
IEE
Solid-State
and Electron Devices
IEEE
vol
vol 55, p
586 (1967)
AMORPHOUS SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES
company
in
which
in a thermister
earlier studies is the cross-over
characteristics are
property of having an
which drops
to a
OFF
initial
exceeds a certain threshold value

corresponding to the load
line
there
is
a delay time
/h
happens
resistor, region (b),
which can be as long as 10
the device reverts to
its
high resistance
/^s,
state,
monostable element. Notice that the switch
curve for negative voltages
SOURCE: 'Amorphous
is
a mirror
image of
No
1,
'Reversible electrical switching
in
These devices
their circuit configuration
These devices have the remarkable
around 100
when
in a
megohms,
the voltage across
it
time typically of order nanoseconds, but
between the application of

is
allowed to
along region
is
below
fall
(d).
a switching voltage
minimum
In this sense, the
and
holding value,
device behaves
insensitive to the polarity of the supply; the
that for positive values.
semiconductor devices and components' by
Radio and Electronic Engineer vol 46,
SEE ALSO:
sandwiched between
is
around 10 V. The switching, which occurs along a load
the onset of switching. If the current in the On-state
as a
11.27(c).
resistance, region (c) of
V, h typically
Prager,
shows an early switch made
amorphous material
thin film electrodes (figure 11.27(b).
in figure
attracted international attention
first
resistance, corresponding to region (a), of order tens of
ON
much lower
shown
Ovshinsky (USA)
and their more modern counterparts are so-called threshold-switches, and

and resulting
by
at ultra frequencies'
Oxley,
Another possible discrete geometry used
type package.
sandwich using
C H
1,
in 1968, figure 11.27(a)
a thin film of undisclosed glassy
massive carbon electrodes
No
Switching phenomenon have been noted for a decade but Ovshinsky
by producing a discrete component commercially

his
drift velocity.
'Design and performance of trapatt devices, oscillators and amplifiers' by
Howard and
by
to essentially zero,
are favourable to the production of
below the saturated
drift velocities well
KKN Chang and S Weisbrod Proc.

1968
waveforms produced
current and voltage
high efficiencies. The frequency of operation
SOURCE:
and the current returns
the electric field has fully recovered
The
repeated.
is
Allison and
Thompson The
p 12 (January 1976)
phenomena
in
disordered solids' by S
R Ovshinsky
Phys.
Rev. Lett, vol 21, p 1450 (1968)
1968
IRIS (ESRO-1)
Launched 17 May 1968.

solar
ESRO
Satellite
First
European Space Research Organisation
and cosmic radiations. 3456 solar
SOURCE:
cells, batteries.
Decayed on
(Europe)
satellite.
May
Measurements of
the
1971.
International
210
in
Date Order
thermistor rackagc
carbon electrodes
rv
Early discrete switches.
Figure 11.27. Amorphous silicon switch.
1968
C-MOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
At the October 1968 International Electron Devices Meeting
Electronics division announced two experimental
the
way
to
more successful
solid state
semiconductor) element for read-only
and silicon dioxide. Turned on by
memory
memory
MOS
in
applications,
MONTOS
is a
RCA
schemes
may show
that
(metal-oxide-nitride-oxide-
non-volatile sandwich of silicon nitride
MONOS
could lead to circuits having
and storage elements on the same chip, according
active, passive
Labs.,
Washington, the Westinghouse Molecular
field effect transistor
systems. One, the
a negative voltage,
GT & E
Westinghouse,
Sylvania (USA)
to
Hung C
Lin,
their
all
manager of advanced
techniques development.
The
transistors
on the same chip
to drive higher loads.
MOSFETs
Lin says, and are
made with
standard
The
by placing
And
MOS
between
lateral
non bipolar
most
manufactur ing techniques, Potentially, he adds,
memories but as
logic and shift-register
end could reduce the interface problems
the use of bipolar transistors at the output
devices and others such as transistor-transistor logic or diode-transistor logic.
The performance of complementary metal oxide semiconductor

must be
logic that there

to fabricate n
and
vertical
resulting devices are 10 times faster than
MOS
the structures could be used not only as large random-access
elements.
Paul
MOSFETs
other development, a complementary MOS-bipolar structure, gets around the fact that
are usually limited to driving only low-capacitance loads
good reason why
and p channels
who
Richman,
with
in the
same
its
not used
more
logic
often.
is
so
There
much
is.
It
better than p-channel
has been very difficult
substrate.
Walter Zloczower described
the
complementary
MOS
circuit
at
the
International Electron Devices Meeting in 1968, says that their difficulties with the extremely resistive
substrate have been
only source
Richman
ICs.
The
is
economic rather than technological. The material
a chemical firm
feels that the
RCA
RCA's method
in
GT & E
is
easy enough to make, but the
Germany.
approach
is
the
first
simplified
MOS
method of making complementary
and Westinghouse fabrication techniques have disadvantages, he says.

of forming conventional n and p channels in the same substrate requires extremely
careful control of the diffusion process and results in a rather high threshold voltage.
Westinghouse uses an elaborate procedure of etching

then etching back to form the p channels.
results in relatively
Neither
GT & E
Richman hopes
complementary
SOURCE:
slow
pits, filling
them with
This process involves
critical
epitaxial p-type material,
mechanical operations and
circuits.
nor Sylvania has immediate plans for marketing complementary
that the
MOS
new
fabrication
method
will
MOS
open up the memory applications
integrated circuits are so well suited.
'Electronics review
integrated electronics' Electronics p 49 (28 October 1968)
ICs.
for
But
which
A Concise
1968
THE 'TRINITRON'
A new
colour
Colour Cathode Ray Tube
CRT employing
a single lens in-line
large diameter lens minimizes electron
gun
plates attached to the top of the
beam
21
Sony (Japan)
gun was developed by Sony Corporation. The single
aberration, resulting in a high quality image. Electrostatic
beams
effectively converge the side
the phosphor screen.
at
The
unique arrangement of the electron optics of the gun permits modulating the electron scanning velocity,
giving rise to further improvement of the picture image.
number of
Aperture-Grill, which has a great
shadow mask,
a
CRT. Since
incorporated in the
is
shadow mask,
the
CRT
A new
the Aperture-Grill has a greater
yields a brighter picture.
The
the Aperture Grill
sensitive to terrestrial
is less
cylindrical face plate
whose
magnetism and
vertical curvature is
almost
30V", the world's
SOURCE:
'The
Trans, vol
BTR-14, p 19-27
SEE ALSO:
Electronics
&
largest,
1968
Ohkoshi
this
from Moire
patterns.
The
unique high-quality CRT, ranging
colour tube' by S Yoshida,
'TRINITRON' a new colour tube' by

3, No 4 (December 1969)
14 degree
&
free
it is
&
Ohkoshi
S Miyaoka. IEEE
S Yoshida,
Ohkoshi
&
S Miyaoka
Radio Technician vol
'A wide-deflection angle (114)
'25V inch
produces
(July 1968)
TRINITRON
Miyaoka. IEEE Chicago Spring Conference on
stripes
Additional advantages are that
with a variety of deflection angles.
'TRINITRON' a new
'The
transparency than
reduces the ambient light problem.
infinite,
Sony Corporation has manufactured more than 20 million of

to
that
beam
phosphor
vertically continuous
image limited only by the electron beam diameter.
a high resolution
from 5V"
colour selection mechanism called the
instead of the holes or slots found in a conventional
slits
TRINITRON
S Miyaoka
colour picture tube' by S Yoshida,
BTR
Ohkoshi
&
(12 June 1973)
colour picture tube and associated
IEEE Chicago Spring Conference on BTR
'BARITT' DIODE
GT
new developments' by S Yoshida,
(10 June 1974)
Wright (UK)
Wright described a new negative resistance microwave device based on the principle of barrier
In 1968
controlled injection and transit time delay the
device should operate
at
BARITT
moderate power and low noise
diode.
level.
His simple analysis suggested that the

In the
same
year, independently,
Ruegg
presented a paper on the simplified large-signal theory of a similar punch-through structure giving
considerably optimistic prospects
10-100
at
10
GHz. These
an estimated
theoretical
and Wright achieved negative resistance
pnp
structures
and
in
power
npn
in
silicon structures,
20%
and power output of

in
1970 when Sultan
and subsequently oscillations
1971 when Coleman and Sze reported oscillations
structures. Several experimental papers
BARITT
efficiency of the order of
works were confirmed experimentally
in
in
metal-semiconductor-metal
have since been presented, comparing the properties of different
diode structures and pointing out the reliable and low-noise operation of the device
at
moderate
levels.
SOURCE:
'Large-signal
analysis
of the silicon
pnp-BARRIT
diode'
by
Karasek Solid State
Electronics vol 19, p 625 (1976)
SEE ALSO: G T
H
1968
Wright
Elect. Lett,
vol 4,
543 (1968)
Ruegg. IEEE Trans. ED- 15, 577 (1968)
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ALUMINIUM

METALLISATION
Noyce (USA)
An insight into Noyce's style of technical leadership is provided by Gordon Moore, a chemical physicist
who was one of the eight founders of Fairchild Semiconductors, and who quit in 1968 to join Noyce
in starting Intel, where he is now president and chief executive officer. 'Bob was certainly the idea
man in the group. can think of two things that at the time impressed me even more than what he did
I
for the integrated circuit.
with
all
the base.
One was
the use of
aluminium
for transistor contacts.
kinds of complex alloys to find one metal that would
One day Bob
said,
'Why
don't you try aluminium'.
make
remember
struggling
contact with both the emitter and
212
'So
aluminium and
tried
worked
it
Bob suggested
electrical contacts.
1968
SOURCE:
'The genesis of the integrated
'MUTATOR' CIRCUIT
The
4>
was
it
circuit'
by
barriers.'
F Wolff IEEE Spectrum p 49 (August 1976)
NETWORK
L O Chua (USA)
basic problem of synthesising a nonlinear resistor, inductor, or capacitor with a prescribed
or q
i,
v curve
is
new
solved by introducing three
v, <p
i,
reflector has the property that a given
or q
v,
<fi
new elements
Active circuit realisations for each of these
or q
i,
is
<p
i,
or q
characterised by
compressed or expanded along
v curve can be
any prescribed single-valued (which need not be monotonic)

synthesized.
v,
is
Using these new elements as building blocks,
direction, or along a vertical direction.
v,
this resistor across
curve can be reflected about an arbitrary straight line through the origin. The scalor
the property that any
the property that a nonlinear resistor
transformed into a nonlinear inductor, or a nonlinear capacitor, upon connecting
two of an appropriate mutator. The
network elements, namely
linear two-port
The mutator has
the mutator, the reflector, and the scalor.
port
good
the use of nickel to fabricate junctions with
worked. These were both cases where he proposed
wouldn't work and which then got us past significant
something
really thought
there
one day and
it
That really got the double-diffused transistor out of
beautifully.
Then
the laboratory as a practical device.
a horizontal
is
it
shown
that
v curve can be
Laboratory models
are given.
of mutators, reflectors, and scalors have been built using discrete components. Oscilloscope tracings of
typical mutated, reflected
and scaled,
good agreement with theory
are in
remain
be solved are the
to
SOURCE:
'Synthesis of
stability
new
v, 4>
i,
at relatively
and q
v curves are given.
The experimental
low operating frequencies. The
and frequency limitation of the present
nonlinear network elements' by
Chua
results
problems that
practical
circuits.
Proc.
IEEE
vol 36,
No
8,
p 1325 (August 1968)
SEE ALSO:
J.
1968
RC
'Additional types of mutators and active
No
Electronics vol 42,
1,
synthesis using mutators' by
Murata
Int.
p 33 (1977)
HIGH DEFINITION TELEVISION
Nippon Broadcasting Corporation

(Japan)
In
NHK
1968 the
(Nippon Broadcasting Corporation),
into high definition television
with those of the

a quality of
this
far
NHK
in the
in
1974 were joined by Sony
development of
image comparable
would need a change
and
that is to say
to that at the
new system
Japanese television, began research
in this
work. Sony engineers worked
called Hi-Vision
cinema images of
which would give television
125 scanning lines on 60 hertz.
production cameras and the whole stock of current television
in
as Europeans were concerned
They have launched
expense was excessive.
this
under the Eureka programme a high definition system with images of 1250 lines
existing networks (Pal Secam
600 million or so television
NTSC) and
in particular
sets in service in the
with the standard
As
sets.
a counter-attack
that is
D2-Mac
However
compatible with
Pacs (1984). So the
world won't have to be replaced. This system has
been available since 1988.

Doubtless
will take another ten years before high definition television systems, be they
it
Vision or the European and American
The
first
place
live high definition re-transmission organised
(UK: Queen Anne
Research
by the national Japanese channel
NHK
Macdonald
&
Co.) p 238 (1990)
the
Arpanet (USA)
end of September 1969, four
Institute, the University
US
academic
of California
at
institutions
Santa Barbara and
the University of Utah, the Stanford

at
Los Angeles
were linked by an
experimental computer network, ARPAnet, funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency
of the
US
took
Press,
INTERNET
Towards
Japanese Hi-
fully operational.
time of the Opening ceremony of the Seoul Olympics on 17 September 1988.
at the
SOURCE: The Book
1969
(ACTIV Advanced Compatible TV), become
Department of Defense (DoD). With the benefit of
this military-inspired
(ARPA)
a quarter of a century of hindsight,
development can now be seen as one of the seminal events
in the history
of
A Concise
213
communications. Out of the ARPAnet has emerged the extraordinary phenomenon of the Internet
computer network
worldwide, while growing
that already links tens of millions of users
at a rate that,
unchecked, would cover the entire population of the earth by 2001.
The
first
distinguishing feature of the Internet
across the network
is
that
is
it
based on packet switching. Traffic carried
broken up into conveniently sized chunks of data, which are then augmented
is
by addressing and a variety of quality-control information before being committed
to the
network for
transmission.
Packet switching has two distinct advantages over the circuit-switching regime used
telephony. First,
to a connection if
Secondly,
highly efficient in the use of transmission bandwidth. Bandwidth
it is
it
is
generating packets, otherwise the bandwidth
packet switched network
link fails, then packets can simply
is
in
is
conventional
only allocated
available to other connections.
is
tolerant of failures or breaks in the network. If
one transmission
be rerouted along some alternative path through the network. The
perceived robustness of packet switching was an important consideration behind
DoD
funding for
ARPAnet.
Aside from being a packet-switched network, the Internet
distinguished by being organised as a
is
multiplicity of tens of thousands of interconnected subnetworks.
been able
to
grow so
fast.
It
why
This explains
has not been built from scratch; rather,
it
the Internet has
has been largely bolted together
from existing subnetworks.
The
individual subnetworks cover a variety of networking technologies, such as Ethernet local-area
networks and X.25 wide-area networks. These technically disparate subnetworks are bound together
by the
intellectual glue
generally
An
known by
TCP
of the IP (Internet Protocol) and the
(Transmission Control Protocol),
TCP/IP.
their joint label
Internet transmission path comprises three basic elements: the host
path, the subnetworks,

level 3, the
network
and the gateways
layer, of the
that link the
computers
at either
end of the
subnetworks (figure 11.28). The IP resides
OSI seven-layer model so
that IP functions
have
to
at
be provided within
the terminal machines and within every gateway.
Given the shortness of

radical
its
been remarkable. However,
history, the progress of the Internet has
achievement may yet
lie
ahead
the undermining of the
dominant
its
most
role of the telecoms operators.
Conventional wisdom holds that the multimedia future will be created around telecoms networks and
the standards of the
Broadband ISDN. The message of the Mbone
is
that
such cosy assumptions
necessarily so'.
100 000 000
stage
DARPA
10 000 000
stage 2
stage 3
enterprise
Internets
universality
1990:
1
</>
000 000
ARPANet
ceases
100 000
1992: Internet Society

created
1986:NSFNet
10 000
created
1989:
first
public
commercial Internets
1000
created
100
10
1
1968
1973
1979
1984
1990
Figure 11.28. The three ages of the
SOURCE:
1995
Internet.
'The net effect' by Roger Dettmer IEE Review p 67 (March 1995)
2001
'ain't
214
1969
in
Date Order
AERIAL MATCHING UNIT

In order to
match
random-length
50 or 75 ohms which
to the
aerial to a transmitter
will allow efficient
with a transformer of the correct

In such a transformer the
is
necessary to transform the aerial impedance
transfer.
The
ideal
way
bottom end of each winding may be connected
one end connected
make
appropriate tap earthed will
end of the
match impedances
to
is
to earth.
It
is
a small step
to the transmitter, the other to the aerial
and the
a variable ratio transformer.
were 3 turns (on
In the implementation, there

to the
it
(UK)
ratio.
to realise that a tapped coil with
and 2 turns
power
M Gordon
Eur Ing
a 2-in dia former) to the
12 taps 5 turns apart
first tap,
coil.
This was the basic matching unit but a variable capacitor was added, together with a 5 way, 2-gang
switch so that as well as the variable-ratio transformer with the capacitor across the primary one could
have a
parallel network, an
SOURCE:
L-network, a series capacitor or straight-through connection.
SEE ALSO: Amateur Radio

(RSGB) pp
1969
Techniques by Pat Hawker,
G3VA,
1969)
Edition 3 (and subsequent editions)
241, 242
A H
MAGNETIC BUBBLES
R F Fischer, A J
P Remeika and L G Van
Bobeck,
Perneski, J
(USA)
Uitert
RSGB) (May
Technical Topics column, Radio Communications (Journal of the
magnetic material usually consists of arrays of discrete localised volumes of material, defined as
domains, Each domain separated from

of the magnetisation vectors of
neighbours by domain walls has a preferential orientation
its
of the atomic magnetic moments within
all
have different orientations with respect to each other depending on
upon them.
force vectors acting
In
some
cases,
plate or layer in a reproducible way. This
is
volume. Domains may
its
energy content and the
their net
domains can be produced and moved about
the case for a
Figure 11.29 shows a typical domain structure in a magnetic garnet
materials.
with the random, worm-like domain patterns maintained, in the steady
magnetic anisotrophy of
this material. If
in a thin
number of ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
an increasing magnetic
state,
field is
at
zero magnetic field
by the inherent uniaxial
applied perpendicular to the
plane of the plate in figure 11.29 then the unfavourably oriented domains (with respect to the applied
field)
may be made
'magnetic bubbles'
in the direction
to shrink
if
and then
finally to collapse into cylindrical
of an applied magnetic gradient and their presence or absense
the plate constitutes the binary-coded information stored in the
SOURCE:
'Magnetic domain bubble memories' by
Electronic Engineer vol 45,
SEE ALSO:
Perneski,
1969
No
Van
Uitert
of
L Tomlinson and H H Weider The Radio &
IEEE
Trans, on Magnetics
A H Bobeck, R F Fischer, A
MAG-5, pp 544-54 (1969)
(UK)
Satellite
45E longitude over Indian Ocean. Spin
SOURCE:
at a certain position
12 p 727 (December 1975)
Launched 22 November, 1969. Government communication

at
like
memory.
'Application of orthoferrites to domain-wall devices' by
P Remeika and L
SKYNET-A
domains which look
they are observed in polarized light under a microscope; they can be displaced
stabilized
7236
satellite to
be placed
in
synchronous orbit
Launched by NASA.
International
1969
PARCOR
A new
NTT(Japan)
method of speech analysis and
of the partial autocorrelation
synthesis, in
(PARCOR)
and Telephone Public Corporation
which the speech spectra are expressed with the use
coefficients
in 1969.
was proposed and developed by Nippon Telegraph
A Concise
Date Order
in
215
NO EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC FIELD
LARGE EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC FIELD
SMALL EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC FIELD
Figure 11.29. Oppositely oriented magnetic domains shown with and without an applied external magnetic
field having indicated polarity and direction. (After Bobeck and Scovil.)
In order to obtain a
speech of high quality,
and the driving source parameters and
it
necessary to extract the spectral envelope parameters
is
to reproduce these features of the original
PARCAR
as possible. In extracting these parameters efficiently,
Speech signals are sampled
at
every 125
before and just after the sampling time
Then
the deviation
/xs
through a
coefficients
PARCAR
analyzer.
between the predicted value and the
value
real
is
PARCOR
informations are compressed to 57 bits which consist of the
PARCOR
coefficient)
and driving source parameters of 17
bits/s.
The speech compression by
of the
PCM
method and
analysis mentioned above.
is
the
PARCOR
PARCOR
method
is
Speech synthesis
very efficient.
The
The
signal amplitude just
predicted with a set of n samples by the least square method.
is
informations obtained during a certain time (one frame 15 ms) are the
(5 bits to a
speech as accurately
were introduced.
measured.
PARCOR
The extracted
coefficients.
coefficients of 8 x 5
bits.
of the recent high-speed logic elements (LSI IC),
it
about one fifteenth of the 56 000

is
When
is
40
bits
This corresponds to 3800

bits/s
just an inverse process of the speech
type speech analysis and synthesis system
conventional parameter editing and synthesis method.
eight
Speech
the
PARCOR
is
superior to the
synthesizer
is
composed
possible to respond simultaneously to
many
telephone circuits.
This speech analysis and synthesis system based on
compared with
that of the conventional recording
PARCOR
coefficients has
and editing system and various
services will be possible. Moreover, this analysis
method
is
many response words
flexible
expected to produce
new
speech response
services such as
the automatic speech recognition and the perception of speaking voices, etc.
SOURCE:
F
'Speech analysis and synthesis system based on
Itakura and S Saito Meeting
Record of
partial
the Acoustical Society of
auto correlation coefficients' by
Japan 2-2-6 (October 1969)
(In
Japanese)
SEE ALSO:
'Digital filtering techniques for
speech analysis and synthesis' by F Itakura and S Saito
216
Conference Record 7
'New speech
No
1969
12,
Cong. Acoust. 25C1, Budapest (1971)
Int.
PARCOR'
analysis and synthesis system
pp 58-78 (1973)
by Fumitada Itakura Nikkei Electronics vol
'BUCKET-BRIGADE' DELAY CIRCUIT

The general
principle
is
new
signal
at
F L
be delayed
that the signal to
interconnected by switches operated
As
2,
(In Japanese)
sample can evidently not be stored
Sangster and
sampled and stored
is
same frequency
the
Teer (USA)
cascade of capacitors
in a
as the signal sampler.
sample present
in a capacitor before the signal
completely removed, only half the number of capacitors actually do store information
is
any moment,
at
the others being empty.
In the past only rather complicated circuitry has been proposed for this function,
so that even in
A much
simpler solution
integrated form there
presents itself
when
was no chance
for an inexpensive
sample transfer
signal
leads to a
much
not established by a charge transfer in the direction of
is
what
signal travel but in the opposite direction, by
compact design.
is
essentially a charge deficit transfer. This principle
simpler resistorless circuit suitable for realization in integrated-circuit form.
SOURCE: 'Bucket-Brigade electronics possibilities for delay, time-axis conversion and scanning' by
F L J Sangster and K Teer. IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits vol SC-4 No 3, p 131 (June 1969)
1969
MICROELECTRONICS
CDI
In
Bell Laboratories
(Bipolar)
Ferranti (UK)
(Collector Diffusion Isolation)
1970 manufacturers began
to investigate bipolar processes
competitive with m.o.s. For example there was the

first at
Bell Labs and then
suggested
by
c.d.i.
which seemed
were compatible with
with a slice of 10 to 202
cm
which could operate
circuits
n + diffusions were
at first.
made through
in a
is
The
SOURCE:
it
'The semiconductor story' by
SEE ALSO: 'Collector k-diffusion

R A Pedersen Proc. IEEE vol
The Magistor, invented by E C Hudson,

breakdown with beta values
SOURCE:
Res. Dev.
The
in the
of then had
make
down on top of
now buried n +
contact with the
them. The
layers laid
isolated the area within. In this base area
flat
No
Dean Wireless World p 170
9, p
grown
in the holes to
surface.
(April 1973)
B T Murphy V
Glinski,
Gary
E C Hudson IBM (USA)
Jr, is
a dual-collector planar transistor operating
range of 30 to 100. In effect,
this beta
below avalanche
appears to amplify a typical
sensitive axes are orthogonal to the substrate surface.
'A magnetic sensor

vol 25,
SEE ALSO:
p-type epitaxial layer put
isolated integrated circuits' by
57,
MAGISTOR' MAGNETIC SENSOR
Hall voltage.
cm
to gain access to the electrodes, silicon is
level as the oxide, thus giving a
and
1969
all
system for example, started
c.d.i.
made, as well as any second emitter for a Shottky diode. After the oxide
has been deposited and holes cut in
same
Lyle
the epitaxial layer to
These not only acted as collector contacts but
the n + emitter diffusion
excess of 1.5GHz and
in
p-type silicon into which n-layers were diffused. These were later to be
formed
the collectors of transistors
the s
of being
IV which was
Ferranti, the Isoplanar process of Fairchild, the Process
the advantage of using less surface area than earlier processes.
down
to offer prospect
process (collector diffusion isolation) developed
Plessey's research centre at Caswell, and the Dutch Locos process developed by Philips.
at
All of these
(USA)
No
3,
utilising
an avalanching semiconductor device' by
Vinal
IBM
J.
p 196 (May 1981)
'Transistor responds to magnetic fields' ed Robert
pp 73-8 (15 February 1969)
H Cushman
Electronic Design
News
A Concise
1969
SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY SYSTEM
Agusta,
Date Order
in
R D Moore
and
G K
Tu
(USA)
Since the
in a
first
disclosure, by Agusta and Ayling et
computer system, the rapid development of
and power advantages of the
SOURCE:
silicon technology
memory
field
due
to the speed,
latter.
memory
'Nonvolatile semiconductor
probably
has led to the gradual (and
eventually complete) replacement of magnetics by semiconductors in the

density, cost
memory
the actual application of semiconductor
ah of
devices' by
J J
Chang
IEEE
Proc.
vol
64 No
7,
p 1039
(July 1976)
SEE ALSO:
'A 64
bit
memory
planar double-diffused monolithic
B Agusta ISCC
chip' by
Digest of
Tech. Papers p 38 (February 1969)
'A high-performance monolithic
by
store'
R D Moore and
Ayling,
G K
Tu ISCC Digest of Tech.
Papers p 36 (February 1969)
1970
TUNG-FANG-HUNG (CHINA
SOURCE:
(People's Republic of China)
1) Satellite
First satellite of the People's
Republic of China.
International
1970
VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDERS
Various (Japan, Europe)
In addition to professional video recorders, manufacturers also
market.
was
It
for this purpose that video cassette recorders
Towards the end of
The
first
the 1960s Matsushita,
prestige to the point where, today,
October 1970 Philips launched
In
SOURCE: The Book
it
its
for
Philips (Holland)
home
970
opposed
to tapes).
and Sony together developed the standard U-Matic.
in 1970.
Subsequently the standard U-Matic gained
in
considered to be the standard professional recorder.
VCR
an apparatus aimed
at
mass market.
the
were the
&
Co.) p
to
first
17 (1990)
produce a machine with
its
own
tuner and timer
(i.e.
suitable
viewers) in 1973.
SOURCE:
1
is
(as
(UK: Queen Anne Press, Macdonald
NOTE:
JVC
models were launched on the market
designed models intended for the mass
were developed
Private
communication from E Davies, London
UNIX
Bell Labs, University of California
(USA)
The Unix operating system grew out of research done
of California
at
Dennis Ritchie.
Berkeley.
Today there are versions of
supercomputers. The
name Unix
The main advantage of
this rather
and multi-user, which explains

called Unix
sums
3
in the
seemed
System
and Xenix.
set to
become
it
Laboratories and at the University
Bell
minicomputers by Ken Thompson and
for almost every sort of
dates from 1970, and the
complex operating system on
first
machine, from portables
microcomputer
that
that they
were setting up
seems
it
is
multi-task
for micros are
Bell Laboratories belong) have invested considerable
The Open Software Foundation was born

it
is
growing share of the market. The two main versions
AT&T (to which
to
version was marketed in 1975.
its
Unix System
the world standard, seven major builders representing
Siemens, Nixdorf and Apollo,
SOURCE:
its
itself
at
for
development of the Unix operating system. At the time when
computer science announced

standard.
was orginally designed
It
a foundation
in
all set to fight
May
the
which would develop
1988.
monopoly
version
40 per cent of world

its
own Unix
Formed of IBM, HP, DEC,

that
AT&T
was building
Bull.
up.
(UK: Queen Anne
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) p
17 (1990)
A Concise
218
1970
W S Boyle & G E Smith (USA)
CHARGE COUPLED DEVICES
Storing charge in potential wells created at the surface of a semiconductor and
moving the
(representing information) over the surface by
moving
the charge
minima.
potential
Principle of operation: creation of potential wells.
Consider the application of an increasingly positive voltage to the gate of the m.o.s. structure shown
figure
1.30(a).
As
is to
resembles that of the gate of an m.o.s. transistor,

of majority carriers
(i.e.
a small positive gate bias causes the repulsion
i.e.
holes) from the semiconductor immediately beneath the gate (figure 11.30(b)),
Vth makes
whilst a gate bias in excess of the threshold voltage,
form
at the
oxide-semiconductor interface (figure
however, the existence of a gate voltage
in
there
is
1.30(c)).
excess of
layer will form immediately in the structure of figure
V,h
1
possible for an inversion layer to
it
Unlike the situation
in an m.o.s. transistor,
does not necessarily mean
1.30(a).
This
is
form the channel, no such source
an inversion
that
because, whereas in an m.o.s. t.
a source diffusion capable of supplying, almost instantaneously, a large
carriers to
in
be expected, the influence of the gate on the underlying semiconductor closely
number of minority
exists adjacent to each c.c.d. electrode.
v<
ELECTRODE
OXIDE-*-:
-/DEPLETION LAYER
p-TYPE SEVICONCCTCR
(b)
CO)
a ""<>
.r.-.Y.y.Y.
INVERSION LAYER
(c)
Figure 11.30. Single
c.c.d. electrode
showing the creation of depletion and inversion layers under
the influence
of an increasingly positive electrode voltage.
SOURCE: 'Charge
& Electronic
Radio
coupled devices
concepts, technologies and
Engineer vol 45,
SEE ALSO: 'Charge coupled

vol 49, p583 (1970)
No
1,
applications' by J
D A Benyon
The
p 647 (November 1975)
semiconductor devices' by
S Boyle and
G E
Smith Bell System Tech.
J.
1970
X-RAY LITHOGRAPHY FOR BUBBLE DEVICES
Spiller,
Castellani,
Feder,
Romankiw, J Topalian and

Heritage (USA)
X-rays have been used for several decades to obtain images of objects,
for the fabrication of microelectronic devices
were made
simple, they have a high throughput because
have a resolution which
produced the
first
is at
least as
good
in 1970.
First
proposals to use x-rays
X-ray lithographic systems are very
many wafers can be exposed simultaneously and
as that of electron
beam
they
systems. In 1972 Spears and Smith
devices using proximity printing with x-rays and demonstrated the high resolution
capability of x-ray lithography.
In particular, x-ray lithography lends itself to the fabrication of high
resolution devices requiring no alignment capability, such as magnetic bubble devices.
SOURCE:
'X-ray lithography for bubble devices' by
Romankiw and
SEE ALSO:
Spiller,
Fedor.
Topalian,
Castellani,
Heritage Solid State Technology p 62 (April 1976)
'X-ray projection printing of electrical circuit patterns' by
1065 (August 1970)
Feder
IBM
Report TR22,
A Concise
'High resolution pattern replication using soft x-rays' by

8,
'Evolution of bubble circuits processed by a single
IEEE
Strauss
The concept of floppy
discs
much
has become a very
is
by
level'
MAG-9,
Smith Electron.
vol
Lett,
A H
rapidly
in-device
becoming accepted
when
in
many
first,
was
obscure one
a pretty
In
at that.
its
original
form
was
it
IBM
370 when introduced
part of the diagnostic system
IBM 3300
370/155 and 165 and formed part of the controller for the
it
communications systems.
disk drive. At that stage
a read-only device and enabled diagnostic programs to be introduced quickly, to identify faults
and help
Indeed,
reduce maintenance time.
to
was not
it
1973
until
that
it
can be properly said
system. That was the 3740 data entry system
because
was
by accident.
designed and developed by IBM, was simply a component of the
and
Danylchuck, F
areas of data processing. Indeed,
talking about data entry and data
The
1970
IBM (USA)
yet the very concept of floppy discs appears to have started almost
for the
Bobeck,
p 474 (1973)
And
it
it
have formed an integral part of an
to
IBM
which promptly established an industry standard and,
much
provided three times the storage and
faster access, rendered
what competition there
virtually obsolete overnight.
SOURCE:
1970
mask
Trans, on Magnetics vol
'FLOPPY DISC RECORDER
in
Spears and
p 102 (1972)
Rossol and
1970
DL
NATO-1
"Accident' became the floppy discs' by
W Boffin, Electronics Weekly p

NATO
Satellite
Launched 20 March 1970.

the equator at approximately
wideband
data, telegraph
SOURCE:
Telecommunication
18W
data).
(12
May
1976)
(International)
Geostationary space craft stationed over
satellite.
Hundreds of communications of various types (voice,
longitude.
and facsimile
11
More than 7000
International
1971
BUMPED TAPE AUTOMATIC BONDING
The concept began with Tape Automated Bonding which automated

packaged IC devices,
initially
contact pads or bumps.
making
it
now
BTAB
using patterned etched copper
modified
possible to gang
bond
this
S Fraenkel (USA)
the bonding and assembly of
lead frames and IC chips with raised
foil
approach by providing the bumps
to conventional
bonding material and the physical standoff
S Liu and
at the
end of each lead
IC chips. These bumps provided the requisite
The
to prevent lead/chip shorting.
potential for
volume
production and cost savings motivated the development of essential equipment, materials, processes
and tooling. However, because of competitive and proprietary aspects, much development was carried
out independently and thus often duplicated.
SOURCE: 'BTAB's
future
SEE ALSO: 'Bumped
an
optimistic prognosis' Solid Stae Technology p 77 (March 1980)
tape automated bonding
(BTAB)
applications' by
Proc. International Microelectronic Conference Anaheim,
CA
RF
Unger,
Burns and
Kanz
pp 71-7 (February-March 1979)
27,
'Application of tape automated bonding technology for hybrids' by
R G Oswald
and
R Rodrigues
de Miranda Solid State Technology pp 33-8 (March 1977)

1971
HOLOGRAM MATRIX RADAR
Iizuka
V K Nguyen
and
Ogura
(Canada)
The concept of hologram matrix
is
proposed.
This concept was incorporated into the design of a
novel radar which, unlike conventional radars, determines the distance by the spatial distribution of the
scattered
wave
built for the
rather than by the lapse of times.
purpose of mapping
in other fields.
The
radar based upon this principle
ice thickness in the range of 0.5
but
it
was developed and
has potential applications
A Concise
220
Such
Date Order
in
a radar has real-time processing capability resulting
The programability of
computer subsystems.
from an amalgamation of the antenna and
the radiation pattern
by software of the processing
Capability of dual focussing of the transmitter and receiver
simplifies the construction of the radar.
eliminates the necessity of either pulsing, or frequency modulation of the transmitting signal. Superior
performance
advantageous for measuring lossy
in the short range, with high resolution, is particularly
ice.
These features were substantiated by experimental
results obtained
from the
field
operation of the
system.
SOURCE:
'A hologram matrix radars' by
Weedmark
Proc.
IEEE
SEE ALSO: 'Review

thickness' by
in Toronto,
Iizuka,
Ogura,
V K Nguyen
and
Ogura. Presented
Yen, Van-Khai
M28-M33 (December
its
at the
Aerospace Electronic Symposium

J.
No
vol 17,
10,
1971)
application to a novel radar' by
H Ogura
and
Iizuka.
Proc.
IEEE
(Lett.)
pp 1040-1 (July 1973)
Gilbert (USA)
carrier-domain device, as conceived by Gilbert, consists of an elongated bipolar transistor, within
which emitter-current flow
is
restricted to a small region
known
as a domain.
The domain can be moved
within the device, subject to an external signal. Using this concept novel devices,
from
directly
is
Nguyen and John R
published in Can. Aeronaut. Space
is
CARRIER-DOMAIN MAGNETOMETER
A
1495 (October 1976)
10, p
Canada on March 16 1971. Text
'Hologram matrix and
1971
No
of the electrical properties of ice and HISS down-looking radar for measuring ice
Iizuka,
pp 429-30 and pp
vol 61,
vol 64,
their
geometry, can be designed.
a magnetic-field sensor in
which two domains are caused
by the application of a magnetic

at a rate
One form of
field
normal
to rotate together
to the silicon surface.
The
proportional to the magnetic-flux density.
whose functions
arise
carrier-domain device proposed by Gilbert
first
around a circular device
Output current pulses are produced
successful carrier-domain magnetometer
(c.d.m.) based on this design has been fabricated and operated by the authors, and brief details of
its
operation have been published.
SOURCE:
and
GG
'The carrier-domain magnetometer: a novel silicon magnetic
Bloodworth Solid-State and Electron Devices vol
SEE ALSO: 'New
planar distributed devices based on a
Technical Digest p 166 (1971) (Ref.
'Novel magnetic
'Novel magnetic
1971
Manley,
GG
field
domain
pp 608-10 (1976)
first
6,
field sensor'
by
N Manley
p 176 (November 1978)
principle'
by Gilbert B IEEE ISSCC
proposed device designs' by Gilbert B
(Ref. 2: p 183)
sensor using carrier domain rotation: operation and practical performance' by
Bloodworth and
Y Z Bahnas
Electron. Lett, vol 12, pp 610-1
ELECTRONIC DIGITAL WATCH

The
No
p 183)
sensor using carrier domain rotation:
field
Electron. Lett, vol 12,
1:
2,
electronic digital watch
(1976) (Ref.
3:
p 183)
Time Computer Corporation (USA)
was introduced
in the fall
of 1971: the Pulsar, retailing for $2000 with
an 18-carat gold case bracelet. Touch a button and the light-emitting diodes showed the time.
(It
took
about a year for Pulsar to add the day and date.)
SOURCE:
1971
FAMOS
Electronics p 401 (17 April 1980).
(Floating-Gate Avalanche-Injection
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)
Frohman-Bentchkowsky (USA)
INTEGRATED
CIRCUIT
Famos
describes the floating-gate avalanche-injection metal-oxide semiconductor transistor that
Frohman-Bentchkowsky developed
The Famos device
made
is
at Intel
Corp.
essentially a silicon-gate
in
MOS
to the floating silicon gate. Instead, charge
is
Dov
1971.
field-effect transistor in
which no connection
is
injected into the gate by avalanches of high-energy
electrons from either the source or the drain.
voltage of
28
221
volts applied to the pn junction releases
the electrons.
Data
stored in a
is
Famos memory by charging
The threshold voltage then changes, and

The Famos
cell
the floating-gate insulator
is
the basis for readout.
has generally been considered more reliable than nitride storage mechanism used
reprogrammable metal-nitride-oxide-semiconductor memories.
in
above the channel region.
the presence or absence of conduction
through a thin oxide layer into traps
at
MNOS
In
But a
the oxide-nitride interface.
memories
carriers tunnel
of stored charge
partial loss
during readout limits the number of readout cycles to approximately 10".

In
Famos memories, on
the other hand, there
the loss of stored electrons
no loss of charge due to reading. Moreover, over time,
is
negligible, less than
is
one per
cell per year,
and information retention
is
excellent.
SOURCE:
1971
DSCS-1
'The Famos principle' Electronics p 109 (3 March 1977)
(USA)
Satellite
Launched
November
1971. Defense Satellite
multichannel communications payload.
Communication System. Synchronous
Four antennae, two
for
satellite
narrow beams for ground controlled direction beaming for high-volume communications.
1300
carrying
wide earth coverage and two with

Capacity:
circuits.
SOURCE:
International
1971
CERAMIC CHIP CARRIER

A
3M
Co. (USA)
popular IC package was the ceramic chip-carrier. About one third the size of a comparable DIP,
originated in 1971
at
the
3M
Co., in St Paul, Minn.
whose bottom periphery contained

bonded
to a
a pattern of gold
It
was
it
a square, multilayered ceramic package
bumps on 40-
The chip was
or 50-mil centres.
gold base pad inside a cavity within the ceramic. The small hermetically sealed package
could be easily attached or removed from pc boards and hybrids.
SOURCE:
1971
SALYUT-1
(USSR)
Satellite
Launched 19 April 1971. Objectives:

Control by remote
command
23 days
Decayed on
in Salyut.
SOURCE:
scientific research
and testing of on-board systems and
or by crew. Visited by crews of Soyuz-10 and Soyuz-1

11
The
latter
units.
spent
October, 1971.
International
1971
LIQUID CRYSTAL STUDY OF OXIDE DEFECTS

One
of the most convenient techniques was
first
reported by Keen.
Keen (UK)
It
consists of introducing, between
the oxidised silicon and a tin oxide coated glass slide, a thin film of negative nematic liquid crystal.
applying a voltage across

liquid crystal.
this 'capacitor' structure, defects
For plane electrodes without an oxide layer the same turbulence
In the case of oxides containing defects,
On
can be seen as highly turbulent regions of
however, the turbulence
is
is
present everywhere.
particularly violent
making location
of a defect easy.
SOURCE:
and
R A
'Polarity
dependent oxide defects located using liquid crystals' by
Stuart Solid State Electronics vol 19, p 133 (1976)
SEE ALSO:
Keen Electron
Lett,
vol 7,
No
15,
p 432 (1971)
AK
Zakzouk.
W Eccleston
222
1971
MICROPROCESSOR
In 1971
MEHoff(USA)
Marcian E Hoff, then working
developed the
for Intel,
microprocessor which he baptised the
first
4004. Hoff brought together the elementary functions of a computer on a single electronic component
(an integrated circuit).
SOURCE: The Book

(UK: Queen Anne
1972
contained the equivalent of 230 transistors and was a four-bit processor.
It
&
Macdonald
Press,
Co.) p 119 (1990)
MICROCOMPUTER
For three years a great revolution has been taking place
first
(USA)
Intel
microcomputer was introduced by
Intel, these
in digital electronics.
Since 1972, when the
devices have been very successfully used in a wide
range of applications, including process control, data communications, instrumentation and commercial
systems.
The key
to this success
microcomputers are used
SOURCE:
is
due
to the price/performance ratio
enhancement
when
that occurs
system when compared with more traditional approaches.
in a
'The microcomputer comes of age' by
Kornstein Microelectronics vol
No
8,
p 17
1,
(1976)
1972
VIDEOGAMES
First to
Magnavox (USA)
market a video game consumers could buy and take home was Magnavox,
their original
Odyssey game was not an immediate sensation, perhaps because
score-keeping feature, lacked sounds, and required a plastic overlay on the

net, goals
and boundaries of
scoring and sound for $89.95. Also,

circuits are
The second major milestone
when
Atari and Sears
Inc.)
was assured
Atari
is
to
home
video games was established just over a year ago
features associated with Atari's successful line of coin
closely with one of
the add-on
TV
game
chips.
was expected
to
sell
to enter the
games became obvious
market came
announced production of
New
favourable.
in
its
to other entrepreneurs.
March 1976 when
AY-3-8500 TV-game
companies anxious
for
that
were constructed
$1000-$3000 each
peak somewhere under $100
Meanwhile, with Odyssey more streamlined and the Atari/Sears venture
TV
These chips greatly reduced
coin-game products
The coin games normally
version
games and
integrated circuit suppliers (American Microsystems,
its
a supply of dedicated, proprietary
with hundreds of standard logic circuits.
aspects of consumer
Since then,
offered with automatic serve, digital
produce and market Hockey Pong for the 1975 Christmas season.
the parts count, and costs, associated with Atari's original
consumer acceptance of
now
stationary playing-court features are electronically generated.
all
in the evolution of
teamed up
By working
screen to simulate the
produced by Texas Instruments and the General Instrument Corp.
The product had many of the important

sold briskly.
had no automatic
a playing field (static electricity held the overlay in place).
Odyssey has evolved through four model changes and
Magnavox's game
TV
However,
in 1972.
it
first
video
opportunity
(GI) Hicksville,
integrated circuits. Product acceptance
home
but.
proven success, the lucrative
For many, the
the General Instrument Corp.
for an early shot at the
retail.
was
NY,
swift and
game sweepstakes quickly
snapped up GI's projected 1976 production capacity of game chips.
SOURCE:
'Electronic
SEE ALSO:
Gamesmanship' by
Mennie IEEE Spectrum p 27 (December 1976)
'Video games: perishable or durable'
J.
Electronics Industry. Japan vol 23,
No
10,
p 38
(October 1976)
1972
LANDSAT-1 (ERTS-1)
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 23 July 1972. Earth Resources Technology
Satellite.
Objectives: to obtain coverage of the
United States and other major land masses with multispectral, high spatial resolution (60 m) images of
solar radiation reflected
from the earth's surface. These images
will
be used
in agricultural, geological,
geographical, hydrological and oceanographical research.
SOURCE:
International
A
1972
MICROELECTRONICS (V-MOS
Because of the work of
California,
semiconductor technology
itself in a big
compete with the new,
that will
Date Order
way
to
faster
223
J Rodgers (USA)
American Microsystems
a 27-year-old research engineer,
on the verge of committing
is
technique)
in
V-MOS
an
Inc., in
Santa Clara,
n-channel metal-oxide
and denser bipolar
static
designs and
processes.
The engineer
in
TJ
is
Rodgers, who, as a doctoral candidate
nearby Palo Alto, invented the V-groove
was
to
MOS
push
technology to
limits so
its
power products and high packing
MOS
engineering
in electrical
at
Stanford University
process (Electronics 18 September p 65).
His goal
would achieve bipolar speeds as well as high speed
it
random
densities in read-only and static random-access memories,
logic and microprocessor designs.
SOURCE:
1972
'Young EE's ideas
to alter
AMI's
direction' Electronics p 14 (22 January 1976)
NITROGEN-FIRED COPPER WIRING

market researchers
In late 1971,
precious metals
made
at
Owens-Illinois
the time right for research
young chemist, John
Grier,
Grier (USA)
Toledo, Ohio, decided that the rising cost of
Inc.,
on non-noble conductors
who had been
for thick-film microelectronics.
with the firm for five years, was assigned as program
manager.
Grier decided to concentrate on creating a workable nitrogen-fired copper paste. There had been earlier
research on copper pastes, but these compositions used 100-micrometre copper particles to produce
conductors with poor peel strength and low conductivity.
He went
to 3 to 5
and vehicle
that
/zm copper
particles for the functional phase of the ink
could survive
firing at
and found both
screenable copper paste that had good peel strength and conductivity.
predicted that the
SOURCE:
1972
new copper
paste
would be
suitable for microstrip
it
At
that point Grier correctly
and thick-film hybrid applications.
EMI (UK)
skull surrounds the brain
organ;
binder
Electronics p 121 (28 October 1976)
X-RAY SCANNER
The
a glass
about 800 C. The late 1972 result was a patented, practical,
and provides a very good protection for
also heavily attenuates diagnostic X-rays.
The
imaged by X-rays, which does not have much contrast
make imaging of
the brain
brain
to
is
this
a relatively
show up
its
most delicate and
vital
homogeneous organ, when
structure.
These two problems
by conventional X-radiography of very limited diagnostic value. Contrast
techniques can be used to improve the imaging but they do involve
some
and the
risk to the patients
need for hospitalisation. They are expensive.

In 1972,
EMI
Limited introduced computerised axial tomography to overcome these limitations. This
new technique was developed at the Central Research Laboratories of EMI.

showed that this was a major advance in diagnostic imaging.
radical
In
computerized axial tomography the patient
The transmitted beam

Another detector
is
The frame, carrying
is
used
is
scanned by a tightly collimated narrow beam of X-rays.
detected and converted to an electric signal after passing through the patient.
in the reference
mode
to
measure the primary X-ray beam.
number
the X-ray source and detectors traverses linearly across the patient, a large
of readings of X-ray intensity are taken and stored as
by a small angle and the process

until a large
Clinical trials rapidly
is
it
traverses, the gantry
repeated. This series of verses and angular
is
then indexed round
movements
is
repeated
matrix of data has been acquired.
The computer then uses
or printed as a
this data to calculate the
map
of X-ray absorption numbers by a line printer.
effects of absorption in other parts of the
bone structure
is
overcome.
map of
map on a
X-ray absorption coefficient
This can then be displayed as a brightness modulation
of the anatomy.
anatomy so
that the
this cross section
cathode ray tube
The computation cancels
problem of shadowing by the
out the
skull or
224
SOURCE:
1972
in
Date Order
'Section by section' by Shelley Stuart Electronics Weekly p 16 (7 April 1976)
W Bardsley, G W Green, C H
AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF CRYSTAL GROWTH
Holliday and
we
In this note,
DT
J Hurle (UK)
describe a novel, alternative method of automatic diameter control (or, more
may be of
control of cross-sectional area, since the crystals
strictly,
non-circular section) for which certain
advantages can be claimed. Put simply, the method comprises 'weighing' the growing crystal by means
of an industrial weighing
cell
from which the
pull rod
hung. The method requires that there are no
is
constraints to the vertical motion of the pull rod, and this

enters the growth chamber.
for the initial evacuation
and flushing before growth, the rod
The
pull rod has a self-aligning bearing at
and
is
The
electrical signal
rotated
by
low
friction pin
its
upper end
power
from the weighing
cell is
The
travel.
initial
sealed by a constrictable rubber sleeve.
is
provide a connection to the weighing
compared with
is
cell,
a signal from a rectilinear potentiometer
amplified and used to adjust the crucible heating
which minimises the difference
in that direction
setting electrically the
to
and fork arrangement.
driven from the leadscrew nut and any difference
by
achieved by a gas bearing where the rod
is
Normally, some of the ambient gas escapes through the gas bearing, but
The desired diameter
signal.
is
predetermined
magnitude of the potentiometer output voltage per unit distance of
growth out from the diameter of the seed
pull rod
crystal to the final diameter has also
been
automatically controlled by introducing a non-linear element in series with the potentiometer output
circuit.
SOURCE:
DTJ
and
SEE ALSO:
Cockayne,
Growth
1972
J.
Crystal Growth vol 16, p 277 (1972)
'Developments
W Green, D T
was
the
Hurle,
weighing method of automatic crystal pulling' by
GC
Joyce, J
Roslington, P
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY
The RAM-father of them

It
in the
J
first
SOURCE:
all,
Intel
from
the 1103
Tufton and
Bardsley,
H C Webber J.
Crystal
in a
'Special
low-cost
report
MOS
(USA)
stampede
Intel started the
to
semiconductor memories.
memory could be
time that more than 1000 bits of read/write
semiconductor chip
369 (1974)
vol 24/25, p
1024 BIT
W Bardsley, G W Green, C H Holliday
'Automatic control of Czochralski crystal growth' by

Hurle
supplied on a single
configuration.
semiconductor
RAM's
land computer mainframe jobs'
by L Altman
Electronics p 64 (28 August 1972)
1972
INTEGRATED INJECTION LOGIC

Logic gates suitable for large-scale integration (LSI) should
Hart and
satisfy
Slob (Holland)
three important requirements.
Processing has to be simple and under good control to obtain an acceptable yield of reliable IC's
containing about 1000 gates.
extreme chip dimensions.
The
basic gate must be as simple and compact as possible to avoid
Finally, the power-delay time product
must be so high
that operation at a
reasonable speed does not cause excessive chip dissipation.

Multicollect or transistors fed by carrier injection proved to be a novel and attractive solution.
simplified (five masks) standard bipolar process
is
with interconnection widths and spacings of 5 /im.

additional advantage
is
a very
low supply voltage
used resulting
in a
The power-delay time product

(less than
packing density of 400 gates/mm 2
V). This,
is
0.4 pj per gate.
combined with
An
the possibility
of choosing the current level within several decades enables use in very low-power applications. With
a
normal seven-mask technology, analog circuitry has been combined with integrated injection logic
2
L).
SOURCE:
'Integrated injection logic
Journal of Solid State Circuits vol SC-7
SEE ALSO:
at the
IEEE
'Super integrated bipolar

Int.
new approach
No
5,
memory
to LSI'
by Kees Hart and Arie Slob IEEE

devices' by S
K Wiedman
Electron Devices Conference (11-13 October 1971
and
H H
Berger. Presented

1972
DEEP PROTON-ISOLATED LASER
225
P Dyment, L A D'Asaro, J C
B I Miller and J E Ripper
North,
(USA)
Proton bombardment as a means of isolation
It
was
now widely used
lasers with junctions at a depth of
fibreoptics, with
25 /im square
40
to
devices.
in 1972.
pm from the surface are required
used
fibres, are
number of semiconductor
for a
demonstrated for (GaAl)As/GaAs heterostructure lasers
first
High peak-power
where
is
for applications
couple the output of several lasers to form a
high brightness source.
SOURCE.
'Deep proton-isolated
Devices vol
3,
No
1,
and proton range data for InP and GaSb Solid-State and Electron
lasers
(January 1979)
SEE ALSO:
'Proton-bombardment formation of stripe-geometry heterostructure
operation'
Dyment, L
D'Asaro,
North,
Miller and J
lasers for
300
IEEE
Ripper Proc.
c.w.
vol 60,
pp 726-8 (1972)
1972
VIDEODISCS
Philips (Holland)
Philips Gloeilampenfabrieken demonstrated a long-playing video disk in
a dramatic
September 1972.
improvement over an AEG-Telefunken/Decca black-and-white video disk
demonstrated
in 1970.
that
It
was
had been
Because the Teldec disks had grooves and mechanical tracking, they suffered
from short playing time (an 8-inch disk played
for only 5 minutes)
and high record wear. The Philips
disks held 30 to 45 minutes of colour material and instead of grooves had submicrometer pits
molded
into a spiral track; a laser-generated light spot read the patterns.
SOURCE:
1973
Electronics p 409 (17 April 17 1980)
DRY ETCHING
The
Mitsubishi Electric
Co
(Japan)
application of dry etching techniques using plasma chemistry to semiconductor processing
introduced by Mitsubishi Electric Co., Japan.

able to etch silicon and
its
plasma was produced by
rf
shows
It
compounds (Si02, Si^N^.

(13.56
MHz)
that gas
was
plasma containing fluorine species are
In the experiments, the gas
used was
CF4
discharge and a barrel type plasma reactor was used.
The
etching mechanism was principally considered to be a chemical reaction between silicon and the fluorine
However, the
radicals in plasma.
known
not
details of the etching characteristics
and the etching mechanisms were
in those days.
This technique promised a number of advantages over wet etching methods

precise pattern control, problems of etchant preparation and disposal, and cost.
in
terms of improved
was expected
It
to play
an important role in the fabrication of Si integrated circuits (SLI, VLSI).
SOURCE: 'Etching characteristics of silicon, and its compounds

T Enomoto Jap. J Appl. Phys. vol 12, No (1973)
and
1973
SCANNING ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPE

In
by gas plasma' by
Abe,
Sonobe
C F Quate (USA)
1973 Professor Quate conceived an approach of elegant simplicity
would use sound,
fifty
which already exceeds the resolution of

idea,
can be as
which was
much
to
produce
rather than light, in order to form images. This achievement
of applied scientists for more than
The key
years, led to the extremely rapid
microscope
that
which had been the aim
development of
microscope
optical microscopes.
the recognition of the fact that velocities of acoustic
waves
in
some
solids
as seven times greater than the velocity in water, resulted in the production of a lens
which could focus
beam of sounds on
cannot image a complete
field,
its
axis, without significant aberrations.
Whilst such
a lens
Professor Quate recognised that the axial focus was enough for the
realisation of a mechanically-scanned
microscope
The scanning acoustic microscope has opened up
in
which
the
a completely
image was reproduced point by
new
field
point.
of microscopy which permits
the direct imaging of biological specimens and the examination of silicon integrated circuits and other
solid objects.
226
A Concise
SOURCE: 'Major prizes for

No 3, p 107 (March 1982)
SEE ALSO:
and Electronic Engineer
opto-electronics inventions' The Radio
'Seeing acoustically' by
R K
R L Rylander IEEE Spectrum
Mueller and
vol 52,
p 28 (February
1982)
D B Webb
'Thermal imaging via cooled detectors' by
No
The Radio and Electronic Engineer vol 52,
1,
p 17 (January 1982)
D A
'Recent developments in scanning acoustic microscopy' by
Wickramasinghe The Radio and Electronic Engineer vol 52, No

1973
LOGIC-STATE ANALYSER
Sinclair,
10, p
H K
Smith and
479 (October 1982)
C H House (USA)
(Displaying Binary
Notation in Is and 0s)
LOGIC-TIMING ANALYSER
(for
Recording,
Moore (USA)
Displaying and Analysing Complex Timing

Relationships)
One problem, two men, two
So Charles
Biomation Corp.
were the
circuits
solutions: yet both designers
right;
both of their designs were needed.
in Cupertino, California,
Moore of
developed two markedly different diagnostic instruments
that
such electronic tools for studying, designing and troubleshooting complex digital logic
first
and systems.
The 160 1L
is
a plug-in unit for
series oscilloscopes, giving a 12-channel, 16- word-memory
HP's 180
logic-state analyser for 10-megahertz operation.
256 logic
stores
were
House of Hewlett-Packard Co's Colorado Springs (Colo.) division, and
states
The Biomation 10-MHz 810-D
digital logic recorder
on each of eight channels, displaying waveform-like timing diagrams on an
oscilloscope.
SOURCE:
'Logic-analyser originators cited
for
innovation
testing
1977 award for achievement'
1973
SKYLAB-1
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 14 May 1973. Manned

to live
and work
in
orbital research laboratory.
limits of earth-based observation; to
make
Objectives:
to
determine man's
ability
space for extended periods: to extend the science of solar astronomy beyond the
develop improved techniques for surveying earth resources, to
various investigations requiring a constant zero gravity environment.
SOURCE:
Table
of
Artificial
Launched
Satellites
Between
1957
and
1976
(International
Telecommunication Union, Geneva) (1977)
1974
Various (Worldwide)
IT (Information Technology)
Information and communications technologies are changing the
educate our children and ourselves. They are influencing the

entertain ourselves and do business.
New
options are being provided for us
education, environmental protection, culture, and business.

private individuals and public administrations
The impact of
at this
time.
this
way work,
is
study,
do research, and
way we do our banking, pay our
more
direct
becoming increasingly
in the field
bills,
of health care,
and open rapport between
possible.
information revolution on our society cannot yet be fully measured or predicted
The combination of new and
rapidly developing interactive multimedia computers and
applications with electronic networks will require a restructuring of our traditional approach to strategic
planning and organisational structure.
It
will also
mean
a considerable
change
in the
way we
interact
with each other, with business and with government.
Moreover,
it
has the potential to overcome the marginalising effects of distance and geography.
It
could
enable regional economies to be revitalised, and consumers and businesses in rural and remote areas to
be re-integrated into mainstream economic and cultural
activity.
227
For each individual citizen, the information society also means greater choice and new opportunities,
new markets and employment
sharing of cultural knowledge and experiences and the creation of

opportunities.
SOURCE:
1974
& T Magazine No
17,
(July 1995)
ELECTRON BEAM LITHOGRAPHY

Electron-beam lithography was the key
its
ability to
Bell Laboratories
making
to
make masks with micrometre-wide
the
lines,
masks
(USA)
for the optical lithography units.
Without
no LSI lithography technique based on the use
of either masks or reticles would have been possible.
One of
the
first
electron-beam systems came from Bell Laboratories
Exposure System,
it
Wafer alignment with the beam was controlled by a
SOURCE
1974
in 1974.
made masks by using a raster-scanned beam aimed
at
Called the Electron-Beam
a continuously moving table.
laser interferometer.
W R Cady and W
CATT (CONTROLLED AVALANCHE
S P Yu,
TRANSIT-TIME TRIODES)
Tantraporn (USA)
The use of avalanche and
transit-time effects in
microwave
transistor-like structures for increased gain
and higher-frequency operation has been proposed by us and others
in recent publications.
We
have
previously described the basic principle and large-signal theory of the controlled-avalanche transit-time
triode
(CATT) and have
also reported
purpose of the present paper

resulting
is
some
to discuss
experimental results in the 1-3
initial
more
fully certain aspects
of
CATT
GHz
region.
The
design and operation
from the avalanche-multiplication process and those whose importance has become clearer
through our further investigations.
SOURCE:
'Avalanche multiplication in CATTs' by
vol
1,
No
1,
SEE ALSO: 'A new three-terminal microwave power

IEEE Trans, vol ED-21, p 736 (1974)
'The third terminal
in
Eshbach, S P Yu and
W R Cady IEE Solid State
microwave devices' by
oscillator'
Carroll Proc.
by S P Yu,
W R Cady and W Tantraporn
European Solid-State Device Research
Conf. Nottingham (1974)

'Transistor
vol 10, p
1974
PRESTEL
Mr
improvements using an impatt
collector'
by
Winstanley and
Carroll Electron. Lett.
516 (1974)
System
S Fedida (UK)
Fedida invented the concept of viewdata whilst working
early 1970s.
It
combines
at the
Post Office Research Centre in the
a modified television set, a telephone line
and a computer: a push button
control panel calls up a 'page' of the information required by a subscriber on to a television screen
using a telephone line link routed into a computer data bank. The simplicity of operating the system
provides the potential for the mass marketing of information on a wide range of general and technical
subjects.
SOURCE:
'1979 MacRobert award for software system inventor' S Fedida The Radio and Electronic
Engineer vol 50,

1974
WESTAR-1
No
1/2,
p 10
(USA)
Satellite

orbit over equator at
First
United States domestic communication
satellite
placed in synchronous
99 W. Can transmit 12 colour television channels or up
telephone circuits through five earth stations located close to
New
to
14400 one-way
York, Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas and
Los Angeles.
SOURCE:
International
A Concise
228
1974
SINGLE CHIP MICROPROCESSOR
16-BIT
The semiconductor
industry's
single-chip microprocessor
16-bit,
first
National Semiconductor Corp.
PACE
Called
National (USA)
(for processing
handle 16-bit instructions and addresses, and either 16-bit or 8-bit data.
MOS
silicon-gate
technology because, the company says,
n-MOS
established technology than
two power
requires only
be introduced by
to
p-MOS
It is
more predictable and
is
supplies,
+5 V
12
and
the entire circuit
fit
will
being built with p-channel
and meets both of PACE'S main requirements:
execution time for instructions, and enough density to
PACE
soon
is
and control element), the device
better
10-microsecond
on a single
chip.
V, instead of the three required with n-channel
fabrication.
SOURCE:
1974
show
'National to
BAR CODES
16-bit processor
on single chip' Electronics p 35 (28 November 1974)
Ad Hoc Committee
(The Uniform Product Code)
of the Grocery
Industry (USA)
historic
moment came
development
for
store in Troy,
Ohio
could read the
at
8.01
am
on 26 June 1974 when Clyde Dawson, director of research and
Marsh Supermarkets, bought

the
first
a 10-pack of Wrigley's
purchase made in the
first
Chewing
store to be fully
new Uniform Product Codes (UPC). The UPCs,
Gum
in his
or barcodes, the patterns of black and
white lines printed on the packaging of groceries and other merchandise, signalled a
development of the grocery industry

the
in the
company's
equipped with scanners which
new
stage in the
United States, a transformation brought about by the use of
UPC.
What was novel about
the process of innovation leading to be barcode
involved in this development were organized.

Industry,
went on
was formed
to
to
committee, the
was
way
the
in
which the people
Ad Hoc Committee
of the Grocery
decide whether a code was needed and once they had established the need, they
develop specifications for both a code and the equipment
to read
it.
From
these specifications
various manufacturers then designed the actual equipment.
The barcode system

change on
is
an early, perhaps the
a large scale that
major international industry.
it
first,
example of a new way of handling technological
affected very rapidly, not just one firm or sector but the whole of a
Essentially, the barcode
enterprise' version of central planning
and
was an innovation produced
Committee, came out of the particular structure and conditions found
The
1960s.
great achievement of the committee
States,
was not
in the
US
a 'free
Ad Hoc
food industry
just to devise the actual
in the
code system but
to
development of the whole of the food industry.
facilitate the future
SOURCE:
to order
the organization that carried out this project, the
'Packaging history:
1970-75' by
The emergence of
the uniform product
Morton History and Technology vol
1,
code (UPC)
in the
United
p 101 (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic
Publishers) (1994)
1975
THE GYROTRON
A G Gapanov
Although the foundations for high-power-gyrotron development were

reported real breakthrough describing a working device
made
to rotate at a cyclotron frequency
of
of the
it)
static
magnetic
field.
(which
Hence
it
is
is
was
in
laid
et al
(USSR)
sometime previously,
the
first
1975. In this device, the electrons are
also near the operating frequency or a sub-harmonic
sometimes called
'cyclotron resonance maser'.
All
devices mentioned here are based on developments arising from the concept of the cyclotron resonance
maser.
The impetus
who hoped
for the
to
development of gyrotrons came from Russian workers
in the
be able to heat dense plasma, confined by a powerful magnetic
microwave energy
at the
cyclotron resonance frequency.
If sufficient
nuclear-energy
field,
power could be absorbed
this way, then temperatures approaching those required for fusion could be reached.
required
magnetic
fields
is
in the region of 10 to
fields
of 2.0
used
to 4.0
in
20
MW
for several seconds.
The power
The frequency required
plasma containment machines (such as Tokamaks)
field,
by adsorbing
is
50 to 100
GHz
in
level
for typical
for
magnetic
A Concise
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO: Gapanov A V

Gapanov
A V
priority of
1975
'The gyrotron' by
LOCMOS
in
Date Order
229
Smith Electronics and Power p 389 (May 1981)
et al Radiofizika 18,
cm-mm
'A device for
et al
24 March 1967
p 280 (1975)
No 223931
and sub-mm wave generation' Copyright
KD10
(Official bulletin
(Locally Oxidised
Complementary
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)
INTEGRATED
of
SM USSR
(1 1)
with
p 200. 1976)
Philips (Netherlands)
CIRCUIT
LOCMOS
is
an
acronym
locally-oxidized
for
CMOS,
Laboratories which produces a high performance, high density
CMOS. The LOCMOS 4000

needs
range which
LOCMOS
Features of
speeds.
is
invented
by Philips Research
CMOS
that costs
no more than standard
pin-for-pin compatible with other popular
and thus enables
less chip area per function
process
full
4000 ranges,
buffered circuitry to be built into every device.
4000 include high noise immunity, standardised outputs and increased system
The increased voltage
gain,
due
to buffering, gives
every device will give a guaranteed output of 400 /iA from a
almost ideal transfer characteristics, and
5V power
supply. Output impedance and
propagation delay are independent of input pattern and reduced sidewall capacitance results in higher
speed.
SOURCE:
1975
'Mullard announce
VIK1NG-1
LOCMOS
4000' Mullard Press Information Sheet, p
(September 1975)
(USA)
Satellite
Objectives:
to explore the surface
and atmosphere of the planet Mars.
Includes an orbiter and a lander separating on approach to Mars.

Orbiter: spacecraft arrived at
Mars
in
June 1976.
Lander: landed on Mars on 20 July 1976.
SOURCE:
International
1975
MICROELECTRONICS
For the
first
(Integrated Optical Circuits)
combined
time, scientists have
a laser with
Reinhart and
components such
lightguides in a single crystal microcircuit, just as multiple
components
R A Logan
(USA)
as modulators, filters, and
are fabricated in an integrated
electronic circuit.
The
devices, integrated optical circuits measuring usually about 6 by 15 mils, operate within the structure
of a semiconductor injection
laser.
This type of circuit represents an alternative to hybrid integrated optics where components
fabricated from different material systems are interconnected on a base.
optical circuit 'contains'
Franz
new
Reinhart and Ralph
the required
A Logan
components within
the
of Bell Laboratories, Murray
contrast, the
same
Hill,
often
new monolithic
single crystal.
New
Jersey, developed the
circuit.
SOURCE:
1975
many of
By
integrated optical circuits: another step forward' Bell Labs. Record p 349 (September 1975)
SILICON ANODISATION
The discovery
that silicon itself
R Cook
(ITT) (USA)
can be anodised opens an unexpected path to cheaper, denser, faster
integrated circuits.
The low-temperature process produces
the active elements
on
a chip, thus
in
one step the
dielectric
needed
to isolate
adding the advantages of dielectric isolation to any semiconductor
technology, whether bipolar or metal-oxide-semiconductore

Direct silicon anodisation
was discovered
quite by chance.
increased beyond the point required to anodise aluminium.
An
anodizing voltage was accidentally
The aluminium was destroyed, but
the
A Concise
230
silicon substrate beneath the
aluminium, when examined under a microscope, was seen
have been
to
transformed into a porous dielectric layers. Further experiment revealed that the dielectric on the silicon
surface could be tailored to almost any desired thickness simply by adjusting the anodising process.
SOURCE:
'Anodizing silicon
R Cook
economical way to isolate IC elements' by
is
Electronics (13

1975
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY
4096-BIT
In
development,
significant
Semiconductor has applied
Fairchild
The
technology to an injection-logic configuration.
The
access memory.
as fast as today's
oxide-isolated
Isoplanar
L random-
4096-bit
first
dynamic RAMs. The device
4-kilobit
it
more than twice
be ready for selective prototyping
will
summer.
late this
SOURCE:
1975
its
the industry's
result:
nominal access time of 100 nanoseconds, making
part has a
n-MOS
(USA)
Fairchild
'Fairchild develops
first
4K
RAM
to use
2
I
L' Electronics p 25 (26 June 1975)
THIN FILMSDIRECT BONDED COPPER

PROCESS
In the direct
Cu
atmosphere consists principally of
Burgess,
is
C A Neugebauer, G
R E Moore (USA)
accomplished by heating AI2O3 or
from 250
Foil thicknesses
foil.
Flanagan and
copper to ceramic bonding process, bonding
substrates in contact with the
to
mil can be used.
few minutes. The temperature
BeO
The gas
such as argon or nitrogen with a small addition of oxygen,
inert gas
few hundredths of a percent. The length of time required
typically of the order of a

typically a
for
bonding
place unless the temperature exceeds 1065C, but
it
is critically
for
bonding
is
Bonding does not take
important.
must be below 1083C, which
is
the melting point
of copper.
SOURCE:
G
1975
'Hybrid packages by the direct bonded copper process' by
Flanagan and
R E Moore
Solid State Technology p 42
VHS RECORDER
The
VHS
JVC
format (Video
The
1976.
VHS now
Home
System) was launched by
F Burgess,
N A
Neugabauer,
(May 1975)
JVC
in
(Japan)
October 1975 and marketed as from
holds a dominant position in the world market, with more than 80 per cent of
sales.
variation of the
VHS
model, the
VHS-C was
launched by
JVC
in
1982.
was then intended
It
the portable video and uses reduced size video cassettes which can be re-read on a traditional
for
VHS
recorder thanks to an adaptor.
JVC
VHS HQ
1985
Japan with an increase of horizontal lines on the image from 240 to 400.
In
in
launched the
(High Quality).
SOURCE: The Book

(UK: Queen Anne
Super
Super-8mm capable of competing with JVC's Super VHS.
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) p 239 (1990)
IBM (USA)
LASER PRINTER
The
first
laser pinter as introduced
by
IBM
in 1975.
designed for high-speed printing. In 1978 the
9700 from Xerox, but

began
to
expand
printing: a laser
In
In
1988 a technological agreement was made between ten Japanese companies (such as Sony and
Matushita) for the purposes of developing a
1975
March 1987 JVC brought out
In July
VHS
it
into the
beam
was not
until
1984
was an extremely expensive and bulky machine,

followd by the
ND2
with Hewlett-Packard's Laserjet
world of microcomputers
'paints' the letters
It
IBM 3800 was
onto a
It
roller,
works on
from Siemens and the
that the laser printer
a principle similar to that of offset
and the sheets of paper are printed by
rotation.
1988 colour laser printers came on to the market.
SOURCE:
(New
Inventions
Mark Young
A
1975
STATIC INDUCTION THYRISTOR

The
Static Induction Thyristor (SIThy),
J-I
Date Order
in
Nishizawa (Japan)
proposed the three types of fundamental structures
has been developed to the various high power devices with the high efficiency. Figure
top surfaces of cathode electrode of the two SIThys. These are able
two micro-seconds. The continuous current of

is
350 A. The
one
large
is
231
the small
the reverse conducting
SIThy (34
SIThy
that is
to turn-off at
mm^
is
1.31
4000V
200 A,
composed with
1975,
in
shows
the
within one or
the other (62
mm$)
the reverse direction
diode.
Figure 11.31.
These SIThys have been developed

railway vehicle by
been adopted
GTO
Toyo
Electric
Static induction thyristor.
as the
Mfg.
power switching devices of
Co., Ltd.
the
(Gale Turn-off Thyristor) which has been switching
frequency of the SIThy, in
this
motor inverter of the
electric
Conventionally, one of the latest motor cars has

in
400 Hz. The high switching
case 2000 Hz, brings more smoothness and better controllability to the
train.
SOURCE:
Personal communication from Em.
Professor
Dr
Jun-ichi Nishizawa, President of
Tohoku
University.
1975
BETAMAX VIDEO RECORDER

Invented by the Japanese
Sony (Japan)
company Sony,
Betamax was launched
the
per cent of the world market. In January 1985 Sony launched a

called
High Band, with a
SOURCE: The Book

(UK: Queen Anne
1976
in 1975.
new
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) p 238 (1990)
RC
Dixon
et al
Spread-spectrum communication techniques are increasingly being used,
Betamax format,
better quality image.
SPREAD-SPECTRUM COMMUNICATION
TECHNIQUES
communications.
Today Betamax has 10
version of the
spread-spectrum system
wide frequency band which
is
many
is
one
in
(USA)
particularly
which the transmitted signal
is
for
times greater than the bandwidth of the original modulation.
Various code mixing techniques are used,
e.g. direct
sequences (DSK), 'frequency hopping' (which
can also be 'time-hopping' or 'time-frequency hopping') and chirp, or frequency sweeping.

receiver, the modulation (and
The
its
bandwidth)
is
SOURCE:
is
Private
Because the system
obtained by the choice of suitable spreading codes.
communication from
SEE ALSO: Spread Spectrum
Systems by
Guest, Malvern Wells,
RC
'Spread spectrum com. system uses modified
At the
recovered by reversing the transmitting code process.
deleterious effects of interfering can be significantly reduced.
coding, privacy
satellite
spread over
UK
Dixon (New York: John Wiley) (1976)
PPM'
Electronic Design (21 June 1961)
is
based on
A Concise
232
Shannon
'Poisson,
1976
&
P Costas Proc. IRE (December 1959)
the radio amateur' by J
MICROELECTRONICS
(16384
Random
bit
Access
(USA)
Intel
Memory)
triumph of semiconductor device technology, the 16 384-bit random access
a double level of poly silicon conductors shrinks the
has arrived.
'Enter the
16384
RAM"
bit
by
memory
B Coe and
in
Its
which
400 micrometres square. That
cell to
is
RAM.
less than half the cell size in the densest 4096-bit
SOURCE:
memory
unprecedented and springs from an enhanced n-channel silicon-gate technique,
bit density is
G Oldham
114(19 February
Electronics p
1976)
1976
AMORPHOUS SILICON SOLAR CELL

A new
RCA
type of solar cell has been developed
RCA
at
(USA)
Laboratories using amorphous silicon (a-Si)
deposited from a glow discharge in silane (SiH 4 ). These solar cells utilize
been fabricated
/im of a-Si and have
and Schottky-barrier structures on low-cost substrates such as
in heterojunction, p-i-n,
glass and steel.
Discharge-produced a-Si has optical and electronic properties that are ideally suited for a solar
The
material.
optical absorption coefficient
visible light range
/xm
is
cell
significantly larger than that of crystalline Si over the
<
and therefore most of the solar radiation with X
0.7 /j.m
is
absorbed
in a film
thick.
SOURCE:
'Properties of
Pankove, P
amorphous
DL
Zanzucchi and
SEE ALSO: 'Amorphous
and a-Si solar
silicon
Staebler
RCA Review
by
silicon solar cell'
D E
D E
by
cells'
Carlson,
C R
Wronski,
vol 38, p 211 (June 1977)
Carlson and
C R
Wronski App. Phys.
Lett,
vol 28,
p 671 (1976)
1976
POLYSILICON RESISTOR LOADED RAMs

In 1976,
Mostek introduced
diverged from the usual

in its cell
its
static
Poly
RAM
Mostek (USA)
process with the
designs in that
with ionimplanted polysilicon resistors.
it
MK4104,
a 4-K-by-l-bit static
replaced the depletion-mode
The design
of the 4104 shrank to 2.75 mil
The power
is
roughly
reduced because the high
Another feature of the Poly
resistivity
loads
compensates for increased leakages
is
that
part
transistor loads
laid
over the four transistors, the
half the size of conventional cells.
of the polysilicon loads
accurately controlled by ion implantation squeezes the current flow

bit.
RAM. The
not only saved chip area but also greatly
lowered power dissipation. Since the polysilicon resistors are actually

cell
MOS
down
typically,
to less than
their negative temperature coefficient
normally occur
at
5000 megohms,
nanoampere per
which automatically
elevated temperatures.
Moreover, the
polysilicon loads allow data retention in the cells even at greatly reduced supply voltages.
SOURCE:
1976
'Concepts for a dense new
COMPUTER
A
a
RAM'
Electronics p 1320 (27 September 1979)
(One Board with Programmable I/O)
complete general-purpose computer subsystem
major goal
all
that
Intel
fits
Corp. (USA)
on a single printed-circuit board has been
through the steady evolution of LSI technology.
Such
computer, consisting of a
central-processing unit, read/write and read-only memories, and parallel and serial input/output interface
components, could
manufacturers.
satisfy
most processing and control applications needed by original-equipment
single board
by providing a single solution
computer could greatly extend the range of computer applications
to three
problems
that
have often precluded the use of conventional
computers.
The primary reason

is
economic.
for use of a single
assembly of LSI devices rather than a multiboard subsystem
Extra board assemblies are costly in themselves and need related equipment, such as
backplanes and housing, that also adds to cost.
A Concise
Compactness and low power consumption
in
Date Order
233
Using LSI for
are often prerequisites for products.
all
key computer functions reduces power consumption and provides a higher functional density than
conventional subsystem designs. This
new
LSI devices
class of
programmable input/output
interface
chips enables an 8-bit computer to be built as a subsystem on one printed-circuit board.
SOURCE:
1976
R Garrow,
'The 'super component': the one-board computer with programmable I/O' by
Johnson and
MARISAT-1
Maerz Electronics p 77
(5
February 1976)
(USA)
Satellite
Launched 19 February 1976. Maritime communications
satellite
positioned at
15W over
the Atlantic
Ocean.
SOURCE:
International

1976
MICROELECTRONICS
A
Philips (Holland)
(Versatile Arrays)
simple variation of standard silicon-gate technology has produced extremely versatile arrays that make
novel analog-to-digital converters, analog type displays and light-pattern scanners. The arrays consist
of devices similar to standard metal-oxide-semiconductor elements, except that a resistive electrode

structure replaces the normal metal insulated gate.
This structure permits a voltage gradient to be
up across the ends of the gate and then manipulated
to control the transistors either singly or in groups.
SOURCE: 'Resistive insulated

A Daverveld and J G deGroot
1977
MRI:
major electronic technique
V Whelan, L
March 1976)
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
Houndsfield (UK)
non-invasive diagnosis by computerised scanning, using nuclear,
is
and x-ray equipment.
ultrasonic, fluoroscopic
gates produce novel a-d converters, light scanners' by
set
MRI
(Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
technique that relies on the response of hydrogen atoms to a magnetic
is
a medical imaging
field to distinguish
between various
types of soft tissue. Computerised axial tomography can provide 'slices' of patients' anatomy and yield
valuable diagnosis, enabling physicians to visualise anatomic structures of live patients. This was the
first
equipment
SOURCE:
to provide detailed pictures
Electronic Inventions
of the body's soft tissues.
and Discoveries 4th edn, chapter 9
(Bristol:
Institute
of Physics
Publishing) (1997)
1977
CCD ANALOG-TO-DIGIAL COVERTER
GE
Corp. (USA)
For the industrial marketplace, the Research and Development Center of General Electric Corp,
Schenectady,
NY,
has fabricated the
first
CCD
analog-to-digital converter as a p-channel
providing a resolution equivalent to 10 to 12 binary
The
GE converter chip is big,
clock, counter and

displays.
Operating speed, though,
device, which runs
than
measuring 240 by
necessary control logic
all
at a
relies
80
them
to an
in
chip
bits.
mils, but
in fact,
it
it
contains a comparator, voltage reference,
even has decoder/drivers for gas-discharge
slow: about 20 milliseconds total for a 10-bit conversion.
clock frequency of up to 500
millivolt, digitising
Chip operation
is
MOS
The
kilohertz, resolves analog inputs to within better
accuracy of 0.5 least significant
bit.
on the transfer of fixed-size charge packets from one
site
to
another,
with
conventional digital circuitry controlling the conversion process.
SOURCE: 'CCD's
1977
edge towards high volume use' Electronics p 74 (17 March 1977)
ANISOTROPIC PERMANENT MAGNET
Matsushita Electric (Japan)
Matsushita Electric has developed what they claim to be the world's

for practical use.
The new magnet
is
first
anisotropic permanent magnet
made of manganese, aluminium and carbon
materials which are
available in abundance instead of cobalt and nickel, which are scarce and expensive.
It
has higher
A Concise
234
Date Order
in
magnetic energy than the ordinary 'alnico' type magnet which contains cobalt and nickel and has good
mechanical strength and machinability, allowing
it
to
be shaped and
drilled.
Samples should be available
from June 1977.
The new magnet
in 1967;
the direction of magnetisation
was
succeeded
to
SOURCE:
1977
however, the magnet produced was of
distributed at random.
in aligning the direction in
more than
aluminium and carbon. The basic composition of the magnet
consists of manganese,
was developed by Matsushita
which
it
can be magnetised, so increasing the magnetic energy
of the isotropic magnet, giving a
five times that
maximum
is
energy product of 7
MG
Oe.
permanent magnet' Electronic Equipment News p 10 (June 1977)
'First anisotropic
POCKET TV RECEIVER
What
which
'isotropic' type, in
With the anisotropic version, the company has
(UK)
Sinclair Radionics
claimed to be the world's
first
pocket television
was launched
set
London
in
by Sinclair Radionics, the British company which pioneered the revolution
in
early this year
miniature electronic
calculators four years ago.
The
The
500000 12-year
of a
result
2-inch screen,
is
now
research and development programme, the Microvision, which has a
production
in
at Sinclair's
4 inches wide, 6 inches from front
set is
new assembly
plant in St Ives, Huntingdon.
picture which,
when viewed
at a
distance of one foot,
normal domestic compact portables
SOURCE:
at
deep and weighs 26^
to back, just 12 inches
operated by internal rechargable batteries or direct from the mains,

is
it
oz.
Yet,
produces a sharp black and white
of equivalent size and brilliance to that of
6 feet and 24 inch models
'Television with two inch screen' National Electronics
12
at
feet.
Review vol
3,
No 4,
p 74 (July/August
1977)
1977
TRIMOS
+ MOS)
(Triac
Another innovation
in
Stanford University (USA)
power
at
ISSCC comes from
California's Stanford University,
developed a way to put signal and power devices on one and the same piece of
Called Trimos, the
new technology
which has
silicon.
permits integrating an insulated-gate triac with metal-oxide-
semiconductor components, inviting a host of new applications
in crosspoint switching,
output stages,
and power control.
Trimos
MOS
is
actually a
transistors are
channel of each
merged device based on double-diffused

merged around a common
D-MOS
drain.
MOS
Contact
technology
made
is
two high-voltage D-
to the source
and diffused
The shared
device, forming symmetrical anode and cathode contacts.
gate
metal forms the unit's control electrode.

In
its
on
state, the
Trimos device exhibits a dynamic resistance of
on the order of amperes.
less than 10
ohms and can
simple shunt switch, in the form of a conventional
fabricated adjacent to the Trimos unit for switching
it
out of
its
on
MOS
state or inhibiting
pass currents
transistor,
it
can be
from triggering.
Without such a bypass structure, the Trimos device typically has turn-on and turn-off times on the order
of 200 nanoseconds, and
SOURCE:
1977
FLAD
its
single pulse dv/dt capability exceeds
'Trimos combines
triac,
MOS
1000
devices' Electronics p 42 (2
(Fluorescence- Activated Display)
volts per microsecond.
March 1978)
Institute for
Applied Solid State
Physics, Freiburg
Display-system designers will soon have a new device to
(FLAD). Invented
at the Institute for
work with
Applied Solid State Physics
(Germany)
the fluorescence-activated display
in Freiburg,
West Germany, the device
uses a layer of plastic material appropriately doped with fluorescent organic molecules.
ambient
The
light is collected, guided,
FLAD
dissipates the
and then emitted
same power
at the
segments of the display's
as a liquid-crystal display, but
higher. Moreover, the light can be any color in the spectrum
its
In this layer,
digits.
light intensity is said to
between green and
be
much
red, the inventors say.
A Concise
AG
West Germany's Siemens

digital tabletop
FLAD
produce the
will
and alarm clocks, Later,
FLADs
will
display
be used
in
in
Date Order
235
for use in battery-operated
first, initially
pocket calculators, portable instruments,
and scales that indicate price and weight.
SOURCE:
1977
March 1977)
MICROELECTRONICS H-MOS
Intel
new high-performance process
To achieve
their
method
for
two reasons.
neither
new device
First,
called
H-MOS,
(USA)
Intel has
chosen the direct device-scaling
evolves directly out of standard silicon-gate processing and so requires
it
structures not
complex
schemes
circuit
products). Second,
yields and
wide range of semiconductor
with the trend to smaller and smaller circuit patterns, as photolithographic
in
fits
it
would make
(either requirement
fabricating costs too unpredictable to guarantee their usefulness over a
methods grow more refined and electron-beam wafer-fabrication techniques stand ready
SOURCE: 'H-MOS scales traditional devices to higher performance level' by R

Boleky, R Jecmen, S Liu and W Owen Electronics p 94 (18 August 1977)
to take over.
Pashrey,
K Kokonnen,
E
1978
LASER- ANNEALED POLYSILICON

Researchers
MOS
at
Texas Instruments (USA)
Texas Instruments Inc.'s Central Research Laboratories have succeeded
in fabricating
devices in laser-annealed polysilicon on silicon dioxide. Not only will the devices have the speed
and density of those fabricated on sapphire, but the
all-silicon construction
could lead to true three
dimensional circuitry.
Unannealed polysilicon
Carrier flow
poor device
Armed
is
made up of randomly
is
impeded
across.
at best.
with a pulsed frequency-doubled neodymium-yttrium-aluminum garnet laser, TI scans the
polysilicon surface to induce localized melting.
so the
oriented crystal grains on the order of 500
each grain-to-grain boundary and the resulting low mobility would yield a
at
number of
interfaces
is
The
grains recrystallise with
reduced and mobility
is
enhanced.
With
much
larger dimensions
have
this set up, researchers
observed grains as large as 10 micrometres across.
To
build what
On
substrate.
polysilicon film.
a stepping
Then
calls silicon-on-insulator
it
this,
it
grows a
The samples
motor moves
the polysilicon
it
polysilicon gate
to
is
MOS
FETS, TI begins with
a single-crystal p-type silicon
/^m-thick oxide layer and then deposits a 0.5 /zm film of undoped
then go onto an
translation stage,
which
is
heated to 350C while
synchronisation with the pulsed laser.
selectively etched
is
Boron ions are implanted

oxide.
in
down
to the
form the channel, which
oxide level to isolate islands for each transistor.

is
covered with a thermally grown 500
deposited on the gate oxide and implanted with phosphorus.
It
also
gate
is
used
for a self-aligned arsenic ion implantation of the source and drain.
SOURCE:
'All-silicon devices will
match
SOS
in
performance' by John
Rosa Electronics p 39 (22
November 1979)
1978
ISL
(INTEGRATED SCHOTTKY LOGIC)
J Lohstroh
et al (Philips)
(Holland)
Consider a pair of bipolar technologies: low-power Schottky transistor-transistor logic aiming
at
high
speed for medium-scale parts like the 7400 family, and integrated injection logic, which merges
transistors specifically for the high packing density
be found
attributes of both could
can
in ISL, a
newly developed technology
parts
flip-flops,
in
in
large-scale integration.
at
the Digital Circuitry and
Memory Group
oscillators,
and the
like.
drawing only about 400 microamperes.
compared with
a limit of about
33
if
the
1.32).
in
'kit'
Such devices have exhibited gate propagation delays of
An ISL
MHz
of Philips
Eindhoven, the Netherlands, ISL has already performed admirably
about 3.5 nanoseconds (half that of low-power Schottky and a quarter that of
as
What
that stands for integrated Schottky logic (see figure
Developed by Jan Johstroh and colleagues

Gloeilampenfabrieken
needed
high-speed, low-power logic suitable for LSI. Apparently they
in a
D-type
for a similar
flip-flop toggles
2
I
L), with each gate
comfortably
low-power Schottky device.
at
60 megahertz,
A Concise
236
CURRENT
SOURCE C
-j
OUTPUTS
i.
SHALLOW
pRING
Nw
logic. In ISL. the normal
A p ring
. _
INPUT
^
^ METAUZATION
0, (LATERALor.pl
downward npn
SCHOTTKY OUTPUT
Sfl METALIZATION
transistor inherently
parallels the vertical transistor with a lateral
Figure 11.32. Integrated Schottky
SOURCE:
adds a
vertical
pnp
device.
pnp one.
'Two popular bipolar technologies combine
logic.
device' Electronics p 41 (8 June
in Philips'
1978)
1978
W Ruehle, V
IBM (USA)
LIGHT BUBBLES
Mobile
'light bubbles',
magnesium-doped
which appear
to the film via sets
When
that
voltage
appear
is
to
be electrical analogs to magnetic bubbles, have been generated
zinc-sulfide thin films,
Santa Barbara, California.
in
to
The
A Onton
Marello and
IBM
|im bubbles appear when 10 kHz, 190
in
Conference
scientists reported at the Electronic Materials
ac current
is
applied
of parallel 1-mm-wide metallic lines orthogonally placed on each side of the
film.
applied to a pair of intersected electrodes, the intersected area will emit light bubbles
move
in discrete steps
and
move
faster
when
the frequency rises to 50 kHz.
The
alternating-current thin-film electroluminescence, or actel, lasts as long as an hour and can be used to
form images on the film by stimulating different areas with
done
SEE ALSO:
scientists report observation of 'light bubbles' Electronics, p
'Electrical
much work needs
to be
33 (6 July 1978)
analogy to magnetic bubbles' Electronics Weekly p 7 (12 July 1978)
LIGHTWAVE POWERED TELEPHONE

Bell Laboratories has developed a telephone
a
an electron beam or by applying
practical,
to direct the bubbles.
SOURCE: IBM
1978
light or
However, before the technique becomes
voltages across the film.
development brings the
totally fibre-optic
Bell Laboratories
powered by
light carried to
phone system closer
it
(USA)
by a fibre-optic cable. Such
to reality, but
it
is
more than
major
technological advance.
The major problem was making
the
phone run off the power available from the
fibre cable.
The
biggest
headache here, according to De Loach, was the conventional telephone ringing mechanism.
So
new
ringer
was designed
that
worked
perfectly well at a couple of volts.
tone generator with a thin piezoelectric active element. 'This device has
De Loach.
'For example,
its
overall efficiency
from
It
uses an electroacoustic
some exceptional
specs,' says
the optical input to the acoustic output
is
more
than 33%'.
With the ringer problem solved, the power requirements of the
rest
of the phone were readily satisfied.
This power, as well as the ringer drive, comes from a Bell-developed photodetector, which converts
light to electrical pulses.
The same device can
act as a photodiode, too.
A Concise
The photodetector's narrow-bandwidth conversion

ever reported.
It
is
efficiency at 0.81 micrometre
double-heterostructure device
with
some of
GaAlAs
either
and the glass
layer,
the highest
of gallium aluminum
layers
sandwiching one of gallium arsenide and grown on a single crystal substrate.

substrate exposes
56%
is
237
arsenide
hole etched in the
fibre butted at that point
couples light to
and from the photodetector.

But the phone handset must send as well as receive, so Bell has designed the photodetector
light as well, at a
wavelength different from the incoming
switching, the phone sends signals back to the central office at a 0.9 /im wavelength.
duplex mode, taking further advantage of
The
laser light
coming from
modulated by the voice or
SOURCE:
'Bell
is
95%
on for about
Since the modulation bandwidth
wavelength, the change in pulse width
It
operates in a
is
pulse-width-
bandwidth capability.
fibre's
the central office
data.
generate
to
With time-sharing and automatic
light.
is
of the time.
It
small compared with the carrier
easily controllable.
is
Labs develops telephone powered by lightwaves alone' Electronics p 39 (23 November
1978)
SEE ALSO:
1978
OMIST
'De Loach built the fibre-optic phone' by
Hindin Electronics p 231 (25 October 1979)
A G
(Optical Metal Insulator Silicon Thyristor)
Nassibian,
(Australia)
RB
and J
Calligaro
G Simmons
(Canada)
Recently a novel metal-tunnel oxide n/p + silicon device with
l/V
much simpler
being of a
oscillators
RAMS
and
which
structure
The device has been shown
ROMS.
is
also compatible with LSI techniques, has been described.
have wide ranging
to
characteristics similar to those of
MIST), but with added advantage of
a silicon control rectifier (metal-insulator-silicon-thyristor, the
digital
and analogue
circuit applications, including
Furthermore, the device has been shown to be light sensitive.
This device has an advantage over the conventional analogue light-sensitive devices
digital-optical switch.
When
between two well-defined
the incident light
states.
is
in that
it is
a true
above a certain threshold intensity the device switches
In optical systems,
such a device can perform both optical transduction
and thresholding, thereby greatly simplifying the receiver system.
SOURCE:
and
'Digital optical metal insulator silicon thyristor (o.m.i.s.t.)'
G Simmons
Solid-State
SEE ALSO: 'Bistable impedance

H A R Wegener Appl. Phys.
and
1978
vol 2,
No
states in m.i.s. structures

Lett,
vol 23,
5,
AG
by
Nassibian,
R B
Calligaro
through controlled inversion' by
H Kroger
pp 397-9 (1973)
ANALOGUE ALL-ELECTRONIC CLOCK FACE
Hosiden Electronics and
NEC
(Japan)
Electronic parts manufacturer Hosiden Electronics and Nippon Electric
a 60-pole
new
analogue fluorescent displace tube for use
inventions
now make
it
in clocks
Company (NEC) have developed
and the drive circuitry
possible to introduce electronics on a
full
to
go with
it.
The
scale to analogue clocks (which
use hands).
Since the clock face has been turned into a fluorescent display tube,
range of colours from yellow to blue using
filters.
vacuum tubes with anodes coated with phosphor, and they use
light emission.
This kind of tube was
first
It
radiates a green light
Analog systems have been around

irreplaceable part of every-day
that this
new
its
dependability, long
life
The
Japan since which time
it
is
easily visible.
It
suitable for use with
MOS
and meters, and they have become an
all-electronic analog clock has, therefore, a bright future
fluorescent display tube and
it
has
and mass production capability.
for a long time in timepieces
life.
in
which
low voltage low power consumption and high response speed making
LSI chips. Other features include
possible to achieve a
the electro-luminescence principle of
developed some ten years ago
has undergone improvements in performance.
now
is
it
Ordinary fluorescent tubes are direct-head 3-electrode
accompanying drive
circuitry
have been developed.
now
238
SOURCE:
now go
'Analogue clocks can
electronic' Journal
of Electronics Industry (Japan) p 42 (April
1979)
1978
LASER OPTICAL RECORDING SYSTEM

(COMPACT DISC)
An
Philips (Netherlands)
ultra-compact diode laser optical recording system, the world's
by Philips.
500000
It
first,
has recently been introduced
allows high-density recording and retrieval of up to 10'" bits of data, equivalent to about
typewritten pages, on a pregrooved 30
cm
disk.
This capacity represents an improvement often
times compared with the most advanced magnetic disk pack systems currently available. The system
offers direct read-after-write with
random
ms, providing virtually instant access
The system uses
similar techniques
breakthrough, however, has
matching recording material.
come
The
to
mean time of 250
access; any address can be reached in a
x 10 y
of one side of the disk).
bits (the capacity
those developed for
VLP
(Video Long Play).
The
real
with the development of a suitable miniature diode laser and

laser
used
is
of the AlGaAs
DH
type and employs a 0.1
mm
square semiconductor chip housed in a transistor-sized encapsulation. Despite
its
small size, the device
develops a pulsed light output power equivalent to that of a large gas laser and
its
associated modulator.
SOURCE: "World's first diode laser

vol 1, No 2, p 128 (February 1979)
SEE ALSO: 'An
Chan,
optical recording system' Electronic
25
optical disk replaces
TR
S Nadan,
'Consumer
1978
to 5
Kohler,
tapes'
by
GC
Kenney,
DYK Lou, R McFarlane, A Y
Wagner and F Zernike IEEE Spectrum p 33 (February 1979)
and
electronics: personal
mag
Components and Applications
by
plentiful'
Mennie IEEE Spectrum p 62 (January 1979)
TAMED FREQUENCY MODULATION
Wiedenhof and J
Waalwijk
(Philips) (Holland)
Philips Research Laboratories in Eindhoven, have designed a different system of frequency modulation
Using
for transmitting digital information.
quality of detection
almost equal to the
is
The new method has been given

properties
tamed
FM
is
the
this
method
maximum
a very
narrow spectrum
can be obtained with
that
is
obtained while the
digital transmission.
name 'tamed frequency modulation' (TFM). Because
of
its
eminently suitable for digital radio communication.
SOURCE: 'Tamed FM for efficient

PR+PREL)
Eindhoven
digital transmission via radio' Philips Research, Philips,
(781 0/0920/ 186E
1978
LCP (LASER COLD PROCESSINGS OF

SEMICONDUCTORS
A new
in
and exciting technology has appeared
Quantronix Corporation (USA)
two years
in the last
that could be of
producing tomorrow's very large-scale integrated circuits as well as
LSI devices.
It
is
the use of a laser as a heat source for
steps in semiconductor manufacture

to ion implantation, diffusing a
some of
the
major importance
in raising the yields
of today's
many high-temperature process

damage due
for instance, annealing a wafer to eliminate crystal
wafer with dopants, and growing crystalline material from amorphous
or polycrystalline material.
In this
some
new
technique, an intense laser
beam
heats a semiconductor surface to a temperature at which
desirable physical or chemical change takes place in the material.
of this process
is that
to a small depth while the rest of the material stays near
technique
laser cold processing, or
SOURCE: 'Laser cold

K C Kiu Electronics p
1978
The main
practical
advantage
the laser spot limits irradiation to specific areas and the short pulse limits heating
ambient temperatures. Hence the name of the
LCP.
processing takes the heat off semiconductors' by
R A
Kaplan,
MG
Cohen, and
137 (28 February 1980)
ONE MEGABIT BUBBLE-MEMORY

There can no longer be any doubt
that
Intel,
bubble-memory systems
of not one but a pair of million-bit bubble
memory
are a reality
1978 saw
the introduction
chips. Intel Magnetics Inc., Santa Clara, Calif.,
was
A
with
first
operated
7110
its
1978
is
512 loops of 2048
bits
239
which when
bit loops,
The organization
each; with shorter loops,
has an access
it
ns.
SEE ALSO:
256 4096
chip, a 4- square-centimetre device organized into
of Texas Instruments' megabit chip
SOURCE:
Date Order
in
100-kilohertz field frequency provides an average access of about 20 ms.
at a
of about 10
'Megabit bubble-memory chip gets support from LSI family' by
Clover and
many
kilometers.
Bryson,
Lee Electronics p 1059 (26 April 1979)
INTEGRATED OPTOELECTRONICS
Today
can transmit billions of
a single optical fibre
In fact, fibres
can handle more
or light emitting diodes
bits
can
bits
Yariv
of information per second over
of information per second than conventional optical sources
for reducing an electronic bottleneck
was
first
Combining
transmit and detectors can receive through them.
lasers
lasers,
on a single-crystal chip of GaAs
detectors, and active electronic devices for modulating the light
means
(USA)
et al
suggested 10 years ago by
Amnon
Yariv of the
California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. Research efforts since then indicate that the time
is
ripe
to put the idea into practice
SOURCE:
integrated optoelectronics' by
Bar-Chaim,
Ury and
IEEE Spectrum
Yariv
p 38
(May
1982)
SEE ALSO:
by
1979
Gunn
integration of an injection laser with a
P Lee, S Margalit,
Ury and
Yariv Appl. Phys.
oscillator
Lett,
TWO-LAYER RESIST TECHNIQUE FOR

SUBMICROMETRE LINES
method, a very
In the two-level resist
thin,
on a semi-insulating GaAs
vol 32, p
Bell
806 (1978)
Laboratories/MIT (USA)
1500-to-2000-angstrom amorphous upper layer of selenium
The
and germanium
is
made of any of
the standard resist polymers without the silver that renders
sputtered or evaporated onto a polymer layer.
This beginning layer
makes
Ge
fine
layer
make
is
is
thick
to
compensate
may
about 2 /^m thick,
latter,
be
them photosensitive.
for silicon's microscopic roughness,
which often
geometries impossible because of depth-of-field or optical-interference effects. Thus the S
an almost perfectly
flat
optical surface
which also cuts the
reflections
and refractions
that
for uncontrolled line widths.
To make
the thin upper layer photosensitive, the
silver selenide solution for
4300
enough
substrate'
30 seconds.
Then
team soaks the wafer

it
in a
room-temperature potassium
exposes patterns with ultraviolet
light, usually at a
wavelength, but sometimes as short as 3250 A.
Kai notes that the upper layer has more than twice the contrast of conventional
amorphous material
UV
SOURCE:
finely
resists
and
that the
grained, thus reducing the optical-dispersion effects that can impair
In fact, ultimate resolution is finer than the
resolution.
available
is
minimum
spot or line sizes possible with
sources.
'Two-layer
resist
technique produces submicrometer lines with standard optics' by James
Brinton Electronics p 47 (14 February 1980)
1979
CCD COLOUR TV CAMERA
Sony (Japan)
For improved sensitivity and resolution, the new camera uses two imager chips, one
green signal and the other to generate the red and blue signals.
chip
is
energy
used for green

in
a stripe filter is not required
and green
Sensitivity
is
to generate the
high because an entire
light generally contains
most of the
images.
The two chips
are offset horizontally by one half the horizontal pixel pitch, and sophisticated signal-
processing techniques are used to increase resolution to a value almost as high as what could be obtained
with a single chip having twice as
resolution of
280
many
pixels along each horizontal line.
test-pattern lines per picture height
across the width of each sensor.
The measured
is
Thus
measured
optical
obtained even though there are only 245 pixels
vertical resolution is
350
lines
from 492
pixels.
240
SOURCE:
'Color
TV
CCD
camera using
imager chips gets
Electronics p 79 (14 February
first sale'
1980)
SEE ALSO:
Electronics p 67 (5 July 1979)
Electronics p 33 (9 January 1978)

Electronics p 68 (28 September 1978)
1979
AMORPHOUS SILICON LIQUID-CRYSTAL

DISPLAY
A small experimental
liquid-crystal display that is addressed
film transistors has been developed
.6
by 2.2
cm
square. But
its
(0.6
by 0.9
Dundee
at
in)
and Dundee University (UK)
by a matrix of amorphous silicon
is
from complex
far
it
be described
means of overcoming
to the potential of
the addressing limitations of
and a response time for each liquid-crystal element of
in a
paper
measures
and consists of a five-by-seven array of display elements each 2
LCDs
amorphous
at
low
performance of individual devices looks acceptable, with an on current of 5 pA,
to-off current ratio,
thin-
University, Scotland, with funds from
development, which began four years ago, points
thin-film transistors as a
electrical
is to
by researchers
Radar Establishment. The display panel
Britain's Royal Signals and

1
RSRE
less than
The
cost.
a
mm
silicon
10
on-
100 ps. The work
Sixth European Solid State Device Research Conference at York,
at the
England, 15-18 September 1980, together with one from Plessey's Allen Clark Research Centre on
device physics of amorphous silicon transistors
SOURCE:
LCD
'British address
work
RSRE.
also funded by the
with amorphous silicon thin-film transistors'.
August 1980)
SEE ALSO:
1979
Electronics p 69 (21 June 1979)
LASER-ENHANCED PLATING AND ETCHING
IBM (USA)
Recently, an interesting and novel application of lasers
on an electrode
It
is
was discovered
in
which
a laser
beam impinging
used to enhance local electroplating or etching rates by several orders of magnitude.
has also been discovered that with the aid of the laser
electroless plating at high deposition rates, to greatly
it
is
possible to produce very highly localized
enhance and localise the typical metal-exchange
(immersion) plating reactions, to obtain thermo-battery-driven reactions with simple single-element
aqueous solutions, and
to greatly
enhance localized chemical etching. Since
beams can be
laser
readily
focused to micron-sized dimensions and scanned over sizeable areas, the enhancement scheme makes
it
possible to plate and etch arbitrary patterns without the use of masks.
SOURCE: 'Laser-enhanced
No 2, p 136 (March 1982)
plating and etching:
mechanisms and
SEE ALSO: 'Laser enhanced electroplating and

R L Melcher and S E Blum Appl. Phys.
applications'
IBM J.
Res. Dev. vol 26,
von Gutfield, E E
maskless pattern generation' by
Tynan,
Lett,
'Laser enhanced electroplating and etching for maskless pattern generation' by
Tynan and L
T Romankiw.
1979
No 472 Electrochemical
Los Angeles, CA)
Extended Abstract
Meeting of the Electrochemical Society,
SATELLITE ECHO-CANCELLING CIRCUIT

By
the beginning of 1980, telephone
about eliminated by a
new
dubbed an echo
The chip
& T in
its
canceller
way by
could by
far,
satellite will
von Gutfield, E E
(USA)
satellite
was developed by researchers
itself
pp 79-2 (1979) (156th
have undergone a drastic technical
occur along the 45 000-mile-long
integrated circuit that
telephone network. So
telephone calls only one
that
Soc.
Bell Laboratories
communications by
The voice-garbling echoes
change.
vol 35, p 651 (1979)
double the number of
at
paths will be just
Bell Laboratories.
satellite circuits
used by
AT
because of echo problems, the company transmits transcontinental
satellite.

The echo
one-way transmission
for
when
transmission paths
is
by sampling
circuit
for
becomes too
AT &
electronically as
it
it
high.
The new
T.
occurs,
two cancel each
to the original signal so that the
241
controllable by the present echo suppressors, which open the
the echo's amplitude
enough two-way transmission standards

from a
making
other.
It
But these devices do not meet high
digital
device removes an echo signal
a replica of
and adding the replica
it,
ideal for connection to Bell's all-digital
is
telephone network, which will be completed over the next 20 years.
SOURCE: 'No more

SEE ALSO:
echoes' Electronics p 228 (25 October 1979)
by Donald L Duttweiler IEEE Spectrum p 34 (October 1980)
'Bell's echo-killer chip'
'Silencing echoes on the telephone networks' by
No
vol 68,
1979
FLOTOX
8,
(Floating-Gate Tunnel Oxide)
Flotox resembles the

a voltage
Vg
Man Mohan
Sondhi and David
Famos
PROCESS
Intel
On
IEEE
(USA)
structure except for the additional tunneloxide region over the drain.
Vd
applied to the top gate and with the drain voltage
V, the floating gate
at
coupled to a positive potential. Electrons are attracted through the tunnel oxide
gate.
Berkley Proc.
p 948 (August 1980)
to
With
capacitively
is
charge the floating
the other hand, applying a positive potential to the drain and grounding the gate reverses the
process to discharge the floating gate.

Flotox, then, provides a simple, reproducible
SOURCE:
G
1979
EE-PROM
'16-K
COMPACT
on tunneling
relies
L Kuhn, A L Renninger and
means
for both
programming and erasing
for byte-erasable
program storage' by
memory
cell.
S Johnson,
Perlegos Electronics p 113 (28 February 1980)
DISC
Philips (Holland)
(See also page 238.)
The invention of
the
compact disc (CD) was the
Dutch electronics company Philips NV. Under a
company Sony,
CD
the
was
first
developed
result
of research carried out on the video disc by the
joint licensing
in 1979.
The
the analogue recording process used for the microgroove.
and
series
agreement by Philips and the Japanese
process of digital recording

signal
is
coded
in
is
used, rather than
binary form, using the
The conventional groove has therefore disappeared and has been replaced by millions
known as pits: approximately 4 million per second. The sound is reproduced by a laser
1.
of microcells
beam. The compact disc has
diameter of 5 inches and can hold 75 minutes of music or sound on one
side.
The
CD
music
was
first
marketed
records and
tapes
1983, and by 1991 had outstripped both traditional forms of recorded
in
in
terms of unit sales and values. In the space of a few years, the
achieved incredible success, and
its
applications are
many and
varied.
CD
brought out the prototypes of decoders that enabled fixed images, which had been stored on
alongside an audio signal, to be viewed on television. In 1985 the extensive storage capacity of
was applied
to computers.
speed, which
SOURCE:
it
CD
players
now have
New
the capability of running a disc at twice the normal
York p
Siemens (Germany)
Engineers of the Teletype and Data-Transmission group
at
Siemens
AG
in
Munich have developed
prototype colour ink-jet printer that can produce characters of seven different colours
per second in both directions across normal paper.
whose single-colour
and yellow
ink.
Mark Young
38
SEVEN-COLOUR INK-JET PRINTER
printer
CDs
CDs
possible to record an hour-long disc onto a cassette in just 30 minutes.
'Inventions and Discoveries 1993' edited by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing and
Facts on File
1979
makes
has
1984 Philips and Matsushita
In
ink-jet
The
unit consists of the
mechanism has been replaced by
at
the rate of
200
company's older PT80
a multinozzle unit for red, green,
Proper mixing of these inks yields the colours blue, magenta, cyan, and black. Colour
and mixture data are stored

a separate colour scanner.
in a
floppy-disk
One of
memory whose program
is
the biggest problems involved, the
derived from the output of
Siemens engineers
say,
was
A Concise
242
in
Date Order
developing nonsmearing inks that would stay liquid

the paper.
If
customer reaction
is
in the
become dry
nozzles yet
right after they hit
favorable, the colour printer will go into production.
will
It
make
possible multicoloured graphic representations.
SOURCE:
1980
'Siemens develop seven-colour ink-jet
p 71 (13 September 1979)
printer' Electronics
OUTDOOR LARGE SCREEN COLOUR DISPLAY
Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
SYSTEM
(Japan)
large screen colour display system for use in outdoor video system has been developed and introduced
by Mitsubishi Electric Corp. The display screen consists of

light emitting tubes
a matrix array of small, high brightness
and can present sharp colour pictures even
Many
in full daylight.
systems have been installed for various outdoor video services such as
in sports
video display
stadiums, racetracks,
or as an advertising media. However, these previous systems consist of an array of incandescent lamps,
and have many problems especially
in
displaying colour pictures such as insufficient colour quality,
high power consumption and short operating
To overcome
The LET
is
life.
these problems, Mitsubishi has developed the high brightness light emitting tube (LET).
a small flood
beam CRT (28mm
in diameter)
having a single phosphor of red, green, or
LET
blue for each tube, and works for a single picture element in the screen. Brightness of the
bits for a
green tube (over 20 times brighter than the usual
SOURCE: 'AURORA VISION'. A

T Tomimatsu and H Kobayashi (In
TV
is
8000
picture tube).
large screen colour display system' by
Kurahashi,
Yagishita,
ofTVEng. (Japan) IPD49-3,
Japanese) Technical Report of Inst.
p 319 (1980)
SEE ALSO: 'An outdoor large screen colour display system' by K Kurahashi, K
H Kobayashi SID Symp, Digest of Technical Papers vol 12, 13, (p 132)
and
1980
MAT (MAGNETIC AVALANCHE TRANSISTOR)

A new
Yagishita,
Fukushima
(1981)
IBM (USA)
The device
is
basically a dual-collector open-base lateral bipolar transistor operating in the avalanche region, and
is
semiconductor device for sensing uniaxial magnetic
referred to as a magnetic Avalanche Transistor.
compared
to
traditional
has been realized.
fields
exhibits high magnetic transduction sensitivity
It
Hall-effect and conventional
nonlinear magnetoresistive devices.
Several
hundred experimental devices have been designed, fabricated, and tested over the past two years.
Many
structural
was found
to
for devices
and some process parameters were varied. The magnetic sensitivity of a typical device
be proportional
to substrate resistivity.
which used 5-ohm-cm p-type
is
differential
and responds linearly with
is
20000
tesla.
per
The bandwidth
field
known
is
substrates.
sensitivity of
The output
magnitude and
30 volts per
polarity.
extend well beyond 5
to
tesla
was measured
measured between collectors
signal
typical signal-to-noise ratio
MHz. The
sensitive area
is
calculated to be on the order of 5 amp. This communication describes the basic structure, fabrication,
and characteristics for the magnetic avalanche
SOURCE:
'A magnetic sensor utilizing an avalanching semiconductor device' by
Res. Dev. vol 25,
1980
256K
transistor.
No
3,
Vinal
IBM
J.
p 196 (May 1981)
DYNAMIC RAM
NEC-Toshiba Musashino
Electrical
Communication Labs. (Japan)

NEC-Toshiba Information Systems
Inc.
and NTT-Musashino Electrical Communication Laboratory,
both of Tokyo, each present 256-K-by-l-bit dynamic
nanosecond access time and

to
speed signal propagation, accesses
consumes 225
but only 15
milliwatts of active
mW
NEC-Toshiba uses two
levels of polysilicon,
processing to build
RAM. The
which meets the
mW
device
is
1.
The NEC-Toshiba chip has
NTT
100 ns and cycles
in just
power and 25
on standby. Both designs require
its
RAMs.
a 350-ns cycle time, while the
in
device, which uses
double
that.
160-
molybdenum
NEC-Toshiba's chip
on standby, while NTT's device uses 230
mW
a 256-cyc!e/4-millisecond refresh.
5 p.m direct-step-on wafer photolithography, and all-dry
already being
shown
in a
16-pin package, the pinout of
Joint Electron Device Engineering Council's standard with the eighth address line
on
A Concise
pin
1.
The oblong
two
split into
243
measuring 191 by 338 mils, contains two 128-K arrays. Each array
die,
further
is
28-by-5 12-bit sections, separated by 512 sense amplifiers that run the length of the chip.
mean time between
Various techniques including silicone coating, are used to keep the
due
failure
to
alpha radiation below 30 000 device hours.
NTT-Musashino's
RAM
electron-beam
with
built
is
molybdenum word
interconnection levels:
capacitor electrodes and gates of non-array devices.
writing,
direct
aluminum
lines,
NTT's
die
bit
is
with one interesting difference: each 128-K array has attached to

a
dummy
additional circuits take
SOURCE: iSSCC:
it
up no more than 10% of NTT's nearly square 230-by-232-mil
three
cells
(Japan)
Researchers
Nippon Telegraph
at
&
technique represents a significant step
advances
to
more
the
efficient
in
The main
be made
will also
signal
rf signal.
was aligned on
a photodetector
recently
opened by
laser,
emitting at 820nm, the drive current being directly
No
feed-back stabilisation system was used, The
and the resulting fm intermediate-frequency signal fed
am
output.
The spurious
signal depth
to
was very small
filtered out.
Digital (at lOOMbit/s) and analogue (at
300MHz)
signals were transmitted satisfactorily by the system,
The system
described in the 23 October issue of Electronics Letters.
is
window
of carrier frequencies will become possible.
This was matched to a local-oscillator signal from a similar laser
a frequency discriminator for conversion to an
and easily
The
in optical signal reception.
by temperature control and direct-current adjustment.

signal
and T Kimura
of optical communication systems,
use of the low-loss frequency
was supplied by an AlGaAs
frequency modulated by an
Y Yamamoto
an optical-fibre transmission system.
in the practical realisation
in optical-fibre technology, since finer separation
Improvements
The
die.
Telephone's Musashino Laboratories have demonstrated for the
time the use of classical superheterodyne detection
and could lead
and
two spare word
memories' Electronics p 138 (14 February 1980)
a gallery of gigantic
S Saito,
which
and
2-K block of redundant
extra cells, connected via four pairs of spare bit lines and
SUPERHETERODYNE
mixed
processing,
organized just like NEC-Toshiba's but
FIBRE-OPTIC LASER DRIVEN
first
dry
and polysilicon for storage
replaced by electrically programming on-chip poly-silicon resistors during wafer probing.
lines, are
1980
The
sense circuit.
lines,
many advantages over conventional amplitude-modulation

better signal/noise ratio,
and
is
expected to be improved
is
claimed to have
systems, such as low power, simplicity and
in the future
by the use of recently developed
frequency-stabilisation feedback systems.
SOURCE:
'Classical steps in optical fibres' Electronics
SEE ALSO:
1980
MCZ
and Power p 855 (November/December 1980)
'Fibre optics adopts superheterodyne principles' Electronics p 73 (20
(Magnetic Field Method of Silicon Crystal
November 1980)
Sony (Japan)
Growths)
Sony has developed
new method
for
producing very high-quality single crystals of silicon with greater
uniformity and lesser defect generation, which greatly reduces the wafer warpage and distortion, through
the application of a high magnetic field in the silicon pulling process.
The new
to
silicon crystal
growth method, called
'MCZ
(magnetic-field
CZ) method', has been developed
meet the requirements of the coming age of ultra-high-density semiconductor devices, including
CCDs
and super-LSIs, which integrate tens of hundreds of thousands of elements into several-millimetre-square
chips. Sony's
MCZ
method
is
the world's
first
of
its
kind,
which applies
a high
magnetic
field,
instead
of zero gravity, to mass produce very high-quality crystals of silicon for industrial applications.
SOURCE:
'Sony develops magnetic-field method for high-quality silicon crystals' Journal of the
Electronics Industry, Japan p 42 (August 1980)
A Concise
244
1980
Date Order
in
FIBRE-OPTIC SUBMARINE CABLE
Standard Telephones and Cables
(UK)
"Tomorrow (14 February) weather
is
probably the
The
purpose-built fibre optic submarine cable in the world.
first
British Post Office cableship
cable
made by STC,
Results of the
permitting, Standard Telephones and Cables will start laying what
Monarch
Loch Fyne
in
at
STC which
be monitored by
trial will
the British Post Office.
It is
STC
need experience of a
foreign companies, especially those in the
The armoured cable

up
to take
The housing
about two inches
is
USA
in
at 'all
STC
is
possible parameters', and
major exporter of submarine
two regenerators
for these regenerators has already
competition from
realistic sea situation to face
and Japan.
diameter and has four fibres although
In about a year's time,
to eight.
be looking
will
considered vitally important since
cable and the Post Office and
armoured
will lay the trial system, a five nautical mile loop of
Inveraray, Scotland.
will
it
has been designed
be inserted by Cableship Monarch.
been incorporated and the cable
be
will
lifted
and the
regenerators placed within the housings."
SOURCE: 'PO
1981
first
with seabed optic link' by
Clark Electronics Weekly p
W Gates (USA)
MS-DOS
IBM
In 1981
asked Microsoft
(a small
company which has
MS-DOS
it is
irony of the story
the producers of
CP/M.
is
used by
it
MS-DOS
that Bill
SOURCE: The Book

(UK: Queen Anne
all
IBM
Gates
and delivered
it
to
to
who was
provide them with

Microsoft's young
16-bit operating
IBM (who
call
same
it
system
PC-DOS).
today the most widely used for professional
is
compatibles.
first
advised
IBM
to
go
to his competitor, Digital
Digital Research refused to sign the promise of secrecy required
losing the market and, at the
1981
he christened
has since been considerably improved and
microcomputers, since
The
it,
Bill Gates,
Computer Products' Tim Patterson's
the time, then bought Seattle
at
SCP-DOS. Having adapted
expanded greatly)
since
an operating system for their future microcomputer, the PC.
owner
(13 February 1980)
time, taking the
first
step
on
Research,
by IBM, thus
their path to decline.
Press,
&
Macdonald
Co.) p 117 (1990)
HYDROPLANE POLISHING OF
SEMICONDUCTORS
V Gormley
J Manfra,
Calawa (Massachusetts
A R
Institute of
Technology) (USA)
A new
polishing
technique
for
semiconductor materials promises very smooth surfaces free of
mechanical defects, faster polishing, and, by implication, improved yield and throughput.
hydroplane polishing by
in
its
developers
Lexington, Mass., the system
at the
may
beat today's mechanical and chemical polishing approaches.
So far used on gallium arsenide and indium phosphide,
nm
per minute, as much as 60 times
to within 0.3
pm
faster than other
and free of mechanical damage.
mechanically suspended about 125
Called
Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Lincoln Laboratory
pm
the technique removes material at
up
to
methods, and the surfaces produced are
In the
new
above the surface of
process, semiconductor wafers are
smooth, spinning disk coated with
continually replenished etchant solution; the wafers thus hydroplane just above the disk's surface.
new method was developed
30
flat
to satisfy the stringent surface-quality requirements of
The
molecular-beam
epitaxy.
SOURCE:
'Hydroplaning could yield smoother IC wafers' Electronics p 34 (15 December 1981)
SEE ALSO:
1981
'Spinning etchant polishes
flat, fast'
Electronics p
PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT OPTICAL FIBRE

The
big difference in the
the cladding
new
fibre is the
40 (13 January 1982)
T Suganuma
presence of an 80-by-26
and itself surrounded by the support.
pm
(Hitachi) (Japan)
elliptical jacket
surrounding
Boric oxide in the jacket material increases
its
A Concise
Date Order
in
245
temperature coefficient of expansion far above that of the support. Thus as the fibre drawn from the
down from
four-part preform (core, cladding, jacket, and support) cools
which
2000C temperature
the
fabricated, differences in the thickness of the jacket material exert anisotropic forces
it is
core along the major and minor axes of the ellipse.
The
at
on the
direction with the higher compression, along
the short axis of the ellipse, has the higher index of refraction.
Because the index of refraction
highest along the shorter of the ellipse's perpendicular axes and
is
lowest along the longer one, a single-polarized

will
wave of
extinction ratio, will be better than 30 decibels

the orthogonal one
less than
is
probably not exceed 10 dB.
that
0.1%. For a standard
And
launched into the cable along either axis
light
be transmitted unchanged. Even after transmission over
km,
the polarisation, as
measured by the
the conversion of energy from one plane into
is,
under the best of conditions the
fibre
the slightest vibration of a standard fibre,
ratio
would
which causes anisotropic
mechanical pressure on the core, can reduce the ratio to about 3 dB.
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
1981
wave of
'Fibre transmits plane-polarized
light'
'Elliptically cross-sectioned fibre' Electronics p
67 (30 August 1979)
HYDROGENATED AMORPHOUS SILICON FILMS
Grasso,
Mezzasalma and F
Neri (Italy)
The
preparation of hydrogenated amorphous silicon films was carried out by a
mixing evaporated silicon from an electron-beam source with

an Ion Tech low energy source. This source
is
new method
consisting in
stream of ionized hydrogen produced by
a cold cathode device
which operates
at
lower pressure
than conventional cold cathode sources.
SOURCE:
1982
new
'A
A M
Grasso,
evaporation method for preparing hydrogenated amorphous silicon films' by
Mezzasalma and F Neri Solid
Communications
State
TRACK AUTORADIOGRAPHY
FISSION
Since the
error'
'soft
was diagnosed
AERE
No
9, p
675 (1982)
(UK)
very-large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuit
1978,
in
vol 41,
memory
manufacturers have sought a method of detecting the minute amount of naturally-occurring radioactive
impurities which,
if
present in
VLSI
circuit materials,
can disrupt circuit performances.
Now, however, Harwell has developed an extremely
sensitive
technique
autoradiography (FTA) which can detect the presence of uranium

parts in 10
y
.
'soft error' effect is
part of the
VLSI
charge which
Because of
circuit
fission
track
of component
fissile
failure.
in
any
assembly. The energy possessed by an alpha-particle can produce an electric
may change
this,
risk
the content of a single
memory location, giving rise to computational errors.

now specifying alpha-particle emission rates of less
semiconductor manufacturers are
memory device
not possible to detect such emission levels directly.
235, the
as
produced by alpha-particle emissions from radioactive impurities present
than 0.001 particles/cm 2 /hour for their
It is
known
concentrations as small as 2
This provides manufacturers with a quality control enabling them to assess raw material,
and components, thereby reducing the
The
in
isotope present as
0.72% of
materials.
The Harwell FTA technique
natural uranium;
exploits uranium-
prepared specimens of semiconductor
material are coated with a polyimide film solid state nuclear track detector (s.s.n.t.d.) and irradiated with
thermal neutrons in Harwell's Materials Testing Reactor,

fission
and the resulting
polyimide film
is
fission
DIDO. On
particles are registered as tracks
irradiation, the
on the
s.s.n.t.d.
U-235 undergoes
Afterwards the
chemically etched to develop the fission tracks which can then be examined by
optical microscopy.
From
uranium present, down
the information gained
to 2 parts in
calculate alpha-emission rates of as
10
little
SOURCE: 'Fission track radiography

vol 52, No 5, p 200 (May 1982)
for
it
is
possible to determine precisely the
(or a surface distribution of 3
as
amount of
x 10" 6 tig/cm 2 ) and thus
to
0.0002 particles/cnr/hour.
checking V. L.S.I,
circuits'
The Radio and Electronic Engineer
A Concise
246
1982
RECRYSTALLIZATION SILICON PROCESS

Using
moving graphite heater
Texas Instruments
Inc., is
to create a thin layer
developing what
it
of single-crystal silicon atop an oxide insulator,
believes will be a practical alternative to expensive silicon-
on-sapphire substrates for high-density, high-speed complementary-MOS integrated circuits (see figure
11.33).
MOVING STRIP HEATER
REGION OF
EPITAXIAL
REGROWTH
MOLTEN
SILICON
SILICON
SUBSTRATE
STATIONARY GRAPHITE HEATER
Hot pot. Stnp neater
that
Texas Instruments moves across deposited poiysilicon produces a
region ot epitaxial regrowth above the single-crystal substrate. Recrystallization continues
above the
insulator region,
making a device-quality
single-crystal layer.
Figure 11.33. Recrystallisation silicon process.
SOURCE:
1982
'Oxide insulator looks the equal of sapphire for
C-MOS
AMORPHOUS PHOTOSENSORS
Sanyo
Electric recently
material for the

the
first
succeeded
ICs' Electronics p 45 (2 June 1982)
Sanyo (Japan)
developing photosensors made of amorphous semiconductor
in
time in the world, and announced that they would be released in spring. Based upon
development of the amorphous photosensors, Sanyo also developed one-chip full-colour sensors and
intends to expand their application to line sensors. In the case of visible light total spectra photosensors,
the
new amorphous photosensors
cost only half of conventional silicon monocrystal photosensors.
The amorphous sensor developed by Sanyo

glass base, by forming
PIN amorphous
is
silicon
made by forming
on
using silicon carbide in the P layer, separating

it
into a resin
package
it
a transparent conductive layer
on
through the continuous separation forming method

into chips after attaching lead wires,
and molding
performing face-down-bonding/lead-frame bonding, The mono-colour and
after
made by providing
full-colour sensors are then
sensor,
it
appropriate
filters;
even
in the
case of the full-colour
can be made as a single chip, taking advantage of the large electric resistance between the
it
lead wires.
SOURCE:
1982
'Sanyo develops amorphous photosensors' J EI, Japan p 50 (April 1982)
BUBBLE-JET PRINTING
Canon has made
the printing
seconds
The new
the
name
major breakthrough
system of the
at least
future.
It
is
'bubble-jet' operates
suggests,
it
technology which,
it
is
claimed,
is
likely to
become
unique 'bubble-jet', which can produce a copy in just six
many new
on completely
ejects ink
different principles
from conventional
ink-jet systems.
As
by means of thermally generated bubbles, rather than piezo-electricity
printers.
processes, the 'bubble-jet' system
laboratories in Japan, a soldering iron
Canon
in ink-jet
120 times faster than any other International Standard facsimile ink-jet printers.
used with other ink-jet

Yet, like
Canon (Japan)
was
was discovered by
accident. In
Canon's research
placed, inadvertently, next to a full ink syringe
scientist noticed the heat forced out a droplet of ink.
Unlike earlier ink-jet
and
systems, which are
A Concise
restricted to using either a single nozzle, or
from
2000 nozzles (covering A4
ink through nearly
in
Date Order
247
seven multi-nozzles, the new 'bubble
five to
size) to enable printing to
be completed
jet' ejects
spectacular
at
speeds.
The
1982
'bubble-jet' nozzles can also be increased to
be possible
SOURCE: Canon
Press Release, 23 February 1982
in the future,
CAMCORDER
Show
Electronic
3 h
in
the
first
Tokyo
camcorder: a video camera and recorder combined. Presented
October 1982 by Sony,
in
(UK: Queen Anne
&
Macdonald
1984 the French firm
ATG
read using a laser beam.
equivalent of
ATG
marketed
SOURCE: The Book
HARD
DISC
In 1985 the
its
The Gigadisc can
texts, photos,
up
store
to
two thousand million
Macdonald
&
is
the
American company Plus Development Corporation revolutionised mass memory technology
IBM PCs
equipped with an
hard discs (large capacity fixed magnetic media) were
called, is only 2.5
SOURCE: The Book

(UK: Queen Anne
cm, 0.985
Many
in, thick.
1985,
fragile.
of 10
MB.
The Hardcard,
Press,
at the
extra-flat hard disk
awkward and
other producers have followed the lead.
Macdonald
&
Co.) p 124 (1990)
DIGITAL VIDEO RECORDER
Sony (Japan)
Symposium of Montreux, Sony introduced
the
first
video recorder with a digital
This model was solely for professional use. Since then digital video recorders have
facility.
become commonplace. The

to
which
Plus Development Corp. (USA)
as
May
bytes,
Co.) p 125 (1990)
CARD
this,
recording
designed
Press,
Before
In
It is
sound, computer data. The information
text.
by launching an extension card designed for
it is
(France)
numerical optical disc system, called Gigadisc:
documents:
600000 pages of typed
(UK: Queen Anne
1985
Japan
Co.) p 239 (1990)
DIGITAL OPTICAL DISC
is
at the
uses normal Betamax cassettes allowing up to
Press,
for large scale storage of all sorts of
1985
it
35 min recording time.
SOURCE: The Book
In
expected that even
it is
Sony (Japan)
The Betamovie was
1984
cope with larger copies, and
simply by adding more printer modules.
faster speeds will
effects
which can be produced are very
varied. For instance,
superimpose a reduced secondary image on to a corner of the screen.
It
is
it is
possible
also possible to choose
the speed of the tape with faster and slower options, etc.
SOURCE:
(UK: Queen Anne
1985
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) p 238 (1990)
CD-ROM
Philips (Holland)
The CD-ROM, invented by
Philips and
similar to those used in
systems, but adapted to computing uses.
a thousand times
hi-fi
more data than
data cannot be written onto
SOURCE:
it.
promoted throughout the World
a diskette.
Developed
Its
in
disadvantage
1985, the
is
It
in collaboration with
that the data
CD-ROM
Sony
is
has the advantage of containing
began
on
it
can be read, but new
to take off in 1988.
Facts on File
New
York p 218
248
1985
WINDOWS
Microsoft (USA)
This was launched for the
first
years of work. In April 1987

(in
some conditions) and
for
it.
The Windows
like the
(UK: Queen Anne
November 1985 by
time in
was adopted
Microsoft.
as the standard integrator
will to a certain extent accept applications
may make
interface
possible for
it
IBM
Macdonald
&
multi-task
is
specifically designed
Co.) p 117 (1990)
Zenith (USA)
1985 Zenith (USA) presented the
command
is
even easier
first
tactile
screen system,
mouse or
to use than the
SOURCE: The Book
all
do
the user has to
to give a
Macdonald
Press,
&
Co.) p 124 (1990)
SCANNING TUNNELLING MICROSCOPE

microscopes
latest in
is
at the
It
was made by Noel MacDonald and
National Nanofabrication Facility
is
IBM (USA)
so small, you need a microscope to see
only 200 micrometres across.
The device
based on surface acoustic wave
light pen:
touch a section of the screen.
is
(UK: Queen Anne
Miller
modules not
Press,
technology, which
The
more than 50 man
required
It
by IBM. Windows
compatibles to become more user-friendly
TACTILE SCREEN
In
1986
it
Macintosh.
SOURCE: The Book
1985
Built
it.
on a
his students
silicon chip,
which earned
basically a scaled-down version of the scanning tunnelling microscope,
which narrows
fine needle,
to a single
atom
at its point,
STMs
A
a
and
fro across the surface.
typical
human
lower
STMs
moves
can sense features as small as a single atom.
modem STM is roughly the size of a thumb, but MacDonald

Two tiny electrostatic motors move the silicon tip to and
says his version
hair.
fro,
is
the size of
while a third can raise or
it.
There might not be a

California not
somewhere
shown
1989
that
scanning probe
else with great precision.

a silicon surface.
Using
atoms
piles of
little
at IBM's Almaden site in

move them and deposit them
of use for such a diminutive device had scientists
lot
in
xenon deposited on
To prove
tips
can pick atoms up,
this they spelt out their
would run over the surface
to see
STM
where the
could build up the piles or
But the
piles are.
Because the motors
electronic engineer's purposes.
company's logo
in
35 atoms of
new kind of computer memory was
to represent bits of data in a
extension of the work. In write mode, an

it
rely
over the surface of a sample.
Electrons 'tunnel' between the needle and the surface to create a minute electric current as the tip
to
is
Cornell University.
at
Heinrich Rohner and Gerd Binnig of IBM's Research Division a Nobel Prize in 1986.
on running a
it
Yang Xu and Scott
that
move
are so tiny, the device experiences hardly any inertia, so
it
full-size
flatten
STM
them;
was
still
a logical
in read
mode,
too big for an
the tip around in the miniature version
can scan up to 10 000 times faster than a
full-scale probe.
'The bigger picture
The
little
in the
next 10 years
is
putting thousands of
them on
single chip,' says
microscopes could then move thousands of atoms around simultaneously.
control circuitry alongside the

the data handling capacity
moving
parts
on a
fully integrated silicon chip,
would be enormous. 'You would be able
to take
And
MacDonald
something
MacDonald.
with
all
the
believes that
like a
hundred
or a thousand of your normal computer disks and put them onto a chip the size of your fingernail,' he
says.
But MacDonald stresses
SOURCE:
that their
breakthrough
is
'Smallest microscope in the world' by
NOTE: Two
articles
just the
Pease
Private
New
step in a long process.

Scientist p 21 (20
May
1995)
(Van Nostrand Scientific Encyclopaedia, and Engineering Science and Educational
Journal) state that the Scanning Tunnelling Microscope
SOURCE:
first
was invented by Binning and Bohrer
communication from E Davies, London.
in 1982.

1987
DAB
DAB
the
is
of a standard devised and developed
result
and consumer electronics industries and
DAB
European communications and technologies
to provide a reliable, multi-service digital
that
BBC's Research
including the
collectively
is
known
as
Eureka 147
&
part of
Since 1987, Eureka 147 has developed
initiative.
sound broadcasting system for reception by mobile,
portable and fixed receivers, using a simple rod aerial.
sound and data broadcasting system
by a group of European broadcasters
their research institutes,
Development Department. The European project group

a wider
249
Eureka 147 (Europe)
Audio Broadcasting)
(Digital
can be used
a rugged,
It is
and yet a highly spectrum
any usual broadcasting band and on
in
efficient
terrestrial
(land-based transmitters), satellite or cable networks.
SOURCE: BBC
SEE ALSO:
Electronics
modulation system: the heart of
Engineering Information
was
and developed
in
(i.e.
new development. The CDV,
They
picture.
is
40 minutes of
September 1995, were
(Digital
SOURCE:
compact disc video, was brought out by
produced simultaneously on
and sound for
compact
six
Audio Tape), an
stereo.
The
CDV
is
CDVs
New
which hold
all
a light
Matsushita (Japan)
pen and infra-red transmission.
at the
exact
Press,
moment
Macdonald
first fibre
programmes and
&
is
a
is
system of monthly advance

used to scan the bar codes
the video recorder
is
ready to record
Co.) p 238 (1990)
is
DGT, BT and AT&T

USA)
(AT&T), and
British
SOURCE: The Book

(UK: Queen Anne
Telecom
(France,
UK,
TAT-8, has linked the United States with Great Britain and
6620 km, 4114 miles, long and
processing signals. The partners in this venture are

International.
The
DGT
carries television, telephone
(France),
total cost is
and data
American Telegraph and Telephone
estimated to be
220
million.
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) p 244 (1990)
VIDEO WALKMAN
audio predecessor,
comprises a case weighing
mm
It
The pen
required.
optic transatlantic cable, the
France since 1988. The cable
an 8
CDVs
of two hours, and
one of the answers to the competition offered
FIBRE OPTIC TRANSATLANTIC CABLE
its
maximum
(UK: Queen Anne
Like
of the same format
audio-digital cassette.
the information about television
on the specified date
SOURCE:
CDVs
York p 2 1
programming using
The
last for a
Panasonic invention (Japanese Matsushita group).
readers can reproduce both
minutes as well as 20 minutes of music, the 8-inch
ADVANCE PROGRAMME CONTROL OF VIDEO

RECORDERS
is
The new
Philips
a television screen
Facts on File
This
shown on
discs, while the gold
pictures and sound and the 12-inch
give additional backing to films and operas.
DAT
the
enables video pictures to be
It
will read standard
5 inches) play pictures
offer
1988
in
Philips (Holland)
conjunction with Sony.
while laser quality sound
sound and
1988
commencing
state that their broadcasts,
COMPACT DISC VIDEO
by
audio broadcasting' by P Shelswell
Communication from E Davies, London
Private
In 1987 there
1987
digital
first.
SOURCE:
1987
COFDM
'The
IEE Conference, September 1995)
and Communication Engineering Journal p 127 (June 1995)
NOTE: BBC
the
Leaflet 1995 (at '100 Years of Radio',
Sony (Japan)
this is also a
1.1
Sony
invention.
Marketed
in
Japan since August 1988,
it
kg, 2 lb 7 oz, containing a televusion receiver with liquid crystals and
format video recorder.
A Concise
250
SOURCE: The Book

(UK: Queen Anne
1991
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) p 238 (1990)
VERY HIGH DENSITY DISKETTE

Developed by the American company
megabytes on standard 3.5-inch
Insite
Peripherals the Floptical
Moreover,
diskettes.
kilobytes and 1.44 megabytes. This achievement
is
due
use optical recording techniques.
to the
New
York p 2 1
Philips (Holland)
While the electronics industry
strives to
make cheaper throw-away
laboratory in Eindhoven has adopted the opposite approach.
it
like a silicon chip. Ultimately this
sits in
The
March 1991.
PLASTIC ELECTRONICS
behave
Disk Drive can store 20.8
compatible with earlier formats: 720
fully
Facts on File
1991
is
it
Floptical has been available in the United States since
SOURCE:
(USA)
Insite Peripheals
It
silicon microchips, Philips research

is
making disposable materials
might mean shop assistants can
total
that
up your shopping while
the trolley.
De Leeuw
has developed plastic coatings that could be incorporated into smart packaging that would,
for example,
tell
supermarket checkout point what goods were
in a shoplifter's pocket.
The
plastic paint could also be
in a
passing shopping trolley
or even
used to make other disposable devices such as
telephone payment cards.
Conventional plastic polymers, for example polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride, are
They
insulators.
all
De Leeuw
are built from long chain molecules surrounded by side branches.
heated
these materials in a furnace to just below their burning point and then added organic solvent to the
residue.
This process knocked off the side branches leaving the long central molecules.
are used as a printing ink the molecules line
an electric current when a voltage

plastic electronics,
showing
is
up and
applied. Last
When
these materials
the coating behaves like a semiconductor, passing
week de Leeuw gave
the
first
demonstration of his
could generate a signal that could be displayed on an
that the coating
LCD
screen.
To make smart packaging,
a layer of semiconductor ink
would be printed on
the top surface of ordinary
card or plastic. This two-layer structure would behave like a field-effect transistor, where the current
flows through the coating
If the
coating
is
when
a control or switching voltage
domino
applied.
applied in a pattern of connected areas, the plastic acts as a string of
segment switches on the next FETs

this
is
effect sets
Depending on
in line.
up a characteristic
oscillating flow of electricity
around the FETs.
characteristic oscillation that will enable a supermarket checkout to discriminate

of, say, a carton
packaging
in
De Leeuw
cards.
estimates that the
SOURCE:
is
this
field.
minimum
much cheaper
alternative to silicon for telephone
cost of implanting a card with a silicon chip
'Check out the electronic
paint'
New
Scientist p 18
PHOTONIC CRYSTAL
the
first
to
slab of a
sets
mace
photonic crystal.
(1
is
payment
30 cents, while
July 1995)
Eli
In 1991, Eli Yablonovitch of Bellcore, the
is
It
between the packaging
technology would cost 'nearly nothing'.
his
1991
each
of milk and a packet of cheese. The oscillations would be triggered by bathing the
an electromagnetic
says the plastic coatings could be a
He
FETs
the shape and size of the printed pattern,
He
Yablonovitch (USA)
telecommunications research company

did
it
in the
simplest
way imaginable.
New
in
Jersey,
became
Starting with a solid
commercial material called Stycast-12, he used an ordinary workshop
drill
to bore three
of long, slanted holes through the top surface of the block, Yablonovitch chose Stycast-12, which
manufactured by the Massachusetts company Emerson and Cumming, because
it
is
transparent to
A Concise
Date Order
in
microwaves. The holes he drilled intersected below the surface to produce an

dimensional pattern, which
what forms the photonic
is
to a perfect mirror to reflect the
used
In the future, photonic crystals could be
would be much quicker
power
in
super-powerful computers based entirely on
to build
components
There
is
SOURCE:
made from photonic
Tricks of the
LASERCOM Laser
efficient, they will require
New
light'
Scientist p
TV
satellites
Lasercom
will rely
on a
The
satellites.
bits per
California, calls
satellite-to-satellite
modules known
all
optical chips,
ThermoTrex, Motorola (USA)
beam bouncing
a billion
systems on board todays
fastest radio-based
second.
its
new system Lasercom.
down
transmit information by bouncing radio waves off satellites and
orbiting relay
is
different signals
26 (25 August 1995)
handle just over 20 million
ThermoTrex Corporation of San Diego,
But
like the electronic transistor.
Bridge Across the World
of information per second between
digital
many
could eventually provide one.
crystals,
Information 'bridges' could be built in space using infrared lasers, with each
bits
light.
But processing
decreasing the size of the circuits
Furthermore, optical circuits can carry
optical systems.
no multipurpose optical component
containing devices
1995
And whereas
the work.
so they can process a large amount of information very quickly.
line,
as yet
do most of
and hence the waste heat they generate, there
in electronic devices tends to increase the resistance,
on a single
still
Because optical devices are
an optical system.
to operate than their electronic counterparts.
no such problem with
intricate, periodic, three-
crystal. Just drilling the holes turns the material
microwaves.
In today's optoelectronic circuits, electronic
less
251
Traditional systems
again to receiving stations.
approach, passing laser signals around the planet between
The
as transceivers.
signals will only
come down
to Earth at their
destination.
The
its
idea of passing information between satellites
Iridium constellation of satellites
But the Iridium
satellites will
which
not unique. For example. Motorola plans to have
is
will carry
mobile phone conversations
communicate using microwaves, which cannot carry
in place
as
by 2000.
much
data as
lasers.
As
well as carrying
The
secure.
more information than radio or microwaves,
laser transmissions are
more
difficult for
unauthorised receivers to intercept.
engineering on the transceivers to the point where

passed,' says Scott
Bloom,
the
Lasercom
In order to pass information reliably
for the
beacon of the
sunlight,
satellite
next in
satellite in
According
While the
to
Bloom,
feel
all
satellites, the
more
radio signals, so
'We have improved
the
the technical hurdles have been
on-board transceivers must be able
with the help of beacons.
line.
ThermoTrex has developed an
of the beacons.
To
cut
down
The
to track
transmitting satellite will look
interference from ambient light, principally
optical filter that only admits light at the precise wavelength
allow the transmitting
this will
satellite to track the receiving
broad daylight.
lasers should transmit clearly in space, their
cover as the signal passes
to
on radio
satellites
Bloom
this
we now
like
project manager.
between
each other. Lasercom aims to achieve
infrared lasers should be
beam, rather than scattering
signal travels in a tightly focused
links
between the
and from the Earth
at
beams may not be able

each end of
its
journey.
to penetrate thick
One
option
is
cloud
to rely
and the ground. Although they would be slower than laser
links.
says that the system can be configured to prevent the radio links from becoming information
'bottlenecks'.
Each
satellite will
simultaneously.
have as many as four laser transceivers, enabling
If a satellite
or a transceiver
is
it
to
communicate with
several others
disabled, the network could be rapidly reconfigured to
keep the information flowing.

Earlier this year,
ThermoTrex conducted an Earth-based
test
of Lasercom
when
it
broadcast several
video teleconferences simultaneously by laser between the Naval Research and Development Laboratory
on Point Loma
in the
San Diego Bay and
the
San Diego Convention Center 10 kilometres away.
A Concise
252
ThermoTrex
is
now
negotiating with Teledesic, a
company founded by
launching the transceivers aboard Teledesic's
satellites.
The next planned
in
Lasercom
test for
be
will
Bill
1997 when transceivers
Gates of Microsoft, about
will
US
be launched aboard
military satellites.
SOURCE:
1995
New
'Laser bridge across the world'
Scientist p 25 (17 June 1995)
INTER-SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Two US
satellites
US
Air Force (USA)
have passed a message to each other without the aid of a ground station
the
first
time this has been done. Direct satellite-to-satellite communication could reduce the military's reliance
on ground
which are vulnerable
stations,
heralds the technology that will
The
test
make
to
jamming during
US
message was transmitted from Virginia by the
'crosslink'
a war.
between two Milstar communication
satellites.
Since the end of the Cold War, Milstar has

criticism, the Air Force
officials say.
Air Force and arrived
The Milstar
codes for launching nuclear weapons operating
to relay secret
Pentagon
come under
fire
after
satellites
Hawaii via a
in
were originally designed
an all-out nuclear war had begun.
as an unnecessary extravagance.
promoting Milstar as a way of providing communications
is
also
It
global satellite cellphone services possible.
in a
To meet
this
conventional
war.
Other
from
satellites
can only talk to each other through ground stations, so any message has to be broadcast
a satellite to a
makes ground
who
ground station and then back up again
stations a
to the next satellite in the chain.
That
prime target for enemy bombing, says Leonard Kwiatkowski, the general
Normal transmissions
heads the Milstar programme.
are also vulnerable
eavesdropping.
to
But crosslinked communications several thousand kilometres above the Earth are out of reach to
eavesdroppers.
'Someone would have
satellites, to intercept
SOURCE:
1995
it,'
'Satellites talk
pathway of the beam,
to get right in the
In
among
themselves'
New
Scientist p 7 (6 Jan 1996)
since
The
RCA,
bit
in the
Hitachi and others introduced the analog
first bit
stream recording of the
receiver.
The standard
VHS
US
is
cassette used by
is
in
VCR
VHS
bit
stream recorder
receiver.
first
VHS
expected
to
be
in
US
bit
stream recorder that provides

and USSB SM to an
DIRECTV
stores by mid- 1996.
most consumers, as well as the countless software
new
technology
in 1977.
currently being transmitted by
The new product
format, are fully compatible with the
major development
VHS VCR
was demonstrated using
signal
Thomson (USA)
and Hitachi, Ltd successfully demonstrated

first
Hitachi are producing the
quality video and audio as
RCA DSS
DSS
RCA's DSS
As co-developers, Thomson and

same
Inc.
stream recorder that heralds the
prototype and a version of
the
Hitachi (Japan),
March, Thomson Consumer Electronics
VHS
between the
he says.
VHS BIT STREAM RECORDER
a prototype of a
right
VHS
bit
titles
on
VHS
stream recorder. Owners of digital broadcast system
receivers with digital interface will be able to time-shift record superior quality digital picture and sound
in addition to regular
Thomson and
analog broadcasts.
Hitachi are designing the
transmitted signals besides the
DSS
new
recorder for possible future applications with other digitally
signal such as the Digital
Video Broadcast (DVB) systems
in
Europe, and digital cable and telco delivery systems.

Digital broadcast recording will
spawn
new
generation of consumer products that contain a digital
interface especially for recording digital video, audio and data.
SOURCE:
'Age of tomorrow 136' Hitachi Ltd, Tokyo, p 19
A Concise
1995
MEMORY
BIOLOGICAL
CHIP
253
Mitsubishi Electric and Suntory
(Japan)
One
may be
day, 'biological' computer chips
much
able to store and process ten thousand times as
information as today's silicon chips, which are approaching the limits of miniaturisation. This dream
has
moved
that
behaves
a step closer to reality with the creation
Diodes are useful
The
because they only conduct current
in electronics
Two
rectification.
and storage
by a Japanese research team of a protein molecule
like a diode.
conventional diodes sandwiched back-to-back
one direction:
in
make
process called
a transistor, the basic processing
unit in microchips.
biological diode
was
by
built
scientists at Mitsubishi Electric
Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry, which
is
and Suntory using funding from the
eager to put Japan
at the forefront
of
biocomputing.
team led by senior researcher Satoshi Ueyama
in
Hyogo
called
flavocytochrome. Although the
it
so Mitsubishi says
To
test
at Mitsubishi's
R&D
Advanced Technology
Centre
synthesised the protein from cytochrome c552, a natural protein, and flavin, a vitamin, and
it
can
still
new device
synthetic, both
is
its
components occur
in nature,
be regarded as biological.
whether flavocytochrome would behave
protein molecules on a thin gold film,
Ueyama's team deposited
like a diode,
which had been grown on
mica
several of the
They then probed
substrate.
individual molecules with a scanning tunnelling electron microscope, applying various voltages between
When
make
the microscope
no current flowed through the molecule.
But when the
the microscope's probe tip and the gold electrode.

tip positively
charged compared
voltage was reversed, and
when
to the gold,
it
mimics
cytochrome on the other
in the
lower energy level
in the flavin to a
to
of an electronic diode.
that
says electrons were found to be flowing from the flavin side of the molecule to the iron-rich
haem group
place,'
was applied
reached 900 millivolts, a current of 70 picoamperes flowed through
the molecule. This behaviour closely
Ueyama
a voltage
in the
'The electrons only transfer from a high energy level
side.
haem
just like water flowing
from
a higher place to a
lower
he says.
flavocytochrome molecule
is
2.5 nanometres long, and as a
memory
chip component could be used
to create devices that are
around 10000 times the density of today's semiconductor
several terabits of data.
The biggest microchips
RAM
chips, storing
currently under development at Mitsubishi hold only
256 megabits of data using 0.25-micrometre components.

But
like other bioelectronics
biological diode in a circuit.
researchers, Mitsubishi
is
still
way from being
a long
able to use a
Connecting the molecule to another component, for example, presents
huge challenges.
Creating a useful circuit
also a major goal at Israel's
Weizmann
Abraham Shanzer
and 'off
Jacqueline Libman, senior staff scientist
settings.
development as
SOURCE:
1995
is
researchers led by
move
'a
are looking at different
in
efficient laser is also
micrometre across
500 times thinner than
tens of thousands times
most
to give 'on'
more
one of the smallest.

a
efficient than
human
normal
hair.
It is
Its
made of
output
is
Ho
et al
(USA)
a glass fibre less than half a
measured
in microwatts, but
lasers, for
medium, more photons join
it
lasers.
generated by a cascade of photons passing in phase in a single direction. As the
travels through the

in
Rehovot, where
Scientist (27 January 1996)
Song-Tiong
The world's most
is
in
Shanzer's team, described Mitsubishi's
New
'Bio-diode could lead to superchip' by P Marks
All laser light
Science
in the right direction'.
GLASS LASER
is
Institute of
ways of switching molecules
the cascade and the
beam becomes more
beam
intense.
But
every photon that becomes part of the laser beam, tens of thousands radiate uselessly
in other directions.
254
The
trick has
suppressed in
at
been
all
is
Illinois, is far
its
silica
wire, developed by Seng-Tiong
narrower than the wavelength of the
down
only one direction for photons of light to travel:
present form, the laser
In
of
of 'photonics', and use photonic wire, where radiation
art
The photonic
directions but one.
Northwestern University,
there
on the new
to build
Date Order
in
is
of the photons. The laser
beam would remain
light
it
Inside,
carries.
4 micrometres. The photonic wire
a loop with a diameter of
is
and his colleagues
the axis.
Embedded
with a high refractive index, standing proud of a silicon wafer.
made of indium gallium
three 'quantum wells' 0.01 micrometres deep
Ho
made
These are the source
arsenide.
trapped inside the tiny ring laser were
photonic wire, wrapped in a U-shape around the edge of the laser ring.
is
wire are
in the
it
quantum
not for a second
known
effect
as
tunnelling allows a small fraction of the photons to bleed out of the source laser into the second wire.
This way, 70 per cent of available photons are forced into the laser beam. The high efficiency means
As
energy gets wasted as heat.
that less
microelectronic manufacturers try to get more components
onto their chips, and look to optical as well as electronic processing of data, they need to minimise
heat generation.
SOURCE:
'Tiny glass laser sheds
more
by
light than heat'
Pease
New
Scientist p 23 (23
October
1995)
1995
DVD DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC

DVD
The
format
is
(International)
The competing groups combined
will play both existing
innovations, can store about 14 times
which the
first-generation
9X CD-ROM
fast
DVD
CDs and DVDs
player, setting a
new benchmark
And
DVD
although a
CD
DVD
is
the
same
CD's
achieve a finer focus than a
size as a
CD,
CD
wavelength of 635
to
player's does.
additional efficiencies of the
1995
and
DVD
In addition, the rate at
DVD
DVD
matches
that of a
upward of
do
In contrast,
players
CD
DVD
discs. First, the smallest
pits
twice as large, or 0.83 micron wide.
DVD
the smaller pits, a
650 nanometres.
DVD
is
In order to
having a higher numerical aperture than the lens in a
SOURCE:
can.
million bits per second
pits are nearly
data spiral
To read
data spiral.
CD
its
longer wavelength of 780 nanometres. Also,
of each
1 1
data tracks are only 0.74 micron apart, whereas 1.6 microns separate
twice the length of a
that has a
optical-disk reader prescribed
discs that, thanks to a variety of design
for performance.
There are two essential physical differences between

are only 0.4 micron in diameter; the equivalent
groups
more information than current CDs
player plays back data
rival
the best features of their individual
The new breed of
approaches, which had been developed separately.
by the agreement
among
the result of an unprecedented agreement reached in late 1995
of international companies.
this,
it
CD
CD
data tracks.
kilometres long
So
more than
player's readout
beam must
uses a red semiconductor laser
players use infrared lasers with a
more powerful focusing
one
employ
player.
These differences, together with
lens
the
format described below, account for the huge 4.7-gigabyte capacity
information layer.
'Next-generation compact discs' by
A E
Bell Scientific
ATOMIC BEAM LITHOGRAPHY
American p 28
(July 1996)
Harvard University, US National

Bureau of Standards (USA)
Computer chips
the
far
more
intricate
and powerful than those available today may be on the cards with
development of a new technique
for 'printing' integrated circuits.
Integrated circuits are usually manufactured by photolithography, in which the circuit pattern
onto the chip
in a
process similar to creating stencil designs.
protects certain regions of the underlying layers

are
made by
cutting
away
print
'stencil'
is
polymer
is
printed
resist that
from etching, coating or implanting operations. Resists
areas of the protective layer using ultraviolet light, which limits the smallest
size of any feature to about 100 nanometres, or half the
To
The
wavelength of the
light.
smaller features, manufacturers could turn to X-rays, which have a shorter wavelength.
Unfortunately, compact, high-energy X-ray sources are not yet available and polymer resists for use with
X-rays are
still
being developed. So
until
now, the only alternative has been electron-beam lithography.
A Concise
which a
in
approach
Now
tightly focused electron
beam
researchers at Harvard University and the
shown
beam
that a
is
US
40 nanometres and hope
when
But
this
not suitable for high-volume manufacturing.
National Institute of Standards and Technology have
of atoms can be controlled by lasers to create tiny patterns on a
cut features as small as
Atoms
onto the surface like a pen.
'writes' the pattern
expensive and time-consuming and
is
255
They have
resist.
nanometre mark.
to reach the 10
In
atoms known as
neutral metastable atoms, however, electrons can get trapped in higher energy states,
from which they
are normally stable
cannot decay.
developed a
The
the
such an atom lands on a surface
made of
resist
When
atoms.
When
their electrons are in the lowest
a material that is
damaged segments
deposits
it
damaged by
its
energy
state.
spare energy.
the energy
The
researchers have
from neutral metastable argon
are etched away, a pattern remains.
of alkanethiolate only one molecule thick applied over a thin gold
resist is a layer
atoms are energised
into a metastable state
by an
film.
The argon
and directed by an interference
electrical discharge
pattern produced by laser beams.
Beams of
light interfere with
When
of energy.
regions.
The
each other
in the
same way
the light meets the argon atoms,
magnetic
light's
as water waves, creating peaks
quenches
it
1996
'Atomic beams etch the
finest chips'
by
Lewotski
ATOMIC HOLOGRAPHY
Three
and troughs
in the brightest
on the atoms, pushing some into the minimum
field also exerts a force
energy regions. The atoms then create a corresponding pattern
SOURCE:
energy
their internal
in the resist.
New Scientist
NEC
tiny letters, just half a millimetre high, spell out a
breakthrough
p 21 (25
November 1995)
Tsukuba (Japan)
in the art
of printing. Scientists
at
NEC's Fundamental Research Laboratories in Tsukuba, Japan, have written their company's name using
a beam of neon atoms. The resulting logo is the atomic equivalent of a hologram, and the technique
that created
According
it
could one day be used to improve the resolution of microelectronic
quantum mechanics,
to
all particles,
including atoms, have wavelike properties. This idea
already exploited in electron microscopes, which use
higher resolution than
the looking glass',

In conventional
New
beams of electrons
possible with light microscopes.
is
attention to atoms, bending and diffracting

Scientist,
20
circuits.
More
beams of atoms
to
is
produce images with a much
recently, physicists have turned their
just like
beams of
light
('Atoms through
April, p 30).
holograms, such as the security image on credit cards, light waves pass through the
transparent areas between patterns of dark lines. This arrangement acts as a diffraction grating, causing
the
waves
create
To
to interfere with
more intense
light.
The
'NEC when
they
all,
the printed letters
slightly blurred, spread
nanometres
mask,
six
it
and Shinji Matsui of NEC, working
Fujita
pattern
was calculated
hit a surface.
to diffract the
neon atoms so
In principle, the holes could
Review Letters (vol 77, p 802). The edges of the
over about 65 micrometres.
would write
But with a
finer pattern
letters
were
of holes cut into the
should be possible to produce atomic holograms with a resolution of just 10
thousand times sharper.
David Pritchard of the Massachusetts
now
that they
be punched to create any pattern.
were made of just 52000 atoms, accumulated over two hours, the researchers
Institute
of Technology, a leading expert in atom optics, says that
atomic holography could one day be used to create microelectronic

techniques
others add together to
image.
beams of atoms, Junichi
report in the 29 July issue of Physical
silicon nitride
some cancel each other out and
University of Tokyo, punched a computer-generated pattern of holes in a thin
at the
sheet of silicon nitride.

the letters
that
result is a recognisable
create a diffraction grating for
with researchers
In
one another so
The
circuits.
The
optical lithography
used to etch circuits are limited by the wavelength of light to a resolution of around
150 nanometres.
SOURCE: 'Quantum hologram
says
it
with atoms'
New
Scientist p 19 (17
August 1996)
A Concise
256
1996
Date Order
in
ELECTRON-BEAM PROJECTION SYSTEM
Labs (USA)
Bell
Thousands more components could be packed onto chips much sooner than chipmakers expected, thanks
beam
to an electron
projection system from Bell Labs in
New
Jersey.
Its
developers reckon the system
be working within two years.
will
Lloyd Harriott, head of the research team, says
components
fabricate
micrometres wide are the norm
in today's
SCALPEL,
that
micrometres wide
just 0.08
semiconductor
silicon
SCALPEL
beam
system works
in a similar
way
atoms across.
plants,' says Harriott.
the next steps to be 0.18 micrometres, then 0.13 micrometres, so this
The
have named the technique, can
as they
roughly 250
is
four generations ahead.
now
to the light-based lithography
in use:
mask which contains
shines high-energy (100 kiloelectronvolts) electrons onto a
must be created on the chip. But instead of blocking the beam with opaque materials
some
create the pattern,
areas of the
unscathed. 'We use a high atomic
mask
the
number
The unscattered
in diameter.
were scattered miss the
some
scatter the electrons while others let
places to
them through
magnetic
unaltered,' he says.
lens,
which focuses
it
on an aperture
just
160 micrometres
electrons pass through the aperture, but the vast majority of those that
hole.
second lens then focuses the beam onto the chip substrate below. Just as
bombard
the energetic electrons
in
an electron
the pattern that
material that scatters the beam, while in the 'open' areas of
e-beam simply passes through
the
The e-beam then passes through
SCALPEL mask
'Features 0.35
'Everyone had expected
the substrate and
remove materials
in
conventional lithography,
to create patterns.
The second
lens
can focus the electrons into an image one quarter the size of the original mask. This means that the
mask can be
which makes
relatively large,
The high energy of
the electrons
it
was one stumbling block
them, but that material quickly heats up as a

alternative approach is to use a
'This works, but

'It's
it
is
like
circuits next year.
Funding
and then becomes
narrow electron beam
like a pencil,
and write patterns onto the chip.
handwriting versus the printing-press speeds of lithography,' says Harriott.
its first
0.08 micrometre features this summer, and expects to be etching
was provided by
'Chip pioneers tame power of E-beams' by
Beard
set for
15
August 1996)
seconds).
The
fastest of today's silicon-based
computers
rely
a million times slower, registering information in nanoseconds.
experimental systems have switches that operate
by Michael Wasielewski and his colleagues
thousand times as
of laser
company
another upward surge, by storing data in single molecules that can
transmit signals in femtoseconds (10~
Some
Scientist p 18 (3
a sister
Projects Agency.
Argonne Nat. Lab. (USA)
Computing power could be

on switches
Advanced Research
New
full
years,' says Harriott.
company Lucent Technologies,
Bell's parent
also provided funding, and by the government's
SUPERFAST SWITCH
built
chips with
by absorbing
distorted,' he says.
'Commercial use of the machines could come within two
for the project
AT&T, which
SOURCE:
1996
result,
make
that will stop electrons
too slow to be practical.'
The laboratory produced
of
previous attempts to
in
'You can make a mask from material
e-beams, says Harriott.
An
easier to manufacture.
light.
fast.
It
operates by
at
pumping an
'To the best of our knowledge,
in trillionths
the
(10~
12
)
of a second, but the system
Argonne National Laboratory
in Illinois is a
electron through a single molecule with two pulses
it's
the
first
time anyone has developed femtosecond
control of a charge shift device,' says Wasielewski.
Each
bit
of information could potentially be stored in the molecule by a single electron. This
from zone
to
zone with separate laser pulses.
The
first
laser pulse,
which has
is
moved
wavelength of 416
nanometres, pushes the electron from the storage zone to the central, priming zone. The second pulse,
with a wavelength of 480 nanometres, shunts the electron within just 400 femtoseconds into the
zone of the molecule, where
it
could be read.
final
A Concise
For
this to
action
back
be possible, the electron would have to be siphoned off into an electrical
257
to the original storage zone,
which returns the molecule
to
its
maximum
Wasielewski likens the laser pulses to 'pushing an electron up a cliff
in
cliff.
two separate
miniature electronic devices.
which would feed electrons
One
make
possibility is to
the top
at
arrays of the molecules that could serve as
anchor the molecules to metal or glass surfaces,
into electrical circuits.
David Vass, leader of the applied optics group
the University of Edinburgh, describes the
at
But he does not expect practical applications
experiment as 'extremely elegant'.
it requires parallel developments in laser technology', he says.
several years,
be fast-acting enough
to
keep up with the speed of the electrons.
'You are
handling the positions of microscopic, femtosecond-long spots of laser

research
SOURCE:
To make
stages.
This would allow more time for the electron's position to be detected.
In practical terms, Wasielewski is attempting to
The
flips
stability.
reading easier, he hopes to add a further zone that captures the electron in an energy 'well'
of the
Such an
circuit.
impossible with the existing molecule, because within 600 femtoseconds, the electron
is
is
The
light sources
must
he says.
light,'
18,
New
Coghian
Argonne
be possible for
with the problem of
left
reported in the Journal of the American Chemical Society (vol
'Hopping electron promises superfast switch' by
to
p 8174)
Scientist
p 24 (28
September 1996)
1996
IBM (USA)
SURFACE FLAT CHIPS

Silicon wafers
may
way
to
look smooth to the naked eye, but under the microscope, they reveal terraces like
Researchers
ancient rice fields.
burn off the
at
IBM
and
at
irregularities, creating
New
Cornell University in Ithaca,
an
ultraflat surface suitable for
York, have devised
manufacturing the next
generation of semiconductors.
The
surface of a silicon wafer consists of a
terraces of
atoms about
1.5
base of crystalline silicon, from which rise irregular
flat
nanometres high. Semiconductors are manufactured by depositing layers of
various materials on top of this silicon base.
For the current generation of semiconductors, the substrate does not have
compared
the layers are thick
to the imperfections
future generations of devices will rely
be
crucial,
imagine
be absolutely
that you're trying to put a carpet
on
at
Cornell. 'You
Watson Research Center
would want
process practical.
contamination from
At
final,
The squares
Creating a level surface within each square
single level across the entire wafer.
The
to get those
in
Yorktown Heights,
its
Next, the wafer
is
is
are needed to
much
make
New
First they use
lithography to create a criss-cross pattern of ridges on a silicon wafer, dividing
small squares with sides about 10 micrometres long.
But
will
here.'
York, describe their levelling technique in Applied Physics Letters (vol 69, p 1235).
beam
because
a floor that has ripples a foot high,' says
you put down the carpet. That's what we're doing
Blakely's team and researchers from IBM's
electron
flat
on thinner layers of material, so levelling the imperfections
Jack Blakely, professor of materials science and engineering

ripples out before
to
and so are not seriously affected by them.
the
it
into
smoothing
faster than trying to create a
heated rapidly to 1250 C to drive off oxide
surface.
key stage involves keeping the wafer
that temperature, silicon
at
between 1020C and
150
atoms gradually evaporate from the edges of the
not as strongly held by the crystal lattice as atoms that are surrounded on
for about
terraces,
all
sides.
30 minutes.
where they are
As
the
atoms
evaporate one by one, the terraces gradually retreat towards the sides of each square, leaving a totally
smooth surface behind. Blakely says the temperature
is
not high enough to drive off atoms from this
surface, and evaporation stops at the ridge created by the lithography.
SOURCE:
1996)
'Flat is beautiful for future chips'
by Vincent Kiernan
New
Scientist p
24
(21
September
258
1996
DIRECT LASER WRITING
Mikroelektronik Centre, Lyngby
(Denmark)
Danish group has etched structures
The
by direct laser writing.
in polysilicon
and amorphous silicon deposited on silicon oxide
patterns can be written with high resolution and transferred to the
underlying material by reactive ion etching (RIE). Three-dimensional structures can be obtained by
multiple exposure of the silicon mask.
The
fast
turnaround times of the direct writing process enable
the technique to be used for the rapid prototyping of large scale structures.
For deep structures and via holes,

Universitet,
a
Millenborn et al of the Mikroelektronik Centre, Danmarks Tekniske
Lyngby, Denmkar, deposited a 2
/urn thick polysilicon layer
10 fim thick oxide deposited by plasma-enhanced
/xm thick boron-doped amorphous
silicon layer
CVD
polysilicon layer
Laser direct writing

polysilicon or
chlorine.
was
by low-pressure
a silicon substrate.
was deposited by dc magnetron
polysilicon. For structures with a subitem resolution, a thin
CVD
on
(MOO nm)
CVD
onto
Alternatively, a 2
sputtering instead of
phosphorous-doped low-pressure
was deposited on 20 nm of thermal oxide.

1.5
(i.e.
amorphous
of 488
silicon layer.
nm
light
focused to an 8 /jm spot) was used to pattern the
Direct etching
was used, based on
local melting of silicon in
Solid silicon, oxides and nitrides are not etched, even at high temperatures.
translated at speeds of
up
to
100 mm/s during etching
to
The sample
produce continuous trenches
can
that
be interrupted by on-the-fly beam switching. There was no time for reflow or diffusion of materials
during the fast etching scan. The silicon layer could be locally removed in a single scan to expose the
underlying oxide that acts as an etch stop.
The
much
Alternatively a
oxide
CF4/CHF3 plasma
of the polysiclion or amorphous silicon mask and transferred by RIE (figure
3-D
structure can be etched directly into the silicon layer
in a single step.
RIE of bulk
by RIE using
transferred to the oxide layer
that
higher etch rates for oxides than for silicon. Stepped oxide structures are produced by
iterative patterning
the
was then
silicon pattern
provides
The
resulting oxide structure has been applied as a
silicon using a
and then transferred
.34).
to the
3-D eroding etch mask
for
SF6 /0 2 plasma.
High-Resolution Patterning Process
a)
b)Truly 3-D
structures
Stepped structures
/Poly-Si ora-Siv
Deposition
-Si0 2
-^
Laser
patterning
Reactive
ion etching
The process sequence for prototyping of large high-aspect3-D structures in bulk silicon. ^Iterative laser and reactive
ion etching, b) single-step pattern generation and transfer.
J.
ratio
Figure 11.34. High resolution patterning process.
SOURCE: 'Etch techniques achieves

No 10, p 60 (September 1996)
rapid prototyping' by
B Dance Semiconductor International
vol 19,
Chapter 12
Electronics
Because of very lengthy descriptive technical words necessary

(Trapped plasma avalanche
transit
electronics language. Arising from the preparation of this

the following
list
covering a wide
in
modern
field
N.B. In cases where the same acronym
book and from
become
diode
part of today's
a perusal of current technical literature,
has been prepared in the hope that

is
TRAPPAT
electronics, e.g.
time diode), acronyms and abbreviations have
it
will
be useful for reference.
used for different interpretations, both are included.
a-d
Analogue
a-Si
Amorphous
ACIA
Asynchronous Communication Interface Adapter
ADA
ADC
Computer Language (named
ADS
ADP
Address Data Strobe
AGC
Automatic Gain Control
to Digital
Silicon
after
Ada Augusta)
Analogue-to-Digital Converter
Automatic Data Processing
AIM
Avalanche-Induced Migration
ALGOL
ALU
ALG-Orithmic, Computer Language
AM
Amplitude Modulation
ANSI
AOI
AOI
American National Standards
APL
AQL
ASCH
Acceptance Quality Level
ASIC
Application Specific Integrated Circuits
ASPR
Automatic
ASTM
ASQC
American Society
Arithmetic/Logic Unit
AND/OR
Institute
Invert
Automated Optical Inspection
Programming Language developed by Iverson
American Standard Code
for Information
Satellite Position
Exchange
Reporting System
for Testing
and Materials
American Society of Quality Control
ATAB
ATC
ATE
Address Translation Cache
ATM
Asymchronous Transfer Mode
Area-Array Tape Automated Bonding
Automatic Test Equipment
ATS
Automatic Test System
AVC
AWACS
Automatic Volume Control
BARRITT
Barrier controlled Injection and Transit
Airborne Warning and Control System
Time
(diode)
259
260
Electronics
BASIC
Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
BBD
BCD
BCD
BGA
Bucket-Brigade Device
BIFET
BITE
BIT
BIOS
BJT
Bipolar Field Effect Transistor
BORAM
Block-Oriented Random-Access
b/s
Bits per
Binary-Coded Decimal
Bipolar-CMOS-DMOS
Ball Grid Array
Built-in Test
Equipment
Built-in-Test (Bit-unit of binary data)
Basic Input/Output System

Bipolar Junction Transistor
Memory
Second
BTAB
Bumped Tape Automated Bonding
BW
Band Width
BYTE
8 bits
CAAP
CAD
CAL
Coprocessor Architecture and Protocols
CAM
CAM
Content-Addressable
CATT
CAT
CB
Controlled Avalanche Transit Time (diode)
CCD
Charge-Coupled Device
CCIR
CCITT
Computer-Aided Design
Computer-Assisted Learning
Memory
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
Computer Aided Testing
Band
Citizens
(radio)
Int.
Radio Consultative Committee
Int.
Telegraph
&
Telephone Consultative Committee
CCTT
CCTV
Cold Cathode Trigger Tube
CD
Compact Disc
Closed Circuit Television
CDI
Collector Diffusion Isolation
CDMA
Code-Division Multiple Access
CEEFAX
Teletext
CERDIP
CFC
Ceramic Dual-In-Line Package
CGI
CIRC
CISC
Common Gateway
CML
Current-Mode Logic
C-MOS
Complementary-Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
CMRR
COBOL
Common-Mode
CPU
Central Processing Unit
CRO
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
CROM
Control Read-Only
CRT
CRC
Cathode-Ray Tube
CVD
Chemical-Vapour Deposition
CVT
Constant- Voltage Transformer
d-a
Digital to
DAC
DAP
Digital-to-Analogue Converter
(BBC)
Chloro-Fluoro-Carbon
Interface
Cross-Interleaved Reed-Soloman
Complex
Common
Code
(for
CDs)
Instruction Set
Rejection Ratio
Business Oriented Language
Memory
Cyclic Redundancy Check
Analogue
Distributed Array Processor
Electronics
DART
DAS
DAT
Dual Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
DBS
Direct Broadcasting Satellite
DCE
DCE
Data Circuit Termination Equipment
Data-Acquisition System
Digital
Audio Tape
Data Communications Equipment
DCS
Digital Cellular Service
DDD
Direct Distance Dialling
DECT
Digital
DFA
Digital Fault Analysis
DI
Dielectric Isolation
European Cordless Communications
DIP
Dual-In-line Package
DIL
Dual In Line
DMA
DMAC
Direct-Memory-Access Control
Direct
Memory Access
DMM
Digital Multimeter
D-MOS
Double-diffused Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
DMS
Dynamic Mapping System
DMUX
Demultiplexer
DOS
DPDT
Double Pole Double Throw (switch)
Disc Operating System
DPM
Digital Panel
DPSK
DSSC
DSP
DSTC
DTE
DTL
Differential Phase Shift
DRAM
Dynamic Random Access Memory
DVB
DVD
DVD
Digital
Video Broadcasting
Digital
Video Disc
DVM
Digital Voltmeter
DX
Duplex
EAROM
Electrically Alterable
EBCDIC
EBL
ECL
Extended Binary-Coded-Decimal Interchange Code
ECM
Electronic Counter Measures
EDP
Electronic Data Processing (or Processor)
EFL
Emitter-Follower Logic
EIA
Electronic Industries Association
EMI
Electromagnetic Interference
EMC
Electromagnetic Capability
EOC
End Of Conversion
ES
Electrical Overstress
EPROM
ERDA
Erasable Programmable Read-Only
ESREF
European Symposium on Reliability of Electronic Devices, Failure Physics and
Meter
Keying
Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier

Digital Signal Processing
Double-Sideband Transmitted Carrier

Data Terminal Equipment
Diode-Transistor Logic
Digital Versatile Disc
Electron
Beam
Read-Only Memory
Lithography
Emitter-Coupled Logic
Memory
Elastic Recoil Detection Analysis
Analysis
EROM
Erasable Read-Only
ESA
European Space Agency
Memory
261
262
ESD
Electronics
Electrostatic Discharge
ESS
Electronic Switching System
EST
ETC
Echo Suppressor Terminal
ETSI
European Telecommunications Standards
EXTND
Extended Data Transfer
FAMOS
Floating-gate Avalanche-rejection
FAX
FCC
Facsimile
FCFS
FDDI
First
FDM
FDMA
Frequency-Division Multiplex
FET
FFT
Field-Effect Transistor
FIFO
First In, First
FIT
Failure Rate, one in 10
FORTRAN
PGA
Formula Translator (programming language)

Field
Programmable Gate Array
FPLA
Field
Programmable Logic Array
FPMOM
FMEA
Field
Programmable Multi-Chip Module
FTP
File Transfer Protocol
FM
Frequency Modulation
F-PROM
FSK
Field
European Telecommunications Standards
First
MOS
Commission
Federal Communications
Come
Institute
Served
Fibre-Distributed Data Interface
Frequency-Division Multiple Access
Fast Fourier Transform
Failure
Mode
Out
9
hours
Effects Analysis
Programmable Read-Only Memory
Frequency Shift Keying
FTMIS
Floating Gate Tunnel Metal-Insulator Semiconductor
FX
Foreign Exchange
GaAs
GaAlAs
GDI
Gallium Arsenide
GDS
Graphic Data System
GIF
Graphic Image File
GIGO
Garbage
GSM
Global System for Mobile Communications
GUI
Graphic User Interface
HAST
HALT
Highly Accelerated Stress Testing
HCMOS
HDL
HEMT
Scaled High Speed
HF
High Frequency
HIC
HiNIL
Hybrid Integrated Circuit
HITFET
Highly Integrated Temperature Protected
HLL
H-MOS
High Level Logic
HTML
Hyper-Text Markup Language
HTL
High-Threshold Logic
Gallium Aluminium Arsenide

Graphics Device Interface
In,
Garbage Out
Highly Accelerated Life Testing
MOS
Hardware Description Language

High-Electron Mobility Transistor
High-Noise Immunity Logic
High-MOS
FET
Electronics
Assigned Numbers Authority
IANA
IARU
Internet
IBE
Ion
IC
Integrated Circuit
ICE
In-Circuit Emulator
International
Beam
Amateur Radio Union
Etching
IDS
Input-Data Strobe
IEC
Infused Emitter Coupling
IEC
International Electrotechnical
IEEE
Institute
IGFET
2
I
Commission
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor
Integrated Injection Logic
ILB
Inner Lead Bonding
IMPATT
Impact Avalanche Transit Time (diode)
InP
Indium Phosphide
I/O
Input/Output
IP
Internet Protocol
IR
Infra
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital
ISO
International Standards Organisation
ITU
International
JEDEC
Joint Electron Device Engineering Council
J-FET
Junction Field-Effect Transistor
JTI
Junction Isolation
KBIT
Kilobit
LAPUT
LAN
Light- Activated
LARAM
Line Addressable
LASCR
LASER
LCA
LCC
LCCC
LCD
LED
LEED
Light-Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifier
Red
Network
Telecommunications Union
Programmable Unijunction Transistor
Local Area Network
Random Access Memory
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Life Cycle Analysis
Leadless Chip Carrier

Leadless Ceramic Chip Carrier
Liquid-Crystal Display
Light-Emitting Diode
Low
Energy Electron Diffraction
LIC
Linear Integrated Circuit
LIFO
Last
In, First
LF
Low
Freqency
Out
LLCC
Leadless Chip Carrier
LNA
LOCMOS
LORAN
LPCVD
Low-Noise Amplifier
LPTTL
Low-power
LRU
Least Recently Used
LSB
Least Significant Bit
LSI
Large-Scale Integration
MAC
Multiply- Accumulate
Locally Oxidised
C-MOS
Long Range Air Navigation
Low
Pressure Chemical Vapour Deposition

Transistor-Transistor Logic
263
264
Electronics
MASER
Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
MBE
Molecular
MCM
Multi-Chip Module
MCM-C
MCM-D
MCM-L
Multi-Chip Module
Dielectric
Multi-Chip Module
Dielectric
MCT
MDS
Mobile Communications Terminal

Microprocessor-Development System
MESFET
Metalised Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
MF
Medium Frequency
MFLOPS
Millions of Floating-Point Instructions Per Second
MHL
MIMD
Multiple Instruction Multiple Data
MIME
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
MIPS
MIS
Millions of Instructions Per Second
MISD
Multiple Instruction Single Data
MLA
MLB
MLE
Microprocessor Language Assembler
MLS
MMIC
Microwave Landing Scheme
MMU
Memory Management
MNCS
MNOS
Multipoint Network Control System
MODEM
Modulator/Demodulator
MODHIC
MOS
MOSFET
MOST
Modular Hybrid Integrated Circuit
H?
Microprocessor
MPEG
MPU
MSB
Moving
MSI
Medium-Scale Integration
MSIN
Multi-Stage Interconnection Network
MST
MTBF
Multiservice Terminal
MTD
Mass Tape
MTTF
MTTR
Mean Time To Failure

Mean Time To Repair
MUSA
Multiple Unit Steerable Antenna
MUX
Multiplexer
Beam
Epitaxy
Ceramic
Organic
Laminate
Module
Multi-Chip
Microprocessor Host Loader
Metal Insulator Silicon
Multilayer Board
Microprocessor Language Editor
Monolithic Microwave Intergrated Circuit

Unit
Metal-Nitride-Oxide Semiconductor
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Transistor
Pictures Expert
Group
Microprocessor Unit
Most
Significant Bit
Mean Time Between
Failures
Duplicator/verifier
AND
NAND
Inverted
NASA
National Aeronautics
NDRO
Nondestructive Readout
NF
n-MOS
n-Channel Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
gate
&
Space Administration
Noise Figure
OR
NOR
NRZ
Inverted
Non-Return
to
Zero
NRZI
Non-Return
to
Zero Inverted
NTSC
National Television System Committee
gate
Electronics
OAM
Operation
OBL
OCR
ODS
One Block Lookahead
OEM
Original-Equipment Manufacturer
OLB
OPAL
OP/AMP
ORACLE
OTA
Outer Lead Bonding
And Maintenance
Optical Character Recognition
Output Data Strobe
(in
TAB)
Operational Performance-Analysis Language

Operational Amplifier
Teletext
Operational Transconductance Amplifier
PABX
PACE
Plasma Assisted Chemical Etching
PAL
Phase Alternation Line (TV)
PAM
Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
PAR
PASCAL
PAR
PBX
PC
PC
PCA
PCB
PCC
PCMCIA
Exchange
Private Automatic Branch
Precision Approach Radar
Computer Language
Programme-Aid Routine
Private Branch
Exchange
Personal Computer
Printed Circuit
Principal
Components Analysis
Printed-Circuit Board
Plastic
Chip Carrier
Personal Computer
Memory Card
PCM
Pulse
PCN
PDP
PGA
Personal Communication Network
Code Modulation
Plasma Display Panel

Pin Grid Array (Package)
PIA
Peripheral Interface Adapter
PIND
Particle
PLA
PLC
Programmable Logic Array
PLL
Phase-Locked Loop
PM
PMG
Phase Modulation
p-MOS
p-channel Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
PPI
Plan-Position Indicator
PPI
Programmable Peripheral
PPM
Parts Per Million
Impact Noise Detection
Programmable Logic Controller
Permanent-Magnet Generator
Interface
PQFP
Plastic
PRACL
Page-Replacement Algorithm and Control Logic
Quad
Flat
Package
(BBC)
PRESTEL
Teletext
PROM
Programmable Read-Only Memory
PSPDN
PSTN
Packet-Switched Public Data Network
PTFE
PTH
Polytetrafluoroethylene (plastic)
PUT
Programmable Unijunction Transistor
QA
Quality Assurance
QAM
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QC
Quality Control
Public-Switched Telephone Network
Plated-Through Holes
265
266
Electronics
QFP
Quad
QMB
Quick Make and Break (switch)
RACE
Flat
Pack
Research and Technology Development

in
RADAR
Radio Detection And Ranging
RDF
RAS
RALU
Radio Direction Finding
Row
Advanced Communication Technologies
Address Select
Register and Arithmetic/Logic Unit
RAM
Random-Access Memory
RDP
Reliable Data Protocol
RFI
Radio-Frequency Interference
RIGRET
RIM
Resistive-Insulated Gate
RISC
Reduced
RMM
Mode
Read-Only Memory
ROM
in
Europe
Read-In
FET
Mode
Instruction Set
Computer
Read-Mostly
RTB
RTC
RTL
R/W
Read/Write
SAM
Scanning Auger Microscopy
SAR
Synthetic Aperture Radar
SAW
Surface Acoustic
SBS
SC
Silicon Bilateral Switch
SCA
SCAT
SCR
SDH
SDLC
Sub-Channel Adaptor
Silicon Controlled Rectifier
SDMA
Space-Division Multiple Access
SECAM
SEM
Scanning Electron Microscope
S/H
Sample and Hold
Si
Silicon
SIL
Single In Line
SIMD
Single Instruction Multiple Data
SIO
Si02 2
Serial Input/Output
SIP
Single In-line Package
SISD
Single Instruction Single Data
SMA
SMD
SMART
Surface
Mount Assembly
Surface
Mount Device
SMPS
Switched
SMT
SMTP
Surface
SOIC
Small Outline Integrated Circuit Package
SOS
Silicon-On-Sapphire
SPICE
SSB
Single Sideband Broadcasting
Reverse Translation Buffer

Realtime Clock
Resistor-Transistor Logic
Wave
Semiconductor
Scanning Acoustic Tomography
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

Synchronous Data-Link Control
Sequential Couleur a
Memoire (TV System)
Silicon dioxide
Stress Marginality and Accelerated Reliability
Mode Power Supply
Mount Technology
Simple Message Transfer Protocol
Simulated Programme with Intregrated Circuit Emphasis
Electronics
SSI
Small Scale Integration
SSIN
Single Stage Interconnection Network
SSSC
SSTC
SUS
Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier
Sx
Simplex
Single Sideband Transmitted Carrier

Silicon Unilateral Switch
TAB
Tape Automated Bonding
TBMT
TDD
TDM
TDMA
TEM
Transmitter Buffer
TFT
Thin Film Transistor
Empty
Time Division Duplex

Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-Division Multiple Access
Transmission Electron Microscope
TLB
Translation Lookaside Buffer
TMR
Triple
TOS
TRAPATT
TTL
T2 l
TTTN
TTY
Top Of Stack
Modular Redundancy
Trapped Plasma Avalanche Transit Time (diode)

Tandem
Tie Trunk Network
Teletypewriter
TWT
Travelling- Wave
UART
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
Tube
UJT
Unijunction Transistor
ULA
Uncommitted Logic Array
ULSI
Ultra Large Scale Integration
UMTS
UNCOL
Universal Computer-Orientated Language
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
UNI
User-Network
URCLK
USART
Universal Receiver Clock
Interface
Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
USRT
Universal Synchronous Receiver/Transmitter
UTCLK
Universal Transmitter Clock
UTP
Ultra-Thin Package
UUT
Unit Under Test
VCO
VCT
VDU
VHF
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator
Voltage-to-Current Transactor
Visual Display Unit
Very High Frequency
VHSIC
Very High Speed Integrated Circuit
VIL
Vertical Injection Logic
VLF
Very
VLSI
Very Large-Scale Integration
VMA
Valid
VMM
Low
Frequency
Memory Address
Virtual
Machine Moniter
MOS
V-MOS
VSOP
VSP
Video Signal Processing
VTR
Video-Tape Recorder
groove
Very Small Outline Package
267
268
Electronics
WARC
World Advisory Radio Conference
WATS
WIMPS
Wide-Area Telephone Service
WORM
Write
Windows,
Icons,
Once
Menus and Pulldowns
Read Many Times
WS
Working Set
WWW
World Wide
XOR
Exclusive-OR gate
YIG
Yetrium-Iron-Garnet (magnetic properties)
Web
Chapter 13
List of
selection of books
Books on Inventions
on the history of electronics and general history of technology and science
is
given for
interest.
13.1
History of Inventions
'A History of Invention' (London:
Dent
&
'Dictionary of Inventions and Discoveries' by
Sons and
E F
New
York:
Roy
Publishers) (1971)
Carter (London: Fdk Muller) (1966)
'Discoveries and Inventions of the 20th Century' by
Crowther (London: Routledge
&
Regan Paul Ltd)
(1966)
'Inventions and Discoveries' by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing
'Science
&
Technology
in History'
'The Sources of Invention' by
by Ian Inkster, Distribution Ltd,
Jawkes,
'The History of Invention' by Trevor

'The Progress of Invention
York: Facts-on-File) (1993)
UK
Sawers and R Stillerman (London: MacMillan) (1958)
Williams
(New
York: Facts-on-File) (1987)
Nineteenth Century' by
in the
(New
Bryn (New York: Munn) (1920)
'The Economics of Invention and Innovation' by F S Johnson (Martin Robinson) (1975)
13.2
History of Technology
'An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology' edited by Ian McNeil (London: Routledge) (1989)
'Children of Prometheus: a History of Science and Technology' by James MacLachlan, Collegiate edn (Toronto,
Ontario: Wall
&
Emerson) (1989)
'Encyclopaedia of Modern Technology' (London: Hutchinson) (1987)

'Fontana History of Technology' by Donald Cardwell (Harper-Collins)
'History of Technology' by
'Technological
Change
G M
Short (Hollizter Publishing Ltd)
Methods and Themes
in the
History of Technology' edited by Robert Fox (Amsterdam:
Harwood Academic) (1996)

'Timetable of Technology' Michael Joseph (London) (1983)
269
270
of Books on Inventions
List
History of Science
13.3
'A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists' by
Williams (Bath: Pitman Press) (1976)
'A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century' by

'A History of Science' by
W Waltham (Cambridge:
'British Scientists of the 19th Century'
by
'Masters of Science and Invention' by F
'Men of Science
in
Singer (Clarendon Press) (1941)
Cambridge University
Crowther (London: MacMillan)
L Darrow (New
York: Harcourt Brace) (1923)
America' by Jaffe Bernard (New York: Simon
'Science Since 1500' by
H T
Pledge
Press) (1929)
(HMSO)
&
Schuster) (1944)
(1946)
History of Telegraphy
13.4
'From Machine Shop

1830-1920' by Paul
to Industrial Laboratory
Israel (Baltimore:
Telegraphy and the Changing Context of American Invention,
Johns Hopkins University Press) (1992)
'History of Wireless Telegraphy' by J J Fahie (Edinburgh
&
London:
Wm
'History of Electric Telegraphy to the Year 1837' by J J Fahie (London:
'The Telegraph
(Jefferson,
a History of Morse's Invention and
its
Blackwood) (1899)
Skoon) (1884)
Predecessors in the United States' by Lewis
Coe
NC: McFarland) (1993)
History of Telephony
13.5
'100 Years of Telephone Switching (1878-1978)' Pt
Robert
Manual Electromechanical Switching (1878-1960s) by
1:
Chapuis (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing) (1982)
L Rhodes (New
'The Beginning of Telephony' by F
'The Telephone and
'Who Invented
its
York: Harper) (1929)
Several Inventors: a History' by Lewis
the Telephone?'
by
W Aitken
Coe
(Jefferson,
NC: McFarland) (1995)
(London: Blackie) (1939)
History of Electricity and Electronics
13.6
'A History of the World Semiconductory Industry' by P
Morris (Peter Peregrinus) (1990)
'Bibliographical History of Electricity and Magnetism' by Motteley (London: Griffin) (1922)
'Bibliography of the History of Electronics' by

'Early Electrodynamics' by
'Fifty
R A R
Years of Electricity' by
'Electronics
Shiers (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press)
Tricker (Oxford: Pergamon Press) (1965)
Fleming (Wireless Press) (1921)
a Bibliographical Guide' by
'Electronic Inventions and Discoveries' by
'My
C K Moore
WA
and
Dummer
Spencer (London: MacDonald) (1965)
(Bristol:
Institute of
Physics Publishing) (1997)
Life with the Printed Circuit' by Paul Eisler (Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Press) (1989)
'The Conquest of the Microchip' by
Queisser (Harvard University Press) (1985)
'The History of Science and Technology' by
Rider (London: Library Association of London) (1967)
History of Radio and Communications
271
History of Radio and Communications
13.7
'A History of Broadcasting
in the
United States' by
'A History of the Marconi Company' by

'Behind the Tube
E Barnouw (Oxford: Oxford
Baker (London: Methner
&
Co) (1970)
Andrew F
History of Broadcasting Technology and Business' by
Focal
Inglis (Boston:
Press) (1990)
'Broadcasting Technology
and Radio Engineers Vol
'Communications Miracle
Major Landmarks' by
the
56, p
P Leggatt The Journal of the
Telecommunications Pioneers from Morse
Institution
of Electronic
303-310 (1986)
to the
Information Superhighway' by
John Bray (New York: Plenum) (1995)

'History of International Broadcasting' by
Museum)
'Invention
&
Innovation in the Radio Industry' by
'Pioneers of Wireless' by
in association with the
Science
in the
MacLaurin (New York: MacMillan) (1949)
R Appleyard
E Hawks (London: Methuen
'The History of Broadcasting

to
(London: Peregrinus
1994)
'Pioneers of Electrical Communications' by
Wood
James
&
(London: MacMillan) (1930)
Co) (1927)
United Kingdom' by Asa Briggs (London: Oxford University Press) Vols.
6 (1961 to 1995)
The
13.8
Beginning of
Communications' by
Satellite
Pierce (San Francisco: San Francisco Press) (1968)
History of Radar
'Beginnings of Radar' by S S Swords (London: Peregrinus) (1986)
'One Story of Radar' by

'Radar Days' by
P Rowe (Cambridge: Cambridge University
E G Bowen
R A
'Three Steps to Victory' by
13.9
Adam
Hilger) (1987)
Watson- Watt (London: Odhams Press Limited) (1957)
'Digital Television'
'Birth of the
13.10
(Bristol:
Press) (1948)
by
C P Sandbank
(John Wiley
Box: the Story of Television' by Ian
&
R
Sons) (1990)
Sinclair (Wilmslow:
Sigma
Press) (1995)
History of computers
'A History of Computing Technology' by Michael
'Computers and Computing:
W Greenia (Sacramento:
R Williams (Englewood
Chronology of the People and Machines
that
Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall) (1985)
Made Computer
History' by
Mark
(New
York:
Lexikon Services Publications) (1992)
'Computer: a History of the Information Machine' by Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray
Basic Books) (1996)
'Computer Pioneers' by Laura Greene (New York: Watts) (1985)

'Engines of the Mind: a History of the Computer' by Joel Shurkin, 1st ed.
'Japan's
Computer
and
Communications
Industry:
the
Evolution
(New
of
York: Norton) (1984)
Industrial
Competitiveness' by Martin Fransman (Oxford: Oxford University Press) (1995)
Giants
and
Global
272
List
'Landmarks
in
of Books on Inventions
Computing' by Peggy
Digital
Kidwell and Paul
Ceruzzi (Washington:
Smithsonian
Institution Press) (1994)
'The Computer
(Cambridge,
Comes
MA: MIT
of Age: the People, Hardware, and the Software' by
R Moreau,
translated by
Howlett
Press) (1984)
'The Making of the Micro: a History of the Computer' by Christopher Evans, foreword by
Tom
Stonier (London:
Gollancz) (1981)
'The Computer from Pascal to von Neuman' by
H H
'The Early History of Data Networks' by Gerard
Computer Society
Goldstine (Princeton University Press) (1972)
Holzmann and Bjorn Pehrson (Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE
Press) (1995)
'Transforming Computer Technology:
Information Processing for the Pentagon,
Norberg and Judy E O'Neill; with contributions by Kerry
1962-1986' by Arthur L
Freedman (Baltimore, OH: Johns Hopkins University
Press) (1986)
'Understanding Computers
Illustrated
Chronology and Index' (Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books)
Chapter 14
List of
selection of books
Books on Inventors
on inventors primarily
in the field of electronics is
given for
interest.
AMPERE
'Andre-Marie Ampere and his English Acquaintances' by
and
D L
Gardiner British Journal for the History
of Science Vol 2 (July 1965) p 235

'Andre-Marie Ampere' by James
R Holmann
(Oxford: Blackwell) (1995)
BA1RD
'Baird of Television
'John Baird:
the
the Life Story of John Logie Baird' by
Romance and Tragedy of
R F
Tiltman (London: Selley Service) (1933)
the Pioneer of Television'
by Sydney Moseley (London: Odhams
Press) (1952)
BELL
'Alexander
Graham
Bell:
the
Man who
Contracted Space' by Catherine
Mackenzie (Houghton
Mifflin)
1928)
'Bell,
Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude' by
'Genius
at
Work: Images of Alexander Graham
Bell'
R V
Bruce (Victor Gollanz) (1973)
by Dorothy Harley, Eber.
(New
York:
Viking Press)
(1982)
BERLINER
'Grevile Berliner,
Maker of
the
Microphone' by F
Wile (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill) (1926)
BRAUN
'Ferdinand Braun
(Heinz
Moos
Leben und Wirken oes Erfinders der Brauchen Roehre, Nobel-Preistraeger' by F Kurylo
Verlag) (1965)
CROOKES
'The Life of Sir Williams Crookes' by
E E Fourner D'Albe (London:
Fisher
Unwin London) (1923)
EDISON
'My Friend Edison' by H Ford
'Edison' by
(Ernest
Benn Limited)
Josephson (New York: McCraw-Hill) (1959)
'Edison: Inventing the Century' by Neil Baldwin
(New
York: Hyperion) (1995)
273
274
List
of Books on Inventors
FAHIE
Work of John Joseph
'The Life and
Fahie' by
S Whitehead (Liverpool: University Press of Liverpool) (1939)
FARADAY
'Faraday' by
R & R
'Michael Faraday
'Faraday,
Maxwell
Clark
his Life
&
Allied Mnfrs. Assoc.) (1931)
and Work' by S P Thompson (Cassel) (1901)
Kelvin' by
'Michael Faraday and the
&
Elec
(Brit.
MacDonald (New York: Doubleday) (1964)
Modern World' by Brian Bowers
EPA) (1991)
(Saffron Walden:
FESSENDEN
'Fessenden
Builder of Tomorrow' by H M Fessenden (Coward-McCann) (1940)
FITZGERALD
'The Scientific Writings of the
late
George Francis Fitzgerald' edited by
Lamor
(Dublin: Dublin University
Press) (1902)
FLEMING
'Memories of a
Scientific Life'
by Alexander Fleming (Marshal)
HEAVISIDE
'Oliver Heaviside' by
Lee (London: Longmans Green) (1947)
'Oliver Heaviside: a Biography' by
Josephs (1963)
HENRY
'Joseph Henry
His
Life and Work' by
Coulson (Princeton University Press) (1950)
HERTZ
'Gesammelte Werke' by P E
translations (London:
Lenard Ambrosius Borth (Leipzig) (1895) (Papers
in three
volumes) English
MacMillan)
'The Creation of Scientific Effects: Heinrich Hertz and Electric Waves' by Jed
Z Buchwald
(Chicago: University
of Chicago Press) (1994)
LODGE
Past Years, an Autobiography' by Scribner (New York) (1932)
'Oliver
Lodge
'Oliver
Lodge and
the Liverpool Physical Society'
by Peter Rowlands (Liverpool: Published
of History, University of Liverpool by Liverpool University Press) (1990)
iv.
310p.
for the
ill,
(Liverpool historical studies; No. 4)
MARCONI
'Marconi, the
Man
and
his Wireless'
'Marconi, Master of Space' by
B L
by
Jacot
E Dumlap (MacMillan) (1937)
&DM
Collier (Hutchinson) (1935)
'Guglielmo Marconi, 1874-1937" by Keith Geddes (London:
'My
Father, Marconi' by
P Marconi (New York: McGraw
'Marconi, Pioneer of Radio' by
D Coe
(Julian
HMSO)
(1974)
Hill) (1962)
Messner) (1935)
MAXWELL
'The Life of James Clark Maxwell' by
'James Clark Maxwell
L Campbell
&W
Garnett (London: MacMillan) (1882)
FRS 1831-1879' by R L Smith-Rose (London: Longmans Green)
(1948)
Department
ports;
21cm
of Books on Inventors
List
'James Clark Maxwell
275
Biography' by Ivan Tolstoy (Edinburgh: Canongate) (1981)
MORSE
'The Life of Samuel F
York:
B Morse,
(New
Appleton) (1875),
Inventor of the Electro-Magnetic Recording Telegraph' by S
Prime (New
York: Arno Press) (1974)
REIS
'Philipp Reis'
Deutche Bundespost Archiv. fur Deutche Postgeschicht No.
(1963)
RONTGEN
'Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen and the Early History of the Rontgen Rays' by
C Thomas)
Glasser (Springfield, IL: Charles
(1934)
'Rontgen Rays Centennial: Exhibition on the Occasion of the Discovery of X-rays
in
Wurtzburg on 8 November
1895 (Wurtzburg University) (1995)
RUTHERFORD
'Rutherford
Being
the Life and Letters of the Right
Cambridge University
'Lord Rutherford' by
Honourable Lord Rutherford' by
S Eve (Cambridge:
Press) (1939)
Norman
Feather; foreword by Sir Harrie
Massey (New ed) (London: Priory Press) (1973)
TESLA
'The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla' by
TC
Martin
(New
York: The Electrical Engineer)
(1894)
THOMSON J J
'The Life of Sir
Thomson
O M
Sometime Master of
Trinity College,
Cambridge' by Lord Rayleigh
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) (1942)

'J
Thomson and
'Joseph John
the Cavendish Laboratory of His Day' by
Thomson
P Thomson (London: Nelson) (1964)
an Unfinished Social and Intellectual Biography' by Paul Georg Spitzer (Ann Arbor,
MI: University Microfilms International) (1995)
THOMSON W
'The Life of William Thomson' by S P
Thompson (London: MacMillan) (1910)
VARIOUS
'Ten Founding Fathers of the Electrical Science' by B Dibner (Norwalk, CT: Bundy Library Publications) (1954)
(GILBERT GEURICKE, FRANKLIN, VOLTA, AMPERE, OHM, GAUSS, FARADAY, HENRY and MAXWELL)
Index
AA
gun
Atomic
radar, 142
theory, 76, 106, 108
ACE, computer, 156
Atomic transmutation, 113
Accumulator, 75
Atoms, trans-uranium, 135
Acoustic mine, 109
ATS-1
satellite,
Acronyms, 259
Audio
history, 18,
APL, 167
Automatic assembly systems, 172
Aerials
Automatic control of crystal growth, 224
206
22
Automobile electronics, 52
diversity, 128
ground wave prop.,
Autoradiography, 245
13
Hertz, 95
AVC
ionospheric prop., 100
Avionics, 27
125
circuit,
Maxwell, 87
radio
wave
Babbage, 76, 80
95
prop.,
Banking electronics, 56
Yagi, 126
Aerial matching unit,
Aerial
satellite,
Bar codes, 228
214
BARRITT
192
diode, 211
Batteries
Alexanderson
alternator, 112
Clark
237
All-electric clock face,
cell.
fuel cell,
Amateurs
89
82
(short wave), 118
nickel-cadmium, 100
Amorphous
liquid crystals,
240
nickel-iron, 100
Amorphous semiconductor
switch, 209
Leclanche, 88
Amorphous
silicon solar cell,
232
magnetohydrodynamic, 82
Amplifier, high quality, 156
zinc-mercury-oxide, 93
Angels, 36
Plants,
Anisotropic magnet, 223
Arc lamp (mercury), 87

solar,
Army
radars,
34
Arrays, photodiodes, 204
49
ASDIC, 109
Weston standard
Beam
cell,
recorder, 231
Betatron, 148
automatic, 172
Biological
58
memory
Biosatellite-1,
micromodules, 182
printed circuits, 154
chip,
Boolean algebra, 85
Bubble-jet printing, 253
Bubbles (magnetic), 214
Sargrove, 158
Bubbles (memory), 238
Tinkertoy, 168
(radio),
Bucket-brigade delay
134
Atomic beam lithography, 254
Bumped
276
Cable
circuit,
216
tape automatic bonding,
Burst (radio), 129
Atomic change (spontaneous), 101

Atomic holography, 255
253
205
potted circuits, 155
Astronomy
97
leads, 201
Betamax video
Assembly systems
list,
175
Volta, 75
Artificial intelligence,
date
87
secondary, 87
246
Index
244
fibre optic,
squegger
76
insulation,
119
circuit,
tone control, 170
sheathing, 84
transitron oscillator, 126
velodyne, 147
transatlantic, 84, 88, 177
Circuits (potted), 155
Calculator (electronic), 196
Capacitors
Circuits (printed), 151
ceramic, 99
Clock
(electronic), 191
glass tubular, 102
Clock
face,
Ley den
237
Cloud chamber, 107
74
jar,
Cockroft-Walton accelerator, 132
mica, 89
Coherer, 96
89
rolled paper,
semiconductor diode, 177
Cold cathode discharge
solid electrolyte, 176
Cold cathode stepping tube, 163
Cold cathode
Camcorder, 247
Carbon composition
resistor,
94
tube,
trigger tube, 140
Collector diffusion isolation, 216
Carbon filament lamp, 92
COLOSSUS,
Carbon
Colour video recorder, 184
99
film resistor,
153
Carbon microphone, 90, 120
Compact
disc, 238, 241
Cardiograph, 131
Compact
disc video,
Carrier-domain magnetrometer, 220
Communications
Cathode
rays, 91
date
list,
249
61
Cathode ray oscillograph, 98
frequency modulation, 134
CATT, 227
CCD, A/D converter, 223
CCD, colour TV camera, 239
information theory, 161
packet switching, 199
Ceramic capacitors, 99
satellite,
CD-ROM,
shortwave,
247
Charge coupled devices, 218
86
microwave, 129
155
1
18
single sideband,
10
Chirp radar, 157
Components
Circuitry
Computer aided design, 185
history, 6, 16
auto volume control, 125
Computer aided manufacture, 48
bucket-brigade delay, 216
Computers
constant
RC
stand-off, 137
ACE, 156
Darlington pairs, 170
APL, 167
dynatron,
Babbage, 76, 80
13
echo cancelling, 140
Bell 'complex', 145
energy conserving scanning, 132
COLOSSUS,
flip-flop,
CDC
116
153
1604, 187
hard valve time base, 131
CRT
heterodyne and superheterodyne, 108
date
lists,
high quality amplifier, 156
diff.
analyser, 131
Kirchoff, 84
digital
long-tailad pair, 139
EDS AC,
EDVAC,
Miller time base,

multivibrator,
17
storage, 156
63
ASCC,
158
EN1AC, 152
14
mutator circuit network, 212
graphics,
negative feedback, 127
history, 44,
neutrodyne,
Hollerith,
14
PHANTASTRON,
150
regenerative, 107
rotator network,
SANATRON,'
145
160
208
150
64
47
96
Honeywell 800, 187
IBM
IBM
IBM
650, 165
701,
166
704, 709 and 7090. 171
saw-tooth time base, 121
information theory, 143
superregenerative, 119
Leibniz, 73
277
278
Index
Double-beam oscillograph, 144
Leprachaun, 178
microcomputer, 222
Dual-in-line pack (DIL), 202
microprogramming, 168
Dry
minicomputer, 192
Dry etching technique, 225
one board, 232
DSCS-1
Pascal, 73
DVD
RAM
RAM
RAM
RAM
1024
bit,
224
4090
bit,
230
16 384
256
SAGE,
bit,
bit,
73
battery,
Dynatron,
Echo-1
circuit,
satellite,
ECME,
171
254
13
Echo cancelling
232
242
221
satellite,
(digital versatile disc),
240
188
158
Scheutz, 86
Educational electronics, 55
SEAC, 159
Electron-beam projection system, 256
theory, 45, 154
Electron
46
types,
beam
lithography, 227
Electrocardiograph, 95
UNI VAC, 159

UNI VAC 80/90,
UNIX, 217
Electrostatics,
Electron microscope, 126
188
making equipment, 158
Electronic circuit
Whirlwind, 155
Electronic clock, 191
Conductor, sodium, 102
Electronic digital watch, 220
Consumer
Electronic organ, 104
56
electronics,
Electronic typewriter, 205
Counter (Geiger), 105

Courier
satellite,
Copper oxide
rectifier,
Cracked carbon
Electronic watch, 194
189
Electromagnetic induction, 79
125
resistor,
Electromagnetism, 78
182
Electron, 98
Cryotron, 128, 175

Crystal control of frequency,
Electron miscroscope, 126
Crystal detector (carborundum), 103
Electrolysis, 81
Crystal detector (perikon), 104
Electrostatic loudspeaker, 122, 178
Crystal growth (automatic control),
224
Epitaxial crystal growth, 189
Crystals (liquid), 135
Epitaxy (liquid phase), 190
Crystal microphone, 116
Epitaxy (vapour phase), 189
Crystal pulling technique, 112
Explorer
satellite,
181
Cybernetics, 146
Facsimile reproduction, 84
Cyclotron, 128
FAMOS integrated
Digital audio broadcasting,
240
Darlington pair circuit, 170
Ferreed switch, 167
DECCA
Ferrites,
navigation system, 154
circuit,
230
Femitron, 186
105
Delay circuit (bucket-brigade), 216
Ferroelectricity, 118
Diaphragm microphone, 87
Fibre optic transatlantic cable, 249
Diffusion technique, 176

Digital optical disc,
247
Digital video recorder,
247
Digital voltmeter, 170
Diode
(tunnel), 181
Filter (electromagnetic),
110
Fission, nuclear, 144
Diode detector, 92
Diodes
Fibre optic superheterodyne, 243

Field effect transistor, 180
Fission track autoradiography, 245
FLAD, 234
history, 188
Flat-pack, 194
Dip soldering, 162
Flip-flop circuit,
Direct laser writing, 258
Floppy disc recorder, 219
Discette
(VHD), 250
Discoverer
satellite,
16
Floppy discs, 164, 219

185
FLOTOX,
241
Diversity reception, 128
Flow soldering
Dolby noise reduction system, 207
Fluorescent lamp. 101
(printed circuits), 176
Index
Fourier analysis, 78
CDI, 216
Frequency modulation, 134
chip carrier, 221
Frequency standard (atomic), 135
concept, 169
Frequency standards (caesium beam), 146
C-MOS, 210
Frequency standards (quartz), 128

Fuel
cell,
DIL
packs, 201
epitaxial crystal growth, 189
82
FAM0X, 220
Galvanic action, 75
Galvanometer
flat-pack, 194
79
(astatic),
Galvanometer (moving
207
flip-chips,
coil),
79
history, 6, 17
'GEE' navigation, 33, 143
H-MOS, 235
Geiger counter, 105
integrated optical circuits, 239
Gemini
linear circuits, 188
satellite,
199
Glass capacitor (tubular), 102

Glass
laser,
liquid phase epitaxy, 190
LOCMOS,
253
Global positioning system, 163
Glow
MOS,
discharge, 87
Goniometer, 104
oxide masking process, 180
oscillator,
GYROTRON,
193
oxide defect study, 221
Gramophone, 94
Gunn diode
229
logic circuits, 189
195
planar process, 185
228
patent, 185
silicon anodisation,
H2S
navigation system, 149
229
silicon
growth (MCZ), 243
Hall effect, 92
silicon
on sapphire, 198
HAMMING
code, 165
submicrometre
lines,
247
superfast chips,
257
Hard disc
card,
Heating (induction), 112
thick film, 149
Heaviside/Kenelly layer, 100
thin film,
Heterodyne
versatile arrays,
108
circuit,
High definition TV, 42

High
field
239
86
233
V-MOS, 223
superconductivity, 130
Integrated injection logic,
224
History of components, 6
Integrated optoelectronics, 229, 239
Hologram matrix
Integrated Schottky logic, 235
radar,
219
Holography, 160
Housekeeper
seal,
Hydrogenated
communications, 252
Inter-satellite
1
16
Ion implantation, 163
silicon films,
245
Ion plating, 197
Hydroplane polishing semiconductors, 244
Inter-communication
Iconoscope, 120
Johnson noise, 124
Induction heating, 112
Josephson
(satellite),
193
effect,
Induction motor, 95
Industrial electronics, 51
Kirchoff's law, 84
Ignitron, 124
Klystron, 144
Image animation, 169
Infra-red radiation, 75
Lamp
Lamp
Lamp
Lamp
Inkjet printing, 195, 241
LANDSAT
Information technology (IT),
5,
226
Information theory, 161

Infra-red emission from
Intelsat
Internet,
satellite,
GaSb, 175
20
(carbon filament), 92
(fluorescent), 101
(mercury oxide), 87
(neon), 105
LASER,
212
Integrated circuits
satellite,
Large screen
TV
222
projector, 146
183
Laser annealed polysilicon, 235
aluminium
metallisation, 211
Laser cold processing, 238
beam
201
Lasercom, 251
lead,
252
279
280
Index
Laser deep proton-isolated, 225
Microfilming, 82
Laser enhanced plating, 240
Micromodule assembly system, 182
Laser, glass, 253
Microphone (carbon), 90, 120
Laser printer, 230
Microphone
Laser processing of semiconductors, 238
Microphone (condenser),
Laser recording system, 238
Microphone
Laser trimming of thick films, 207
Microphone (diaphragm), 87
Leclanche battery, 88
Microphone
LED
(light emitting diode),
Leyden
granule, 92
116
crystal,
Reisz, 87
Microprocessor, 222
188
94
jar capacitor,
carbon
Microprocessor (single chip), 227
Light bubbles, 236
Microscope (acoustic), 225
Lightwave powered telephone, 236
Microscope
Liquid crystals, 135
Microscope (scanning electron), 136
Liquid crystal display, 240
Microscope (transmission), 133
(electron), 133
Liquid crystal study of oxide defects, 221
Microwave communication, 129
LOCMOS
Microwire, 162
229
integrated circuit,
226
Logic-state analyser,
Minicomputer, 192
Logic-timing analyser, 226
MODEM,
Long-tailed pair circuit, 139
Molecular beam epitaxy, 159
LOR AN,
Morse-code, 81
151
Loudspeaker
(electrostatic),
Loudspeaker (moving
Lunar orbiter
LUNIK
coil),
Mossbauer
22
Motor
91
206
satellite,
satellite,
Motor
233
Magnetic avalanche
transistor,
Magnet
233
242
(induction), 95. 101
Magnetic bubbles, 214
plastic,
coil loudspeaker, 91
MS/DOS, 244
Multilayer PC
boards, 187
Multiplier phototubes, 138
Multivibrator circuit, 114
Magnetic film recording, 161

Magnetic tape,
83
Mouse, 203
Magnetic amplifier, 153
anisotropic,
electric, 81
Motor (synchronous), 101
185
anisotropic,
effect,
Moving
Magnet
166
Mutator
circuit,
212
117
Magnetic recording, 99
NATO
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 233
Negative feedback
Magnetic
Negative feedback tone control, 170
tape, plastic,
Magnetism,
17
battery,
82
Neuristor, 186
Magnetron, 145
Neutrodyne
M AGISTOR,
Neutron, 132
MARS
216
194
satellite,
satellite,
Nimbus
14
battery, 100
satellite,
199
Nitride-over-oxide process, 206
Mechatronics, 49
Noise (Johnson), 124
Medical electronics, 53
Magnetic avalanche
Noise (shot
transistor,
242
Nuclear
effect),
fission,
15
144
growth, 243
Mercury arc lamp, 87

Mercury-Atlas
satelite,
Mercury (plated
'Oboe' navigation, 147

191, 194
scatter (burst) systems,
Microcomputer, 222
Office electronics, 56
Ohm's law, 79
OMIST, 237
wire), 179
Mercury-zinc oxide battery, 93
Meteor
Nickel-iron battery, 100
173
MCZ crystal
circuit,
Nickel-cadmium
233
192
satellite,
MASER,
127
Neon lamp, 105
Magnetorestriction, 85
MARISAT
circuit,
Negative resistance oscillator, 119
Magnetohydrodynamic
Mariner
219
satellite,
129
Optical circuits, 229

Optical fibres, 205
Index
Optical fibres-plane polishing, 244
Radar
(civil),
Optophone, 76
Radar
history, 31,
ORACLE,
Radar (RAF), 31
41
Organ
(electronic),
Oscar-
104
191
satellite,
35
37
Radar (meterological), 36
Radar (navy), 35
Oscillograph (double beam), 144
Radio
Oscillograph (polar co-ordinate), 141
Radio, amateurs,
OSO-1
Radio astronomy, 134
satellite,
Overlay
192
transistor,
200
144
altimeter,
18
Radio broadcasting, 103

Radio (diversity reception), 128
Pacemaker, 184
Radio (ground wave),
Packet switching, 199
Radio (Heaviside
PARCOR
speech synthesis, 214
Pedestal pulling, 180
Paging (radio), 178
13
100
23
history,
Radio imaging, 38
Radio ionospheric propagation, 107, 123
Paper capacitor, 89
Radio meteor
Pentode valve, 127
PIN
Radio
layer),
129
scatter,
Radio paging, 178
diode, 165
Radio shortwave communication, 123
Phonograph, 90, 94
Radio (single sideband), 110
Photoconductive detector, 186

Photoconductors, 184
Photodiode arrays, 204

Photonic crystals, 250
Radio wave propagation, 87

Radiophonic sound and music, 130
RADUGA
Random
satellite,
access
193
memory (1024
bit),
Phototube (multiplier), 138

Rectifier (copper oxide), 125
Photosensors, 246
Rectifier (ignitron), 134
Photovoltaic effect, 82
Rectifier (tungar), 106
Piezo electricity, 92
Recording (magnetic), 161

Pioneer
satellite,
183
Plan position indicator (PPI), 146
Recording (sound-on-film), 127
Planar process, 185

Plante" battery,
Recording (video
87
Plastic electronics,
250
Plated-through holes, 203

Plated wire
memory, 179
PLUMBICON, 179
Pocket TV receiver
Polar co-ordinate oscillograph, 141
Polythylene insulation, 134

Potted circuits, 155
tape), 181
246
Recrystallised silicon,
Relativity theory, 103
Relays, 81
Reliability
control,
DUANE
rel.
growth, 193
quality control charts, 131
sampling inspection
tables, 153
sequential analysis, 151
227
Prestel,
Recording (sound-on-disc), 125
Printed wiring, 151

Printed wiring (dip-soldering), 162
standards, 108
Resistors
Printed wiring (etch-back), 202
carbon composition, 94
Printed wiring ('flow-soldering'), 176
carbon
Printed wiring (multilayer), 187
cracked carbon, 122
Proton
satellite,
204
Proximity fuse, 148

Pulse code modulation, 142
film,
99
laser trimming,
207
metal film, 109, 117, 126
nickel-chromium, 179
oxide film, 130
Quality control, 167
Quantum
theory, 100
varistor, 181
Retarded
field oscillator.
Rheotome (waveform
15
plotter),
Radar (army), 34, 142
Robotics, 48
Radar (chirp technique), 157
Rotator circuit network, 208
88
224
281
282
SAGE
Salyut
Index
Security electronics, 57
computer, 171
satellite,
Self-induction, 80
221
Semiconductor
Satellites
Ariel- 1,
194
laser,
Semiconductor memory system, 217
192
Semiconductor data
ATS-1, 206
Biosatellite-1,
Shadow mask
205
list,
70
tube, 142
229
Communication System, 155
Silicon anodisation,
Courier-IB, 189
Silicon-on-sapphire technology, 198
Discoverer- 1, 185
Single crystal fabrication (germanium), 161
DSCS-1, 221
Single crystal fabrication (silicon), 171
Echo-1, 188
Single sideband communication, 110
Echo-cancelling circuit, 240
Short
Explorer- 1, 181
Shot effect noise,
Gemini- 1, 199
Skiatron, 148
IntelsatIris
204
1,
(ESRO
209
I),
Landsat-1, 222
Lunar Orbiter
wave (commercial), 118

15
Skylab
satellite,
226
Skynet
satellite,
214
Solar battery, 175
I,
SONAR history,
206
31, 38, 110
Lunik-1, 185
Sound reproduction,
Marisat-1, 233
Sound-on-disc recording, 125
Mars-1, 192
Sound-on-film recording, 125, 161
Mariner-2, 194
Soyuz
Mercury- Atlas-4, 191
Speech synthesis, 207
Mercury-Atlas-6, 192
Spread-spectrum techniques, 231
NATO-1, 219
Sputnik
Nimbus- 1, 194
Sputtering process, 86
satellite,
18,
22
207
180
satellite,
Oscar- 1, 191
'Squegger' circuit, 119
Oso-1, 192
Static induction thyristor,
Pioneer- 1, 183
Stepping tube, 163
Proton- 1, 204
Stereo record, 133
Raduga-1, 193
Stereo sound reproduction, 131
Salyut-
STROWGER
221
1,
230
telephone exchange, 96
76
Score, 183
Submarine cable
Skylab- 1,226
Superconductivity, 106
Skynet-A, 214
Superconductivity (Highfield), 130
Soyuz-1, 207
Superconducting switch, 135
Sputnik-1, 180
Surface acoustic
Sputnik-2, 180
Surface
Surveyor- 1, 207
Superfast switch, 256
Syncom-1, 195
Surveyor
Tel star- 1, 192
Switch (QMB), 95
Tiros-
188,206
1,
flat
insulation,
wave
devices, 197
257
chips,
207
satellite,
Switch superconducting, 135
Transit- IB, 189
Syncom
Tung-Fang-Hung, 217
Synthesizer, 202
satellite,
195
Vanguard- 1, 181
Venus-
1,
Viking-
1,
191
Tactile screen,
248
229
Tape
190
cassette,
80
Voskhod-1, 199
Technetron (FET),
Vostok-1, 191
Tamed frequency modulation, 238
Westar-
Telegraph system (5-unit), 80
227
SAWS Surface
acoustic
wave
devices, 197
Telemedicine, 80
Scanning acoustic microscope, 226
Telephone, 90
Scanning tunnelling microscope, 248
Telephone (automatic exchange), 196
Score
Telephone (crossbar exchange),
satellite,
183
1 1
Index
Telephone
(dial),
planar process, 185
97
Telephone (electronic switching), 189
point contact, 160
Telephone (relay exchange), 107
radio set, 175
Teletext,
single crystal fabrication, 161
Television (Baird), 124
Television (cable), 126

Television (colour), 128
Television (date
69
list),
surface barrier, 171

unijunction, 171
Transit
189
satellite,
Transitron oscillator, 126
Television (digital), 41
Transuranian atoms, 135
Television (Farns worth), 115
TRAPATT
diode, 206
Television (high definition), 42, 212
Travelling
wave
Television (history), 40, 43
TRIMOS, 234
Television (large screen), 146, 242
Tubes
tube, 136, 151
(also called valves)
Television (Nipkow), 93
date
Television (pocket), 234
cold cathode, 86
Television (Zworykin), 115
glow discharge, 87
Telstar-1 satellite, 192
housekeeper
Theory
low pressure discharge, 86
relativity,
103
list,
seal,
16
Thermo-compression bonding, 166
microwave-retarded
Thermister, 85
multiplier, 138
Thermoelectricity, 78
pentode, 127
Thermography, 83
plumbicon, 179
Thick film
circuits,
149
screened grid, 124
Thin film (tantalum), 184
stepping, 163
Three electrode tube, 104
three electrode, 104
Thyratron, 109
trigger,
'Tinkertoy', 168
tungar
206
Tomography, 223
shadow mask, 142
Thin film (direct-bonded copper), 230
Tiros- 1 satellite, 188,
field,
two
140
106
rectifier,
electrode, 102
vapour cooling, 176
Transatlantic telegraph cable, 84, 88
Tunnel diode, 181
Transatlantic telephone cable, 177
Typewriter (electronic), 205
Transferred electron device, 190

Transferred electron effect, 190
UNIX, 217
Transformer (distribution), 94
Ultra-micrometer, 117
Transformer (Faraday), 79
Ultrasonic radar
Transformer (power), 94
Ultrasonics
Transistors
Ultrasound imaging, 164
alloyed, 169
date
list,
152
31
Ultra-violet radiation, 75
Valves (see Tubes)
phase, 190
epitaxy vapour phase, 189
liquid
field effect, 138,
floating
trainer,
70
diffusion, 176
epitaxy
H2 S
(SONAR),
180
zone melting, 174
Van de Graaf
Vanguard
accelerator, 129
satellite, 181
Varistor (field effect), 181
Velodyne, 147
history, 6, 17, 160
Venus-
interdigitated, 175
Very high density diskette, 250
ion implantation, 163
modelling, 200
VHS
VHS
MOSFET,
Video (advance programming), 249
129
nitride-over-oxide,
206
oxide masking, 180

overlay,
200
pedestal pulling, 180
bit
satellite,
191
stream recorder, 252
recorder,
230
Video cassette recorders, 2

Video (compact
Video
discs,
disc),
225
Video games, 222
249
283
284
Index
Video recorder (colour), 184
Wimshurst machine,
Video tape recorder, 181
WINDOWS,
Video Walkman, 249
Wire conductor, 23
VIDICON,
Wire drawing, 203
Viking
165
satellite,
Virtual reality,
V-MOS,
1,
93
248
Wireless (Marconi), 96
229
Wire wrapped
205
Word
223
joints, 171
processor, 202
Vocoder, 140
Voltmeter
Vosksod
(digital),
satellite,
Xerography, 140
170
X-rays, 97
199
X-rays lithography, 218
Vostok-1 satellite, 191
X-ray scanner, 223
Watch
(electronic), 194,
Waveguides, 140
Waveguides
Westar
(theory),
satellite,
220
Yagi
97
aerial,
126
Yttrium iron garnet (YIG), 178
227
Wheatstone Bridge, 83
Zinc-mercuric-oxide battery, 93
Wiegand
Zone melting technique, 170
wire, 203
Siull
>
a remarkably short time, electronics has penetrated almost every aspect of modern
The pace of development of the field shows no sign of slackening.
In
life.
and unique book traces the development of electronics from its earliest beginnings to the
present day. Spanning a period of two and a half centuries, the book represents a mini-encyclopaedia full of
valuable information on practically all inventions in electronics from 1745 to 1996. Published data extracted
This fascinating
from a wide variety of sources have been collected over many years by Geoffrey Dummer and collated to form
an up-to-date systematic review of the major developments in electronics and the pattern of advances in
electronic techniques. It is the only book in the world covering electronic inventions in depth and as such
forms an essential source of reference to practising engineers wishing to broaden their knowledge. Teachers
and students who require a sound background and understanding of electronics in its broadest sense will
find the
book invaluable. Written
an easily understood
in
of great interest to electronic hobbyists
largely non-technical language, the
book
will
be
and general science readers.
About the author

Geoffrey
Dummer was
born
in
After nine years experience
in
1909
in
Yorkshire, England
and educated
at
Manchester College of Technology.
the radio industry, he joined the British Air Ministry Research Establishment
1939 where he worked on the development of radar during the Second World War, becoming head
RadarTrainer Group, making an important contribution to the war
the
MBE
in
1946 and
later
the
USA Medal
effort. For this
Freedom. From 1946
in
of the
work he was awarded
in 1966 he was
Superintendent of Applied Physics and Technical Services at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment,
Malvern. He continued to work on radar, concentrating on the reliability of components and systems.
His work on reliability
The integrated
revolution
in
and components
circuit or 'chip'
as
it
is
led
of
him
to
until his
propose and pioneer the
now known was
later
developed
in
the
retirement
'solid circuit' in
USA and
1952.
led to the present
electronics.
He retired in 1966 to become a full-time author and consultant. For thirty years he has been associated with
the international journal 'Microelectronics and Reliability' as Editor-in-Chief and now Founding Editor. During
27 years with the Radar Establishment he published over 100 articles on his Division's work, gave over 50
and a further 21 books with co-authors. He now devotes some time to the
history of electronic components and electronic inventions and writes widely on electronics.
his
lectures worldwide, wrote 9 books,
ISBN 0-7503-0376-X
Institute of Physics Publishing

Rric.tr>!
and PhilaHnlnhia
780750"ZQ3767 >
l

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w El ectronii

beginnings to the present day

Digitized by the Internet Archive

2012 with funding from

Electronic Inventions and Discoveries

4th revised and expanded edition

(former Supt. Applied Physics, Royal Radar Establishment,

All rights reserved.

part of this publication

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or

otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Multiple copying

with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing

with the Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals.

1977 published under the

Electronic Inventions 1745-1976

Second edition 1978 {Electronic Inventions and Discoveries)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication

catalogue record for this book

available from the British Library

7503 0376 X (hbk)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data are available

Published by Institute of Physics Publishing, wholly

Physics Publishing, Dirac House, Temple Back, Bristol BS1 6BE,

Editorial Office: Institute of Physics Publishing,

South Independence Mall West, Philadelphia,

The Public Ledger Building,

Suite 1035, 150

Concise History of Audio and Sound Reproduction

Concise History of Radio, Communications and Avionics

Concise History of Radar and Sonar

Concise History of Television

Concise History of Computers, Robotics, Mechatronics and Information Technology

Concise History of Industrial, Automobile, Medical, Educational, Office, Banking,

Components, Tubes, Transistors and Integrated Circuits

Consumer and Security

Concise Description of Each Invention in Date Order

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Tubes, Transistors, Diodes and Integrated Circuits

Audio and Sound Reproduction

Radio and Communications

historical electronics, but rather a

Because no one person can be an authority

wide variety of published sources,

dates in electronic developments over a very wide

both for interest and for ready reference.

in all fields of electronics, the data

made. This present work covers inventions from Europe,

a survey such as this cannot be completely accurate because of, in

where, because of incomplete data, a date

summaries of well known inventions, some

and Japan. Obviously,

cases, the passage of time and, in

There are a few cases

given in the 'History on a Page' but not in the

well aware that conflicting dates are inevitable and

given are extracted from a

books, patents, technical journals, proceedings of societies,

factual data to assist future editions. In addition

discoveries are included which may, one day,

to the present day.

been made to trace the development of electronics from

far as the author

majority of main developments in electronics.