Omega 6 & 3 Essential Fatty Acids

(Evening Primrose and Fish Oils)

Evening Primrose (Oenothera binennis) is a large delicate wild flower that grows up to eight feet tall
and can be found along streams and roads in North America from the Rocky Mountains to the
Atlantic seaboard. The seeds of the plant yield an oil, rich in healing and nutritional properties.
The flowers bloom in the evening and are pollinated by night-flying insects. The tiny seeds are about
the size of mustard seeds. The Evening Primrose crop is hand-harvested.
History
The biggest discovery since vitamin C might be Evening Primrose Oil (EPO). It continues to attract
the attention of scientists all over the world as its effectiveness becomes known in a wide range of
physical problems such as acne, arthritis, female problems, schizophrenia, heart disease and obesity.
The first treatment using EPO was for multiple sclerosis.
Early use of Evening Primrose included parts of the whole plant: used externally to heal wounds,
soothe skin inflammations and eruptions; internally to control coughs and infections, to lessen
spasms, as a sedative, pain killer, diuretic and as a mild astringent.
Prostaglandins
In the thirties, U.S. von Euler, a Swedish scientist, made the discovery of prostaglandin. He first
found prostaglandin in high concentrations in the prostate gland. Today, about thirty different
prostaglandins have been identified in every cell of the body. Prostaglandins act as regulators and
messengers though they are not secreted by the glands like hormones. Each cell keeps small amounts
of the material used to produce them. They are metabolised at the site as needed and very quickly
utilised by the body.
Prostaglandins are short-lived highly active, hormone-like chemicals that are found in every cell
of the body. They are regulators of cell activity and essential for maintaining health. Each cell type or
organ produces its own form of prostaglandin to carry out its functions. There are three types of
prostaglandins: PG1, PG2, and PG3.
Series 1 Prostaglandins , derived from gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), the active component of EPO
has many beneficial effects: It makes platelets less sticky, lowers blood pressure by relaxing smooth
muscles in the walls of arteries, increases loss of sodium and water, decreases inflammation and
enhances immunity.
Series 2 Prostaglandins, also derived from GLA, is used in "fight or flight" (stress) situations, - the
fight against danger, or the flight from it. In modern lifestyles which are high in stress but low in
physical activity, continuous production of Series Two Prostaglandins results in sticky platelets, high
blood pressure, increased water and sodium retention, increased inflammation and decreased immune
system capabilities.
Series 3 Prostaglandins, derived from eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), the active component of FISH
OIL, has beneficial effects. They block the detrimental effect of the Series 2 Prostaglandins,
preventing these "bad guys" from being made in the body. As a result the platelets are less sticky,

blood pressure is lower because the muscles in the walls of our arteries remain relaxed, loss of
sodium and water by the kidneys takes place more effectively, inflammation response is decreased,
and immune function is efficient.
Consumption of prostaglandins is useless, because they are destroyed during digestion. Consumption
of supplements of essential fatty acid derivatives such as EPO and Salmon Oil can bring dramatic
improvements in health, through their conversion into prostaglandins in the body.
Essential Fatty Acids
Production of prostaglandins is due to polyunsaturated fats which contain fatty acids known as
essential fatty acids (EFA's). EFA's are similar to the essential amino acids and most vitamins
because the body cannot produce them, therefore, they must be supplied from an external source.
Essential means they are necessary to life and good health. EFA's are part of the building material in
which all body membranes, including brain cells are developed.
Fluidity and flexibility of the cell membranes depend on the amount of EFA's present in the cells,
directly affecting the quality of immune response. EFA's give energy, help to maintain body
temperature, insulate the nerves, cushion and protect the tissue and are vital to metabolism (Graham,
1989).
Studies of animals deprived of EFA's show they:
* develop very bad skin and their hair falls out
* cannot resist infections
* do not have proper collagen formation
* become infertile, a rapid process in males
* develop painful, swollen joints
* develop liver damage
* become lethargic and irritable
(Graham, 1989 and Burr, 1929)
Health practitioners recommend polyunsaturated oils in order to lower cholesterol, lower blood
pressure, lower body weight and reduce the risk of heart attacks and stroke. Unadulterated
polyunsaturated oils furnish the body with EFA's. One EFA, linoleic acid (LA) will guarantee the
production of the others. Linoleic acid converts into gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), a fatty acid
nutrient, in the body. If the body cannot convert LA to GLA, it is useless. The body creates PG1
from GLA. Due to diet and lifestyle, GLA may be deficient in people who live in Western cultures.
EPO is a direct source of GLA.
Trans-linoleic Acid
The Standard American Diet (SAD) includes cis-linoleic acid (a form of linoleic acid) a natural,
unprocessed or cold-processed vegetable oil. Many complex processes are used to remove the odour,
increase shelf-life and render the oil suitable for making margarine and for cooking and baking. These
processes transform the cis-linoleic acid to a substance that is very similar chemically called translinoleic acid. Trans-linoleic acid is not acceptable to the body despite the similarity and will not be
converted to GLA. Much of the polyunsaturates we eat are useless.

Trans-linoleic acid interferes with the capacity of the body to convert the cis-linoleic acid to GLA,
the first step in the production of prostaglandin PGE1.
Trans-linoleic acids are found in almost every prepared or processed food that we eat. A study at the
University of Maryland reported them in all forms of bakery products, including bread, in most
candies, and in many foods cooked in vegetable oils or cooking fats. As an example, a stick of
margarine contains from 25-35% trans-fatty acids.

Dr. David F. Horrobin, famous for his pioneering work with prostaglandins and EPO, has stated that
1 out of 250 of the general population cannot make the conversion to GLA. Even in healthy bodies,
much linoleic acid is not converted because it is used up as energy.
The results of free radical activity (peroxides) act as blocking agents preventing the conversion of LA
and ALA to GLA and EPA (See Chart). Barriers to the formation of GLA and EPA are largely
overcome when GLA and EPA are taken directly into the body. EPO can by-pass the LA to GLA
conversion and FISH OILS provide EPA/DHA directly.
Because it contains GLA, small amounts of EPO would have the same effects as much larger
amounts of other oils. In blocking the initial conversion step, EPO would have an effect that could
not be achieved by other oils no matter how much was consumed. EPO is an ideal way of supplying
the body with GLA which in turn forms dihomo-gamma-linolenic Acid. DGLA is the form in which
the body stores GLA in the cells for the production of prostaglandins. Prostaglandins are not stored
because they are used up immediately in the body.
EPO for Optimum Health
Theoretically many disease states could be controlled or cured by normalising prostaglandin
production. It appears that a multitude of health problems result from a deficiency in prostaglandins.
We know that this can be caused by a number of factors:

a) including inadequate intake of essential fatty acids

b) using the wrong forms of EFA's (trans-linoleic acid)
c) genetic or health-related defect which prevents the conversion of EFA's to GLA, and EPA/DHA
d) deficiency of key nutrients needed for the catalysing in the production of prostaglandins.
"Primrose oil therapy of two to four 1 gram capsules per day, has resulted in a number of significant
improvements in disease states through either direct or indirect pathways," states Mark Timon, coauthor of the Dictionary of Health and Nutrition. EPO has been reported to have a very beneficial
effect on many chronic diseases, allergies and ailments.
Acne
Diets deficient in fatty acids often cause skin problems similar to those occurring with acne. EPO
alone showed little effect on true acne, but when supplemented with zinc and vitamin C, there was
substantial improvement.
Alcoholism
A little is good for you and too much may cause permanent damage.
European research shows that a little alcohol can help in the reduction of heart disease and that those
who drink one or two glasses of wine a day may extend their lifespan. Low intake of alcohol relates
to EPO because it is known to have an effect on prostaglandins. It may be that when people feel
happy or a little high from alcohol, it is a result of increased prostaglandins.
Research shows that too much alcohol decreases the levels of prostaglandins in the body and when
alcohol is withdrawn, hangovers and depression may occur. Excessive alcohol is a blocking agent as
it interrupts the conversion of cis-linoleic to GLA. Low levels of prostaglandins in alcoholics
increase the risk of heart attacks, strokes, high blood pressure, a reduced ability to cope with
infection, brain and nerve damage and liver deterioration. Some individuals may inherit the risk of
alcoholism through a genetic inability to make the proper fatty acid conversions.
Allergies
PGE1 stimulates the function of T-cells suppressers, and when this ratio is disrupted the body can
become sensitive to a variety of harmless substances. This can lead not only to common food
allergies, but a sensitivity to fur and pollen.
Cancer
Dr. Richard Passwater, nutritional biochemist, writes that the body has three defences against cancer:
the liver, which detoxifies cancer causing chemicals; the cell membrane, which controls cell
nourishment and protects cells against invasion by cancer causing chemicals; and the immune system.
When the immune system is depleted, cancerous cells may easily multiply. EPO is beneficial because
it converts into PGE1, which as stated earlier, increases the body's immune system. PGE1 is crucial
because it has been known to activate T-cells.
Radiation, chemical carcinogens and cancer-causing viruses destroy not only cancerous cells, but
healthy ones as well, resulting in an extreme decrease in the production of GLA from LA. It is
thought that cancer cells produce PGE2 and are unable to make PGE1. Laboratory tests have shown

that when GLA is added, these cells begin to behave normally (Horrobin, 1980).
Multiple Sclerosis
One of the factors thought to play a part in MS is the auto-immune system. Research suggests that
those suffering from MS are deficient in prostaglandins which result in a weakened immune system
and increases susceptibility to auto-immune damage.
GLA is believed to work in the following ways:
a) stimulates T-lymphocytes
b) stops platelets from clumping
c) makes faulty red blood cells return to normal
d) strengthens blood vessel walls
e) acts as an anti-viral agent
f) stimulates the nervous system
g) maintains a healthy balance between PGE1 and PGE2
(Graham, 1989).
Diabetes
Insulin deficiency may inhibit the supply of PGE1 and increase the production of PGE2 (Arisaka,
1986).
Studies show that the disease characteristics of diabetes (heart, eyes and kidneys) can be greatly
reduced when large doses of linoleic acid are supplemented. Dr. David Horrobin states that there are
ongoing studies at several universities involving the effects of EPO and diabetes, saying, "...we have
reason to believe that the EPO is better than other oils because of the fact that diabetics can't form
GLA properly", (Let's Live, October 1981).
Research shows that insulin dependent diabetics (IDD's) supple- menting with EPO showed a
lowering of serum triglycerides, cholesterol and plasma (Chaintreuil, Monnier, Colette, Crastes De
Paulet, Orsetti, Speilmann, Mendy and Crastes De Paulet, 1984). Literature also indicates that insulin
resistance, sexual dysfunction, susceptibility to infection and the tingling and twitching of nerves, all
characteristics of diabetes, could be due to defective prostaglandin formation resulting in
prostaglandin deficiency. These conditions could respond to both zinc and EPO supplementation.
Eczema
There are two types of Eczema:
(1) Dermatitis, an inflammation brought on by chemicals or cosmetics;
(2) Atopic eczema, an inflammation on the surface of the skin.
Atopic Eczema is common in patients with ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, ear problems, nasal
polyps and some obstetric problems (Graham, 1989).
Research has shown for some time that people with eczema have a faulty immune system. EPO
supplementation has shown beneficial effects because it is a precursor to prostaglandin PGE1, the
series which helps boost the immune system. PGE1 is known to stimulate T-lymphocytes which
occur in low levels in people with eczema. Low levels of T-lymphocytes result in a damaged auto-

immune system.
Heart Disease
In the body GLA converts to PGE1, a substance known to lower cholesterol, blood pressure and
prevent blood from clotting. Studies repeatedly conclude that polyunsaturates containing EFA's
perform each of the above functions. EPO is believed to have a greater effect at lowering cholesterol
than large doses of linoleic acid (Horrobin).
Female Problems
Women with PMS have been found to be low in EFA's. Low levels of EFA's may cause the body to
produce low levels of prolactin, the hormone known to change moods and fluid metabolism. PGE1 is
believed to be effective in reducing the effects of prolactin and therefore, reducing dramatic changes
in hormone cycles.
Studies report 90% of women with PMS get dramatic relief by using EPO. Relief was seen in
cramping, weight gain, mood changes, breast discomfort, anxiety, irritability, headaches and fluid
retention.
Research shows that women with endometriosis and dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) also have
an imbalance of prostaglandins. EPO has been reported by members of the British Endometriosis
Society to offer relief from symptoms often associated with endometriosis. Such symptoms include
chronic pain, fatigue, irritability, rapid mood swings, cramping, and heavy bleeding.
During the menopause, levels of oestrogen decrease. Psychological signs and symptoms
include: anxiety - irritability - depression - insomnia. Some physical symptoms include: decrease in
amount and duration of menstrual flow - increased frequency of urination - hot flashes - excessive
perspiration, especially night sweats - joint pains - headache. Common pathological factors that may
increase the chances of early onset are: stress - infection - malnutrition - radiation & surgical
procedures that impair the ovarian blood supply. EPO naturally balances the body's hormonal levels
and relieves discomfort.
Hyperactive Children
The Hyperactive Children's Support Group believes that two key problems with many hyperactive
children may be the shortage of EFA's and a sensitivity to certain foods and food additives. Boys are
naturally more hyperactive than girls. It is known that boys require at least three times as much EFA's
as girls. Secondly, many of the foods and additives which are thought to lead to hyperactivity are the
very things which are known to interfere in the conversion process of EFA's (Graham, 1989). There
are many reasons hyperactive children do not absorb efficient amounts of EFA's: heredity, sex of the
child, diet or the deficiency of vital co-factors (such as B6, Zinc, Niacin and Magnesium).
Another theory is that hyperactive children low in EFA's get very thirsty, and it is known that when
animals are placed on diets low in EFA's they get very thirsty (Graham, 1989). Hyperactive children
often suffer from other conditions such as attention deficit disorder (ADD) eczema, asthma, allergies,
and ear, nose and throat infections. Studies of EPO showed promising improvements in behaviour
and function in two-thirds of the children studied (Graham, 1989).

Arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis is a disorder of inflammation and immunity, where the body produces too much
of the PGE2 (Bad Guy), and not enough of PGE1 (Good Guy). PGE1 has been found to be
particularly useful with a number of auto-immune diseases. PGE1 has prevented arthritis and autoimmune disease in animal studies. It is an anti-inflammatory agent and reduces the release of
inflammation causing lysosomes at the joints. EPO is also important for collagen formation.
EPO has been very effective in normalising Sjogren's Syndrome, an arthritic condition which results
in the failure to produce sufficient tear and saliva secretion.
The positive effects of EPO supplementation do not appear overnight. Have patience!
Fat Management
In the past few years, studies on obesity and the effects of EPO have risen. The discovery of EPO
and its effectiveness on weight loss was a chance finding. Doctors at Bootham Park Hospital in York,
United Kingdom discovered that several patients who were more than 10% above their body weight
lost weight while taking EPO (Vaddadi and Horrobin, 1979). There was no effect on people within
10% of their ideal weight.
One explanation of the effectiveness of EPO is that GLA appears to increase the level of brown fat
activity. Brown fat activity burns fat stores for energy (Clouatre, 1993). EPO contains significant
quantities of cis-gamma- linolenic acid and GLA which have been shown experimentally to cause
weight loss (Mowrey, 1994).
This much material cannot form a part of the primary thermogenic agent, but must be consumed
separately (Mowrey, 1994).
Schizophrenia
Evidence suggests that PGE1 levels may be low in those suffering from schizophrenia and PGE2
levels may be high (Horrobin, 1980). Schizophrenic's blood platelets do not make PGE1 normally,
have virtually no DGLA and small amounts of linoleic acid (Abdulla, 1975 & Hitzemann, 1981).
EPO, containing GLA with its ability to convert to PGE1 shows promising results in the treatment of
schizophrenia.
Fish Oil Capsules
There is growing evidence that increased consumption of fish may be beneficial to health. Recent
studies have found an association between consumption of fish oil and reduced risk of cardiovascular
disease, as well as improvements in other health conditions, such as psoriasis and rheumatoid
arthritis.
Most current research on the benefits of consuming more fish is directed at the effects derived from
Omega-3 fatty acids found in many fish species. However, studies of human dietary preferences
reveal up to one-half of the population may not like to eat fish. Of those who do eat fish, many prefer
fish only when deep-fried, or consume non-fatty fish species, which are poorer sources of fish oil.
This is one reason Salmon Oil capsules have become popular as an alternative source of Omega-3

fatty acids.
Support for the use of Salmon Oil capsules comes primarily from three well-known epidemiological
studies, two of which were conducted outside the United States. One study (a 20 year follow up)
conducted in the Netherlands, suggested ingestion of as little as 35 grams of fish per day (a single
one-half pound meal of fish per week) might help prevent coronary heart disease, possibly
significantly reducing mortality due to cardiovascular disease. Further, it has been suggested a regular
diet of fish may decrease levels of plasma triglycerides, plasma cholesterol, low density lipoprotein
cholesterol (LDL), and very low density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL).
Salmon Oil capsules supply concentrations of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA). The EPA/DHA rich Salmon Oil is generally sold in soft gelatine capsules. The gelatine
provides an oxygen barrier which prevents the development of toxic lipid peroxides (e.g.
malondialdehyde).
Method of Action
In general, dietary unsaturated fatty acids play an important role in reducing atherogenesis and
thrombosis. FISH OILS appear to reduce hyperlipidemia, while decreasing the production of the
prothrombotic substance, thromboxane, by enhancing the production of the platelet anti-aggregatory
substance, prostacyclin.
Through the combined vasodilatory effects of prostacyclin (PGL2 and PGL3), FISH OILS may
improve peripheral circulation and thereby facilitate the reduction of very low density lipoproteincholesterol (VLDL) removal. This may be due to a specific alteration of cell membrane fluidity, while
also altering the activities of membrane- bound enzymes. This can result in changes in receptor
activity, specificity and signal transduction.
FISH OILS also depress the synthesis of hepatic fatty acids and triglycerides and secretion of very
low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (VLDL). One further benefit is that FISH OILS displace
arachidonic acid from tissue phospholipids, resulting in omega-3 essential fatty acids inhibiting
thromboxane synthesis.
The effect of FISH OILS is very selective. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA) components not only displace arachidonic acid and inhibit cyclo- oxygenase, but EPA
becomes a substance for cyclo-oxygenase when the peroxide tone is high and is converted to the
potent anti-agregatory PGL-3. It has been suggested these findings may explain the increased
bleeding time and the decreased incidence of coronary artery disease which has been reported in
Japanese with high fish consumption, and in some Eskimos.
EPA and DHA rich FISH OIL has also been found to suppress production of inflammatory agents
found in rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis. The anti-inflammatory effect of the Omega-3 fatty acids
might be mediated in part by their inhibitory effect on production of interleukin-1 and tumour
necrosis factor, both principal mediators of inflammation. In cases of psoriasis vulgaris, FISH OILS
produce symptomatic improvement by effecting changes in levels of the inflammatory leukotriene
compounds, especially leukotriene B4. This leukotriene is a lipoxygenation product of the fatty acid
arachidonic acid. The EPA in FISH OIL "replaces" the arachidonic acid in phospholipids, leading to
the formation of leukotriene B5, rather than B4. Leukotriene B5 causes a much weaker inflammatory
response. Neutrophils were isolated from the peripheral blood of patients given FISH OIL to treat
their psoriasis. Patients whose symptoms improved with FISH OIL therapy had higher levels of

leukotriene B5 than did those patients who showed no improvement.

Therapeutic Approaches
Cardiovascular Disease
In general, dietary unsaturated fatty acids appear to reduce undesirable circulating fats (e.g. in
hyperlipidemia) while decreasing the production of the prothrombotic substance thromboxane. In
studies involving FISH OIL as an unsaturated fatty acid, data from clinical trials show a significant
reduction of levels of very low density lipo- protein cholesterol (VLDL), plasma triglycerides, plasma
cholesterol, and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL).
These findings are important because they may explain the significant difference in mortality rate due
to cardiovascular disease between certain Alaskan natives and mainland Americans. In an autopsy
series of 339 Alaskan natives, Authaud found cardiovascular disease was a cause of death in only 35
(or 10.3%) of the cases, whereas it accounts for 50% of all deaths in the United States.
Recent evidence also suggests FISH OIL may prevent atherosclerosis in animal studies, despite lack
of improvement in serum cholesterol levels. These findings warrant consideration given the high
mortality and morbidity for those with Atherosclerosis.
For therapeutic dosages, intake of 5 grams of FISH OIL a day may be advisable. However, there is
sufficient evidence to consider FISH OIL supplementation, in the range of 2 to 10 grams per day, for
patients with elevated cholesterol (7.75 mmol/liter) or triglycerides (5.64 mmol/liter).
Kinsella suggests for both prophylactic and therapeutic applications, the most benefit is derived from
FISH OIL when total fat intake is lowered to 30% of calories, saturated fatty acids to no more than
30% of total fat, and omega-6 fatty acids (vegetable oils) to a maximum of 10%.
Hypertention
FISH OIL seems to have hypotensive effects ranging from small (5 grams per day) to substantial (12
grams per day). Yetiv has speculated FISH OIL depresses vascular reactivity to hormones involved in
hypertension. Yetiv suggested FISH OIL acted by increasing vasodilatory prostaglandins PGL2 and
PGL3 and this increase accounted or the observed reduction in blood pressure.
Nephrotic Syndrome
Both hypertriglyceridemia and hypercholesterolemia are common in patients with nephrotic
syndrome. These lipid disorders are associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease. In
one study completed in Canada, triglyceride levels decreased by 31% within nine days of FISH OIL
supplementation. However, total or HDL-cholesterol levels did not change. Nine days after
supplementation ceased, triglyceride levels showed a trend of returning back to their original levels.
FISH OILS may also play a role in the treatment of auto-immune (e.g. lupus erythematosis,
dermatomyositis, auto-immune nephritis) and inflammatory disorders, (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis,
psoriasis and atopic dermatitis).
Lupus
(Systemic Lupus Erythematosus) SLE is a generalised connective tissue disorder tending to affect

middle-aged females. It is characterised by skin eruptions, neurological manifestations,

lymphadenopathy, fever and other symptoms, in addition, to a range of abnormal immunological
phenomena, including hypocomplementemia and hypergammaglobulinemia.
In 1989, the first controlled study of fish oil's effects on SLE was reported. Prior to then a number of
anecdotal reports suggested improvement of some patients following FISH OIL supplementation. The
early clinical attempts were based on animal studies using inbred mice strains, which were criticised
because of questionable generalisation to human SLE patients.
Overall this resulted in significant improvements in inflammatory and atherosclerotic processes
typically seen in SLE patients. These findings suggest some beneficial effects from FISH OIL
supplementation. However, possible long-term benefits from FISH OIL supplementation in SLE
patients have still not been studied. The first clinical trial of the benefits of FISH OIL's EPA in the
alleviation of the symptoms of osteoarthritis was reported in 1989. Patients were given ibuprofen, an
aspirin-like analgesic, with either 10 millilitres of EPA a day or a placebo for six months. Patients
assessed the level of pain and interference they experienced in everyday activity. The average scores
for these indexes "were strikingly lower in the EPA (group) than the placebo group". However, the
differences were not as statistically significant as the researchers had hoped, meaning additional
studies are suggested. This is the first report of FISH OIL being of benefit to patients with
osteoarthiritis.
Rheumatoid Arthritis
A recent study of FISH OIL supplementation in patients with the inflammatory conditions of
rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis showed improvement. Patients taking 18 grams of fish oil
concentrate (153 milligrams EPA and 103 milligrams DHA) for six weeks reported significant
improvement in their condition. Samples of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from the patients
showed suppressed synthesis of two principle mediators of inflammation, interleukin-1 and tumour
necrosis factor. No such suppression was found in patients receiving placebo. Of interest was the
finding that the anti-inflammatory effect of the FISH OILS remained strong up to four weeks after
cessation of supplementation.
Psoriasis
Researchers in Denmark have successfully treated patients with psoriasis vulgaris with a low-fat diet
supplemented with FISH OIL. Only 23% of such patients did not reported either excellent, moderate
or mild improve- ments in their condition. A number of patients did not show improvement until
supplemented for at least four months. This may indicate the importance of allowing adequate time
for clinical improvement after initiating FISH OIL therapy.
FISH OILS may improve psoriasis due to changes in inflammatory leukotriene compounds,
particularly leukotriene B4, which is a lipoxygenation product of arachidonic acid, and is believed to
be involved in the inflammatory process associated with psoriasis. In essence, the EPA in FISH OIL
replaces arachidonic acid in phospholipids resulting in the formation of leukotriene B5 rather than
B4, hence the weaker inflammatory response.
Raynaud's Disease
(Raynaud's phenomenon)

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In Raynaud's disease there is an intermittent bilateral attack of ischemia (periodic cessation of blood
flow and blood pressure) of the fingers, toes, or even the ears and nose. The disease afflicts females
more often than males. Raynaud's phenomenon is intermittent, often accompanied by paresthesia and
pain, and brought on by cold or emotional stimuli. It can usually be relieved with heat. When the
condition is idiopathic or primary, it is termed Raynaud's disease.
In 1989, researchers reported results from a double-blind placebo-controlled trial showing Raynaud's
disease may benefit from FISH OIL (12 FISH OIL capsules containing nearly 4 grams of EPA and
2.64 grams of docosa- hexaenoic acid (DHA). The time interval before onset of Raynaud's
phenomenon, especially in those with primary Raynaud's phenomenon, was significantly increased in
those patients taking FISH OIL, versus those subjects taking placebo (olive oil). Even more
impressive was finding that 5 of 11 patients did not develop any Raynaud's symptoms after 6 or 12
weeks of FISH OIL supplementation when exposed to cold water baths. By comparison, this
favourable response was only seen in 1 of 9 patients receiving olive oil (placebo). Whether these
findings will similarly benefit patients with secondary Raynaud's phenomenon requires further study.
Balanced Ratio of GLA - EPA/DHA
As this article illustrates, both Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids are essential for optimal health, and
a lack of either one or both can lead to many disease conditions.
While there is no clear-cut scientific consensus of the correct balance between the Omega-3 and
Omega-6 fatty acids, we can look to nature to obtain guidelines on this important question. All the
comparative data from various species show a predominance of the Omega-6 fatty acids over the
Omega-3. Since the Omega-3 fatty acids are preferentially metabolised in the body, a ratio of 4:1 in
favour of the Omega-6 fatty acids will insure a balanced composition at the cellular level. Such a
ratio would be applicable when the parent acids, linoleic acid (w6 series) and alpha-linolenic acid (w3
series) are the predominant constituents in the diet. On the other hand, the longer chain derivatives
such as gamma- linolenic acid (GLA), dihomo-gamma- linolenic acid (DGLA), arachidonic acid
(AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are biologically more active and are incorporated into cell
structure more efficiently. Also, the EPA is preferentially incorporated into cell membranes at the
expense of AA. In situations where these longer chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are provided in the
diet as food supplements, a ratio of 1:1 between GLA and EPA/DHA would be desirable to ensure a
correct balance at the cellular level.
Food & Supplements
EPO contains gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), a substance not found in substantial amounts in any other
food. Contrary to popular belief, human milk contains very little GLA but does contain DGLA, an
intermediate in the production of prostaglandin PGE1. FISH OILS, specially salmon, mackerel and
herring, contain the Omega-3 fatty acids EPA, the direct precursor for prostaglandin PGE3, and DHA
which is vital for brain development and, in adults, the functions of brain, nerves, vision, hearing,
adrenal (stress) glands and sperm formation.
Foods rich in Essential Fatty Acids include: EPO (72% pure cis-linoleic acid and 10% gammalinolenic acid), sunflower seed oil, safflower and corn oil, liver, kidneys, brains, sweetbreads, lean
meats, legumes, green vegetables, fish (particularly oil fish such as salmon, herring, mackerel and cod
which are rich in EPA/DHA), shellfish, fish liver oils and linseeds. EPO is very rich in essential fatty
acids, and belongs to the linoleic family. Choose cold-pressed oils where the natural anti-oxidants
have not been removed. Vegetable and seed oils are most beneficial when eaten uncooked. Certain
vitamins and minerals participate in the EFA to prostaglandin conversion process. Enzymes in your

11

body work as catalysts to the conversion and these enzymes are ineffective without these nutrients.
These nutrients are vitamins B6, C and B3 (niacin), and the minerals magnesium and zinc. Vitamin E
and selenium are also essential.
Needs vary greatly from person to person. Estimates are that from 10-20 % of the daily caloric intake
should be in the form of EFA's in order to maintain optimum health. Avoid processed foods, those
made with palm or coconut oil and those high in saturated fats (fatty meats, cream, milk, butter,
cheese, etc.).
Conclusion
Evening Primrose Oil contains substantial amounts of GLA (up to 25% in the best supplements).
EPO is one of the few plants to have this vital ingredient with no toxic properties. EPO is available in
1000 mg gelatine capsules of pure, solvent-free oil.
Salmon Oil capsules containing 18% EPA and 12% EHA are also available in 1000 mg capsules.
The majority of research carried out worldwide shows that the ideal level of GLA to be
approximately 240 mg daily, plus 240 mg EPA/DHA daily
This amount can be provided in :
3 - 1000 mg Efamol EPO capsules plus 1 - 1000 mg Cod Liver Oil capsule.

EFA supplements should be taken daily with meals. They are not meant to be used as a replacement
for essential fatty acid requirements but should be used as supplementation to a diet to ensure
adequate levels of these important metabolites.

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