1

An American English Verb Template, by Sorena Linton, M.Ed., M.S.

English Verbs are simplistically categorized in the following manner: There are active, linking, and helping/auxiliary (including modalssee list); some verbs can fall in more than one category,
depending on how they are used in a sentence. Auxiliary verbs exist to give additional information about the main verb by creating tense, aspect, and/or mood in the sentence. There are three tenses
(past, present, and futurenot exactly the same as time) and four aspects (simple, perfect, perfect progressive, and progressive) which create 12 overall verb forms (often also called tenses) in the
indicative. English also has several moods (i.e.: conditional, imperative, indicative, subjunctive, interrogative, exclamatory), a modal system (different from its system of moods), and two
grammatical polarities (affirmative and negative). This chart hopefully shows a sample of each form in a complete sentence. Two of the most significant moods are the indicative and the subjunctive,
because (simplistically put) the indicative deals with real or factual situations and the subjunctive deals with unreal or non-factual situations or statements. Pages 1 & 2 deal display indicatives; pages
3 & 4 display subjunctives; 5 & 6, modals; 7 & 8, conditionals; 9 display additional aspects; 10 & 11 catenatives; 12-16 give a parts of speech overview. The regular verb walk (intransitive, used with
an object) is used in many of the templates; 3rd person singular is also used extensively to highlight changes in that person & number.

Principle Parts: Walk (DLI verb 1), walking, walked (DLI verb 2), walked (DLI verb 3) [see participle chart, pg 9]
Active Voice

Infinitives:

Passive Voice

Bare Infinitive, Base, Or Dictionary Form

Infinitive

I advise that he walk daily.

It is enjoyable to walk in the meadow.

Present Progressive/Cont. Infinitive

Present Perfect Infinitive

It is nice to be walking again after surgery.

It was invigorating to have walked in the morning.

Present Perfect progressive/Continuous Infinitive

Future Infinitive (to be + infinitive)

To have been walking in the rain was inconvenient.

He is to walk the dog each day.

------------------------To be walked daily is important for the dogs health.

Everyone needs to get dressed in the morning. (get-passive)
----------------------To have been walked daily was healthy for the dog.
To have gotten dressed all by himself was encouraging. (get-passive)
----------------------The dog is to be walked daily. She is to get dressed now. (get-passive)

Imperative Mood (Command) Always 2

Active: Walk! Or: Dont Walk! (neg)

Emphatic Do/ Intensive: Do walk!

nd

person, with the subject you implied. No questions here.

Passive: Be gone! Dont be gone! (neg) Get Dressed! (get-passive)

Indicative and Interrogative (?) Moods, with Affirmative and Negative Polarities
The Indicative typically deals with factual or real situations. See modal chart and last page for alternative indicative forms (intensive, habitual, future in the past, get-passive). The Indicative Af: Affirmative; Neg:
negative; Int: interrogative or question; Neg Int: Negative interrogative; Prog/Cont: Progressive/continuous; Perf: Perfect. Never, nothing and nobody also create negative sentences.
Past Tense (not the same as time)
Simple Aspect

An action that ended at a point in the past.

Active Af: He walked (the dog).
Voice Neg: He didnt walk (the dog). He never walked the
(AV) dog.
?/Int: (Why) Did he walk (the dog)?
Neg Int: (Why) Didnt he walk (the dog)?

Passive Voice (PV) Af/Neg: The dog was(nt) walked (by him).
be + main verb Int/Neg Int: (Why) Was(nt) the dog walked (by him)?
(m.v.) + ed Note: Were is used in the other persons and numbers here.
Some Yesterday, before, last year/month/etc., for five
time weeks/days/etc., one year/ month ago yesterday, the
Clues last/first time, a week ago, earlier, today/this week

Present Tense (not the same as time)

Future Tense (not same as time; uses will)*

An action that exists, is usual, or is repeated.

A plan for future action.

Af: He walks (the dog).

Neg: He doesnt walk (the dog). He never walks the dog.
?/Int: (Why) Does he walk (the dog)?
Neg Int: (Why) Doesnt he walk (the dog)?

Af: He will walk (the dog).

Neg: He wont walk (the dog).
?/Int: (Why) Will he walk (the dog)?
Neg Int: (Why) Wont he walk (the dog)?

Note: Do is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: The dog is(nt) walked (by him).

Int/NegInt: (Why) Is(nt) the dog walked (by him)?
Note: Am and are are used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: The dog will/wont be walked later.

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Will/wont the dog be
walked later?

every morning/day, always, usually, frequently, sometimes, on Mondays,

weekends, often, generally, occasionally, once in a while, rarely, seldom, hardly
ever, never

Tomorrow, tonight, next, week/month/etc.

soon, in the future, the next time, in a few
days/ ten minutes

Past Tense (not the same as time)

Prog/Cont
Aspect

An action was happening (Past Prog) when another

action happened (simple past).

AV Af/Neg: He was(nt) walking (the dog).

be + m.v.+ing Int/Neg Int: (Why) Was(nt) he walking (the dog)?
Note: Were is used in the other persons and numbers here.

PV Af/Neg: The dog was(nt) being walked (by him).

be + being + Int/Neg Int: (Why) Was(nt) the dog being walked (by
m.v. + ed him)? Were is used in the other persons and numbers here.
Some time While, when, during
clues
Simple
Perf Aspect

An action that ended before another action or time in

the past.
AV Af/Neg: He had(nt) walked (the dog).
have + Int/Neg Int: (Why) Had(nt) he walked (the dog)?
m.v. + ed

PV Af/Neg: The dog had(nt) been walked (by him).

Have + been + Int/Neg Int: (Why) Had(nt) the dog been walked (by
m.v. + ed him)?
Some time Before, already, after, by the time, until then/last
clues week/etc.

Perf Prog/
Cont Aspect
AV

An action that happened over time, in the past, before

another time or action in the past.

have + been + Af/Neg: He had(nt) been walking (the dog). Int/Neg

m.v. + ing Int: (Why) Had(nt) he been walking (the dog)?

Present Tense (not the same as time)

An action that is happening now.

An action that will be happen over time, in the

future, when something else happens.

Af/Neg: He is(nt) walking (the dog).

Int/ Neg Int: (Why) Is(nt) he walking (the dog)?

Af/Neg: He will/wont be walking (the dog).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Will/wont he be walking
(the dog)?

Note: Am and are are used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: Right now, the dog is(nt) being walked (by him).
Int/Neg Int: Right now, (why) is(nt) the dog being walked (by him)?
Note: Am and are are used in the other persons and numbers here.

Some time clues Before, since, for one week/hour/etc.

(Use Pres Prog Pass instead. Forms of are

going to be being washed are awkward and
unused.)

Now, right now, this week/minute/, at this/for the moment, currently, at the
present, temporarily, today

When, after, as soon as, before

An action that happened at an unspecified time in the past.

An action that will end before another action

or time in the future.

Af/Neg: He has(nt) walked (the dog).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Has(nt) he walked (the dog)?

Af/Neg: He will/wont have walked (the dog).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Will/wont he have walked
(the dog)?

Note: Have is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: The dog has(nt) been walked (by him).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Has(nt) the dog been walked (by him)?
Note: Have is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: The dog will/wont have been walked

(by him) before 10 PM.
Int/Neg Int: (Why) Will/wont the dog have
been walked (by him) before 10 PM?

until now, ever, never, many times, for three hours/ minutes, since
yesterday/1983, in the last/past month, year, up to now, so far, lately, recently,
already (quests/affirm), in a long time (neg), yet (neg), how long (quests), ever
(quest.)

by the time you go (somewhere), by the time

you do (something) already

An action occurring over time that started in the past and continues into the
present.

An action occurring over time, in the future,

before another action or time in the future.

Af/Neg: He has(nt) been walking (the dog).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Has(nt) he been walking (the dog)?

Af/Neg: He will/wont have been walking (the

dog). Int/Neg Int: (Why) Will/wont he have
been walking (the dog)?

Note: Have is used in the other persons and numbers here.

PV

Future Tense (not same as time; uses will)*

Permutations of has been being written are cumbersome and unused.

for the past year/ month, for the last 2 months/ weeks, up to now, since, for
6weeks/hours

by the time, by, for ten days/weeks/etc.

all day long, since yesterday, how long

*Some grammarians say there is no true future tense in English, because the verb itself does not have a change. The future is formed with will plus the bare infinitive (which looks like the subjunctive form in the 3rd person
singular, for examplebut it is not the subjunctive form). Shall is an older way to form the future tense (see modal page for shall).
To create most information questions, add an interrogative adverb to the beginning of a yes/no interrogative sentence: what, where, when, how long, etc + helping verb + (not) + subject + rest of verb inc. MV +
rest of the sentence. Example: How long does he walk the dog? Why does he walk the dog? (Who creates a different structure, because it is an interrogative pronoun, not an adverb. Ex: Who walks the dog?)

The Subjunctive Mood, with Interrogative Mood & Af., & Neg. Polarities
A controversial mood is the subjunctive mood, indicating a hypothetical state, non-factual, or unreal state. The subjunctive is used to express wishes, certain commands, emotion,
imaginary possibility, judgment, opinion, necessity, or statements that are contrary to fact at present; the subjunctive exists especially to express the belief or point of view of the speaker, as opposed to
a real or factual statement that can be observed and accepted by both speaker and listener.
Modern speakers tend to use the modal system (not a mood) to indicate unreal statements, instead of the subjunctive mood; the subjunctive is gradually disappearing from English (and is not
discussed often because it does not differ very much in form from the indicative in most forms). Because the subjunctive mood deals with unreal issues or non-factual statements, the subjunctive
appears in the conditional mood when discussing a hypothetical or contrary-to-fact situations. The Subjunctive also expresses itself in sentences formed by modals, specifically when those sentences
discuss unreal things.
The terms present subjunctive and past subjunctive can be confusing, because they describe forms and not meanings. The past and present subjunctives have these names because they look
like past and present indicatives, but the difference between them is in mode, not time. For example, in "I asked that it be done yesterday," be done (a present subjunctive) has no present-tense sense.
Likewise, in "If that were true, I would know it," were (a past subjunctive) has no past-tense sense and instead describes a counterfactual condition.
When used in such counterfactual sentences with "if," the past subjunctive form is usually called the "present conditional" or "conditional 2," though some use these terms only with would
the second clause of the sentence. To give another example, "It's about time (that) we sold this house." Although sold appears to be the past tense of the verb to sell, the house has not been sold yet, so
the past subjunctive expresses a wish or a suggestion.
VERB FORM

Past indicative

to walk
(regular verb)

I/s/he/it/we/you/they walked

to be

I/she/he/it was
we/you/they were

Past subjunctive
I/s/he/it/we/you/they
walked

Present indicative

Present subjunctive

s/he/it walks
s/he/it walk
I/we/you/they walk I/we/you/they walk

I am s/he/it is
I/s/he/it/we/you/they were we/you/they are

I/she/he/it/we/you/they be

Future indicative

Future subjunctive

s/he/it will walk

s/he/it/I/we/you/they were to walk
I/we/you/they will/shall walk
s/he/it will be
I/we/you/they will/shall be

s/he/it/I/we/you/they were to be

As shown in the above table, the form of the subjunctive is different from the indicative in four instances: 1) the 3rd person singular present tense; 2) the 1st & 3rd persons singular past tense
of "to be" 3) all forms of the present tense of "to be" 4) all verbs in the future and 5) all of the verbs in the present negative.
Some adjectives with subjunctive: advisable, bad, best, better, compulsory, critical, crucial, desirable, essential, good, imperative, important, mandatory, necessary, recommended,
required, urgent, vital.
Some verbs with subjunctive: advise, ask, beg, command, decide, decree, demand, direct, desire, dictate, insist, intend, move, order, prefer, petition, propose, recommend, request, require,
resolve, stipulate, suggest, urge, and vote.
The present subjunctive form is the same as the bare infinitive form and the imperative form; however, most grammarians do not consider them to all have the same function. The bare
infinitive (looking like a subjunctive) shows up in future forms of the indicative (i.e.: will + be), in sentences using modals and similar words and phrases, as well as conditionals, provided that the
sentences discuss real things. Throughout this chart, the indicative modal + bare infinitive or the subjunctive forms of the verbs have been highlighted for your attention, because people must learn
and use themregardless of what they are called.
A Sampling of the
Jussive Subjunctive
(command-like,
formulaic statements)

...Need only..., Albeit (a synthesis of all be it, i.e. although it be), Be that as it may. Come Monday (Tuesday, etc.), Come what may. Far be it from (or for) me,
God bless America, God keep our land glorious and free, God rest ye merry gentlemen, etc., God save our gracious Queen, Heaven forefend/forbidden, If need
be, as it were, if I were you; were I you, (God) bless you!, Let (may) it be known, Let that peasant eat cake. Let them eat cake. Long live the king, May the best
man win, Peace be with you, Rest in peace, Rue the day, So be it. Suffice it to say. Truth be told, Until death do us part, Woe betide, Would that it were,

The Subjunctive Sentence has a dependent and an independent clause/complete sentence. The Subjunctive is often found in a subordinate clause. Form:

Subject + linking verb + subjunctive adjective + (that) + independent clause/complete sentence with verb in the subjunctive form. OR
Subject + subjunctive verb + (that) + independent clause/complete sentence with verb in the subjunctive form.
The verb in the dependent can clause can be in different tenses (is important/was important), just as the verb in the independent clause.
These sentences could be rewritten as canonical ones, rather than extraposed ones: That he walked the dog is important. ONE NEGATIVE PER SENTENCE, PLEASE.
Past Tense Subjunctive
(not a real past tense, save for the Perfect Active or Pluperfect)
Simple
Active
Voice

Af: It is(nt) important

Int: Is(nt) it important
(neg. awkward)

(that) he walked the dog.

(that) the child walked the dog?

Present Tense Subjunctive

(No future subjunctive, except in conditional use and with should + the bare infinitive/base form)
Af/Neg: She doesnt ask/She asks/It is(nt) important (that) he (not) walk the dog.
Int/Neg Int:
Didnt she ask/Is(nt) it important (that) he (not) walk the dog?

(There is no he were walked here, or it is rare.)

Conditionals may use some of these forms.

Af/Neg: She doesnt ask/She asks /It is(nt) important (that) the dog (not) be walked before bed.
Int/Neg Int:
Did(nt) she ask/Is(nt) it important (that) the dog (not) be walked before bed?

(The active he were working or passive

he were being walked here are really rare.)

Af/neg: She doesnt ask/She asks /It is(nt) important (that) the child (not) be walking the dog.
Int/NegInt:
Did(nt) she ask/Is(nt) it important (that) the child (not) be walking the dog?
(no passive be being walked here)

Perfect
Active
Voice

Af/neg:
It is(nt) important (that) he had (not) walked the dog.
Int/NegInt: Is(nt) it important (that) he had (not) walked the dog?
Pluperfect expresses past time

Af/neg:
It is(nt) important (that) he have (not) walked the dog.
Int/NegInt:
Is(nt) it important (that) he have (not) walked the dog?
(most people would use had in speech)

Perfect
Passive
Voice

(He had been worked is rare or unused.)

Af/neg:
It is(nt) important (that) the dog have (not) been walked.
Int/NegInt: Is(nt) it important (that) the dog have (not) been walked?
(most people would use had in speech)

Af/neg:
It is(nt) important (that) the child had (not) been walking the dog.
Int/NegInt: Is(nt) it important (that) the child had (not) been walking the dog?

Af/neg:
It is(nt) important (that) the child have (not) been walking the dog.
Int/NegInt: Is(nt) it important (that) the child have (not) been walking the dog?
(most people would use had in speech)

Simple
Passive Voice
Prog/Cont
Active, Passive
Voices

Perf
Prog/Cont
Active
Voice
Perf Pro/Cont

(He had been being worked is unused.) (There is no passive have been being walked here.)

Modal System & Similar Words/Phrases, with Int. with Af. & Neg. Polarities
Like the subjunctive mood, the modal system often reflects the belief or point of view of the speaker. This page shows conjugation patterns for do (primary auxiliary); many of the following modal
auxiliaries: may, might, shall, should, will, would, can, could, must, need, ought to; semi-/quasi-modal auxiliaries: want (to), had better, have to, be able to, be about to, be bound to, be going to, be
supposed to, be to, have got to (lists from Peter Collins). They also cover some additional modal-like verbs & idioms: used to, dare, would rather. There are less common words, phrases and idioms, which
also fall in this category: had best, would sooner/(just) as soon, may/might, (just) as well, be obliged to, be apt to, to, be due to, be likely to, be meant to. The red, italicized words are in the subjunctive
form when the sentence expresses uncertainly; the red, italicized words are in indicative mood, using the bare infinitive form when they express certainly. Not all auxiliaries, modals, quasi-modals, etc.
can be conjugated in all of these forms. Can/could/be able to; must/have (got) to/had to; will/would; may/might; shall/should/be supposed to; be to are considered sets of conjugations. Modals are
considered defective verbs: they cannot stand alone, nor do they have infinitive, gerund, or imperative forms, for example. Primary auxiliaries (do, be, have) are conjugated; do and have can be action
verbs and be can be a linking verb. Modals are not conjugated (except the be of terms like be due to). These verbs connect with the main verbs and color their meaning.
Using base form
Modal/modal like verb +
base form = ought to walk

Using past participle (Past P), see page 9

Modal/modal like verb + be/have + Past P= ought to be/have walked
Modal/modal like verb + have + been + Past P= ought to have been walked
(The Continuous ______ have been being walked is rare or unused.)

Using present participle (Pres P), see page 9

Modal/modal like verb + be + Pres P = ought to be walking
Modal/modal like verb + have + been + Pres P= ought to have been walking

Past Tense
Simple
Active Voice

Passive Voice

Prog/Cont
Active Voice
Passive Voice

Simple Perf
Active Voice
Passive Voice

Perf Prog/Cont Active Voice

Passive Voice

Present/Future Tense

Af/Neg: He could(nt) walk the dog.

Int/NegInt: Could(nt) he walk the dog?
Intensive/Emphatic Do: He did(nt) walk the dog.
Habitual: He used to/would always walk the dog.
Future in the Past: He was going to/about to walk the dog. I knew he would walk the dog.

Af/Neg: He can(t) walk the dog.

Int/NegInt: Can(t) she walk the dog?
Intensive/Emphatic Do: He does(nt) walk the dog.

Af/Neg: The dog should(nt) be walked (by Sam).

Int/NegInt: Should(nt) the dog be walked (by Sam)?
Habitual: The dog used to be walked/would always be walked (by Sam).
Future in the Past: She knew the dog would be walked (by Sam) by 5:00 PM.
Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog got/didnt get walked (by Sam).
Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Did(nt) the dog get walked (by Sam)?

(Present) Intensive (Passive)/Emphatic Do: The dog does get walked (by Sam).
Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog gets/doesnt get walked (by Sam).
Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Does(nt) the dog get walked (by Sam)?

Af/Neg: He could(nt) be walking the dog now.

Int/NegInt: Could(nt) he be walking the dog now?

Af/Neg: She can(t) be walking the dog now.

Int/NegInt: Can(t) she be walking the dog now?

Af/Neg: The dog should (not) be being walked (by Sam). RARE
Int/NegInt: Should(nt) the dog be being walked (by Sam)?
Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog was(nt) getting walked (by Sam).
Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Int/Neg Int: Was(nt) the dog getting walked (by Sam)?

Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog is(nt) getting walked (by Sam).

Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Is(nt) the dog getting walked (by Sam)?

Af/Neg: He could (not) have walked the dog.

Int/NegInt: Could(nt) he have walked the dog?

Af/Neg: She can(t) have walked the dog.

Int/NegInt: Can(t) she have walked the dog?

Af/Neg: The dog should(nt) have been walked (by Sam).

Int/NegInt: Should(nt) the dog have been walked (by Sam)?
Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog had(nt) gotten walked (by Sam).
Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Had(nt) the dog gotten walked (by Sam)?

Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog has(nt) gotten walked (by Sam).

Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Has(nt) the dog gotten walked (by Sam)?

Af/Neg: He could (not) have been walking the dog.

Int/NegInt: Could(nt) he have been walking the dog?

Af/Neg: He can(t) have been walking the dog.

Int/NegInt: Can(t) she have been walking the dog?

Af/Neg: The dog should have been being walked but nobody was there. No Int or Neg Int in this form. RARE

HOW DO YOU SAY??? Modals, continued: A Sampling of Commonly used Sentences with Modals and Similar Verbs
Here are samples of sentences with various modals/modal auxiliaries in sentence, according to the function of the sentence. The red, italicized words are in the subjunctive form when the
sentence expresses uncertainly; the red, italicized words are in the indicative mood and with a bare infinitive form when they express certainly. Note the frequency of the present perfect subjunctive
(that he have done) here, which is often used in descriptions of requirements. Passive samples are on the previous page; however, many are awkward in the passive form.
Certainty (see modal sample page)
Past (often
uses the
perfect
verb)

Present/
future

Past (often
uses the
perfect verb
form)

Present/
future

Aff/Neg: He might (not)/may (not)/could have been at the store. (50%)

Int/NegInt: Could(nt) she have been at the store?
Aff/Neg: She ought to have done/should(nt) have done well on the exam. (90%)
Int/NegInt: Should(nt) she have done well on the exam?
Aff/Neg: Mary must (not) have been at the store. (95%)
Aff: He was bound/apt to do well on the test. He was about to go to the store. (was going to happen)
Where's John? Aff/Neg: He may/might (not) be at the store. He could be at the store. (50%)
Int/NegInt: Might(nt) he be at home?
Aff/Neg: He should(nt)/ought to do well on the test. (future only, not present, 90%)
Int/NegInt: Should(nt) you do well on the test?
Mary isn't at work.
Aff/Neg: She must(nt) be sick. (95% present only)
Aff/Neg: He will/wont be/is(nt) going to be here at 6:00. (future only)
Aff: He is bound to succeed.
Plan/intention/willingness/refusal
Necessity/prohibition/
(see modal sample page)
forbidden
Aff/Neg: She was obliged had/didnt have to go to
Aff/Neg: She was(nt) going to/about to
class yesterday. Int/NegInt: Did(nt) she have to go to
paint her bedroom, but she didn't have time.
class yesterday? Neg: She may not go outside.
(future in the past)
Int/NegInt: Was(nt) she going to/ about to
paint your room?
Neg: He would(nt) clean his room. (refusal)
Aff/Neg: He shall/will/wont arrive at nine.
Aff/Neg: She must(nt) go/ (doesnt) have to go to
Int/NegInt: Will/wont he arrive at nine?
class today. Aff/Neg: He doesnt have to go/ has got to
Aff/Neg: He is (not) going to/about to paint go to class today. Aff/Neg: He need(nt) do it. Aff:
my bedroom. (future only)
She has got/is obliged to do the dishes. Aff: Ive got
Int/NegInt: Is(nt) he going to/about to
to (gotta) go to the store. (idiomatic)
paint your bedroom?
The doorbell is ringing.
Aff/Neg: She'll get it. She wont get it.
(refusal)
Repeated past situation/ habitual (past only)
Aff: When he was a child, he would always/used to visit my aunts every weekend.
Aff: He used to live in Belgium. Now he lives in Greece.
(opposite of habitual is never)

Ability/Possibility/Impossibility
(see modal sample page)
Aff: He could run fast when he was a
child, but now he can't.
Neg: That couldn't have been true. (95%)
Aff/Neg: He was(nt) able to help you.
Neg: That couldnt be! Could be
(idiomatic)
Aff/Neg: She can(t) run fast.
Aff/Neg: She is/will/wont be able to
help you.
Neg/NegInt: Can(t) she run fast?
Aff/Neg: She may (not) win the race.
Neg: That cant be!

Want/Preference/Expectation
Aff/Neg: He would rather (not) have
gone to the park.
Aff: She would have liked a cookie, but
there were none in the house.
Aff/Neg: Class was(nt) supposed to
begin at 10:00, but.
Int/NegInt: Was(nt) the class supposed
to. Neg: She didnt want it.
Aff: She would rather/like to go to the
park than stay home. He would like to
have a car.
Aff/Neg: He is(nt) supposed to work at
10:00. Aff: It would be just as well to
stay home tonight.

Suggestion (see samples)

Aff/neg: He could(nt) have talked to
his teacher.
Aff/neg: He should(nt) have gone for
help.
I need help in math.
Aff: She could talk to her professor.
Int/NegInt: Shall he (not) open the
garage door? Aff/neg: He should(nt)
go for help. Aff: She had better/ best
go for help. Neg: She dare not go.

Advisability
(see sample page)
Aff/Neg: He ought to have/should(nt)
have studied last night, but he didn't.

Aff/Neg: He should(nt)/ ought to study

tonight.
Aff/Neg : She had better (not) be on
time, or we will leave without him. Aff:
She has got to (gotta) do the dishes.

Request/ permission (present only)

Int: May/might she borrow your book? (polite)
Int/Neg Int: Would/wont she pass the pepper?
Int/NegInt: Could(nt)/can(t) he borrow it?
Int/Neg Int: Could/would(nt) he help Grandma?
Aff/Neg: He may/can(nt) leave the job. (May is for permission; can is for ability.)

The Conditional Mood: Factual/Real Conditional Sentences

The Conditional Mood is used to discuss a hypothetical state of affairs, or an uncertain event that is contingent on another set of circumstances. The terms if, as if, or as though do
not always signal the need for a subjunctive verb form. Again, this distinction is dependent on whether or not the condition that is real/factual or unreal. The subjunctive is used in
2nd and 3rd Conditionals, dealing with the unreal. The conditional mood is created by using subordinating conjunctions of condition, many of which are listed on page 13.
USING THE ZERO CONDITIONAL
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES USING THE FIRST CONDITIONAL
To Express A General Fact Or
To Express A Future Possibility Or Make A Prediction (Something is true or likely, but unverified.)
Condition/If Clause
Main/Result Clause
A Habitual Action
Present or Pres Prog or Pres Perfect tense
will (most common), can, should, could, may, might, is going to
Condition/If Clause
Main/Result
(often uses present modals) + base form
Clause
Same tense (past or pres)
same tense
Prediction Examples:
Examples:
If the earth does not conserve its resources, it will regret it later. The earth will regret it later if it does not conserve its
If a puppy matures, it becomes a dog. (fact)
resources.*
Whenever Dad worked late, I worked late, too. If she is calling me right now, she will hear a busy signal. She will hear a busy signal if she is calling me right now. *
(habitual)
Note: A conditional sentence with the modal will expresses the strongest possibility, a prediction. The other modals indicate a
I worked late whenever Dad worked late.*
lesser degree of possibility.
Possibility Examples:
Note: When and whenever are often used
If Rina has not bought her ticket, she may not get a seat. Rina may not get a seat if she has not bought her ticket.*
instead of if to express a habitual action.
If Robert is not attending school regularly, he could fail this semester. Robert could fail this semester if he is not attending
college.*
If the parcel has not come by now, it might not arrive at all. The parcel might not arrive at all if it has not come by now.
TO MAKE AN INFERENCE
Condition/If Clause
Main/Result Clause
Present tense
must or should + base form (bare infinitive, if certain; subj. if uncertain)
Past tense
must have + past participle
Examples:
If the library is already open, it must be later than she thought.
If Joan really did lose her purse instead of misplacing it, she must have felt very nervous. Joan must have felt very nervous if she
really did lose her purse.*
If she should go, will he feed the hens? If she should fall, who will carry the torch in her place?
TO GIVE A COMMAND, ADVICE, OR INSTRUCTIONS
Condition/If Clause
Main/Result Clause
Present or Past or Present Perfect tense
imperative/base form
Examples:
If you miss the test, go to see the professor. Go see the professor if you miss the test.*
If you missed the test, go to see the professor. Go see the professor if you missed the test.*
If you have missed the test, go to see the professor. Go see the professor if you have missed the test.*
*An if-clause and a main clause can often change places.
Please note that there are other words that can be used instead of if: when, should, unless, provided that, supposing that, in the event that, in case that (see subordinating
conjunctions).
The negatives and passives can occur in both clauses. The interrogative can occur in the main clause; these clauses cannot be flipped.
Mixed conditionals are conditional sentences in which the time of the if clause differs from the time of the result clause. These sentences are common in the conditional mood.

The Conditional Mood: Non-Factual/Irrealis/Unreal Conditional Sentences

The conditional mood is created by using subordinating conjunctions of condition, many of which are listed on page 13.
Conditional Sentences Using The Second Conditional Or
Conditional Sentences Using The Conditional Three/Past Conditional
Past Subjunctive
Pluperfect/Past Perfect Subjunctive
To Express A Present Or Future Hypothetical (Unlikely) Or
To Express A Hypothetical Situation In The Past/Untrue In The Past
Contrary-To-Fact Situation (Impossible)
(Impossible)
Note: In the condition clause, when the simple past form or the past progressive form is used, were is
used for all forms of be.
Condition/If Clause
Simple Past or Past Prog form

Main/Result Clause
would, could, might + base form
would, could, might + base form + ing
would, could, might + base form

Could, would + base form

Examples:
If I were you, I would save more money. I would save more money if I were you.
If Perry lived at home instead of in the barracks, he would have a private place to nap.
If Thomas cleaned up his room every week, he would not always be complaining about how messy it is.
If Rosie were not working in the dining hall, she could not afford the tuition.
If Michelle could find her library card, she would start her research.
In the example sentences above, were to + a preposition may be used for the simple past form of the
verb, as in if Perry were to live at home or if Thomas were to clean his apartment every week
This is the subjunctive form of the verb, which is used to deal with unreal or non-factual situations.
TO MAKE AN INFERENCE
Condition/If Clause
Main/Result Clause
Present tense
must or should + base form (bare infinitive, if certain;
subj. if uncertain)
Past tense
must have + past participle
Examples:
If the library is already open, it must be later than she thought.
If Joan really did lose her purse instead of misplacing it, she must have felt very nervous. Joan must have
felt very nervous if she really did lose her purse.*
Construction by inversion: Where the subjunctive is used after "if" in a counterfactual condition, one
may omit the if and invert the verb and subject positions. If I were the President... / Were I the
President The condition clause must then come first.

Condition/If Clause
Main/Result Clause
Past Perf or Past Perf Prog form would, could, might + have + past participle
would, could, might + have + been +
base form + ing
Examples:
If Maria had turned her essay in on time, she would have received the full
credit for it.
If Spike had not refused to lend Ralph his car, Ralph could have been driving
to the beach right now.
Gavin might have enjoyed the movie if he had not been focusing so hard on
what they were saying.
If Jerry had been paying attention in the lecture, he would not have been asking
her friends for their notes.
Some grammarians only use "would" in the second clause of the sentence in
the Conditional Three form.

Construction by inversion: Where "if" is used in the conditional-clause of a

Third Conditional sentence, one may omit the if" and inverting the verb and
subject positions, just like one does in interrogatives/questions. If he had
known then... / Had he known then... The condition clause must then come
first.
*Note: Please note that, sometimes, an if-clause and a main clause can often change places. All the sentences on this page have clauses that can be switched.
Please note that there are other words that can be used instead of if: when, whenever, should, unless, provided that, supposing that, in the event that, in case that (see subordinating
conjunctions). The negative and passives can occur in both clauses. The interrogative can occur in the main clause; these clauses cannot be flipped.
If a result clause is in a past tense, then the condition clause cannot be in the past subjunctive, though it might be in the pluperfect subjunctive; however, if the result clause is in a present
tense, then a condition clause might be in either the past subjunctive or pluperfect subjunctive, depending on the meaning.
Mixed conditionals are conditional sentences in which the time of the if clause differs from the time of the result clause. These sentences are common in the conditional mood.

Linking Verb/Copula samples with Inter. Moods, with Aff. and Neg. Polarities
Linking verbs do not express action, are intransitive/do not take objects and are part of the larger group of stative verbs. They link a word (adjective) in the predicate to the subject and sentences are
formed differently with them. Be can act as a helping verb; some of these verbs can behave like active verbs. Linking verbs: All forms of to be, including those with modals, plus: appear, grow,
seem, stay, become, look, smell, taste, keep, feel, remain, sound, turn, get, fall, run. Never, nothing and nobody create negative sentences. A linking verb/copula and an action verb usually can be
differentiated by substituting the verb with a form of "to seem" or "to be." Action Verb: Dan looks at cabbage. Dan seems at cabbage? Dan is at cabbage? The latter two don't make sense, so "looks" in
this case is being used as an action verb. Linking verb/Copula: Dan looks happy. Dan seems happy? Dan is happy? The latter two make sense; "looks" is used as a linking verb/copula in this case.
Note that this approach does not work with the verb "to appear". In the sentence "Dan appears to be happy", "appears" is a copula. Yet, "seems" but not "is" can be substituted: "Dan is to be happy"
means something else. Dr. Dowty does not believe that there can be imperatives or progressives with stative verbs, although there are examples here which are used in American speech here.

Present: am/is/are; Gerund form: being; Past: was/were; Past Participle: been; Future: will; Infinitive: to be. Commands with to be: Be happy! Do be safe! Dont be late!
Past Tense

Present Tense

Future Tense (uses will)*

Simple
Aspect

Af/Neg: Dinner was(nt) good. Dinner smelled/didnt smell good.

Int/Neg Int: Was(nt) dinner good? Did(nt) the dinner smell good?
Infor Int: How high was the mountain?

Af/Neg: The dog is(nt) brown. Dinner tastes/doesnt taste good!

Int/Neg Int: Is(nt) the dog brown? Does(nt) the dinner taste good?
Infor Int with be: How high is the mountain?
(int adv + LV + predicate/uses inversion without modal)
Infor Int: How does the dinner taste?

Af/Neg: The dog will/wont be brown.

Int/Neg Int: Will/Wont the dog be brown?
Infor Int: How high will the mountain be?

Prog/Cont
Perf/prog awk

Af/Neg: He was(nt) being good.

Int/Neg Int: Was(nt) he being good?

Af/Neg: He is(nt) being good. Dinner is(nt) smelling good!

Int/ Neg Int: Is(nt) he being good? Neg follows pattern

awkward

Simple
Perf Aspect

Af/Neg: He had(nt) been good.

Int/Neg Int: Had(nt) he been good?

Af/Neg: He has(nt) been good. The dinner has(nt) smelled good.

Int/Neg Int: Has(nt) he been good?

Af/Neg: He will/wont have been good.

Int/Neg Int: Will/wont he have been good?

Have is used in the other persons and numbers here.

FUTURE IN THE PAST:

I knew Grandma would make the dress and hat. VOLUNTARY ACTION
They were going to bring their father with them, but they came alone. PLAN
I had a feeling that the home was going to be lovely. PREDICTION
He promised he would send a gift from Japan. PROMISE
In London, he met the woman that he would one day love.
He left 5 minutes early, unaware that the extra few minutes would save him.
ACTIVE vs PASSIVE:
I knew Pete would finish the painting by 8:00 PM. ACTIVE
I knew the painting would be finished by 8:00 PM. PASSIVE
I thought Sherri was going to make a lovely wedding. ACTIVE
I thought a lovely wedding was going to be made by Sherri. PASSIVE

Some Verbs that Take the Get-Passive

The word get is sometimes used instead of be in the passive form. It marks a
change in status or condition: I got sick after eating red meat.
Some other verbs that can be used in the get-passive construction are:
accepted, asked out, awoken, bathed, beaten, behind, better, bitten, broken,
built, called, cancelled, canned, cared for, caught, chosen, commissioned,
confused, damaged, destroyed, divorced, done, dressed, driven, drunk, elected,
engaged, evacuated, fed, fired, get through (phrasal verb), (be) going to, hired,
hit, hurt, infected, injured, interrupted, introduced, invited, killed, left out,
lost, married, mixed up, paid, promoted, rear-ended, reassigned, rejected,
released, repaired, rotated, scratched, selected, sent, shaken, stepped on,
stopped, stuck, stung, swept, taken, told, traded, up, upset, washed, written.

Participles and Gerunds:

Past Participle
Present Participle
PARTICIPLES
The present participle is used in the progressive/continuous aspect:
Active
Having walked (verb 3) Walking (present, active, imperfect, or progressive participle; also gerund form)
Pasive
Being walked
Been walked (past, passive, or perfect participle)
Jane was sleeping. It is used as an adjective: Let sleeping dogs lie. It is
used as an adjective: Let sleeping dogs lie. It is also used as an adverb: Generally speaking, the medicine is effective. The present participle in English has the same form as the
GERUND, but the gerund acts as a nounnot a verb or a modifier. Swimming is(nt) enjoyable. Is(nt) swimming enjoyable? The past participle may be used in both active and
passive voices of the indicative verb, forming the perfect aspect: The cow has eaten; forming the passive voice: The cow was eaten. The past participle can be an adjective, with
active sense: our fallen heroes or with passive sense: the attached pictures; It can also behave like an adverb, with passive sense: Seen from this angle, the problem is very easy.
Past participles usually precede the noun (like other adjectives), but sometimes can or must follow it: Please bring all the documents required at the time of the interview. The
difficulties encountered were not impossible to overcome.

10

CATENATIVES AND OTHER

VERBS THAT CHAIN.
Catenatives are verbs that can be
followed by an infinitive or present
participle/gerund form, creating a verb
chain. We promised to agree to try
practicing playing football. Phrasal
verbs can be catenatives and are often
followed by gerunds.
Catenative verbs are similar to
modal and semi-modal verbs in
meaning (often dealing with irrealis),
form, and function, but unlike modals
and semi-modals, the verb head in a
catenative is at the beginning of the
verb phrase. Verbs that follow a
catenative are verb phrase
complements; the verbs that follow
modals are the verb head/main verb.
Catenative verbs also have more
conjugations than modals do, express
verb tenses, aspects, and even passive
constructions.
In a broad sense, most verbs chain or
are made of multiple-word strings, be it
through the use of helping verbs to
create tense or aspect, modals, phrasal
verbs, or get-passive verbs. Simple
present and past in the active voice are
two of the few instances in which verbs
are not made of multiple words.
Catenatives that are directly
followed by an infinitive or
gerund/participle are called simple
catenatives; ones that have a noun
phrase between them are called
complex catenatives (analogous to
separable phrasal verbs). Some
catenatives are simple, some complex,
and some are both.
Although this is a reasonably
complete list of catenative head verbs,
they can take many different infinitives
and/or gerunds. This list is not
exhaustive; it is for awareness and
example. This author is unaware of a
rule governing why a verb will take an
infinitive, gerund, both, or neither; it
seems determined through usage and
these combinations should be
memorized as new verbs are learned.
Some of these examples are not
complete sentences. Add a subject
where needed.

SIMPLE CATENATIVES: ACTIVE

VOICE VERBS PLUS TO
INFINITIVE
Aspire to create
Contrive to be
Decline to attend
Design to create
Determine to be
Disdain to eat
Endeavor to fix
Forget to buy
Get to try
Go on to become
Grow to be
Hasten to stop
Hate to eat
Know to take (medicine)
Live to be
Look to start
Omit to do
Plot to kidnap
Presume to be
Regret to inform
Remember to bring/take
Resolve to change
Seek to attain
Serve to be
Stand to try
Strain to see
Survive to become a parent
Think to try it
Try to become
Venture to explore
Volunteer to help
Vow to be
accustomed to go to school
be able to go (similar to can; can also
show difference between general
ability in a particular situation. Ask
John. He will be able to help you.
Normally I can do these problems, but
I am not able to solve this one.
1.
condescend to see us.
consented to pay for the dinner.
decided to buy the pink one.
demand to be given
deserve to be treated that way.
hesitate Dont hesitate to ask. (idiom)
learn to speak a language
managed to finish
need I need to do my homework.
offered to carry it.
pretend to be asleep.
proceeded to apply the ointment
refuse to take those pills.

strives to teach thoroughly.

struggle to finish the homework
swear I swear to tell the truth.
undertook to finish the course today.
wait I cant wait to see him again!
want I want to play water polo.
wish to complain to management.
would like to drink some water.
RAISED SUBJECT
Appear to have forgotten
Come to be
Fail I fail to understand your logic.
Happens to fall
Have to go to work. (hafta)
Have got to go to work (have gotta)
Look to accomplish
Prove to be a good choice
Seem to be happy today.
Tend It tends to rain regularly.
Threatened to call the police.
Turn out to be
Used to eat
PASSIVE VOICE + TO
INFINITIVE
allowed to wear sandals there.
forbid You are forbidden to smoke.
permit You are permitted to smoke.
Volunteer to give blood
FOLLOWED BY BARE
INFINITIVE
go Go clean up. Go watch that kid.
Modals also take a bare
infinitive complement, according
to Huddleston; however this
author sees modals as part of the
separate Modal system.
ACTIVE VOICE PLUS GERUND
admit He admitted taking the package.
allow We allow smoking in the car.
avoid touching the china.
completed cleaning the living room.
Defer trying that method
delay We delayed travelling.
deny taking the bribe.
detest working on evenings.
escaped being run over
finish painting the wall
forbids smoking here.
gave up drinking ten years ago.
implies buying another part.
mention going to the store
permit Do they permit smoking here?
postpone buying a car for a year.
practice playing piano daily.(US)
Quit I could quit biting my nails.

Report seeing the prisoner

Resist eating those muffins?
Resume discussing this tomorrow.
Stand She cant stand swimming.
Suggests asking the principal.
Want (means require or need in UK).
That door wants repairing.
Come singing to the party
Discontinue selling cake
End up eating fast food
Escape going to susies house
Evade getting arrested
Go swimming in the evening
Go on (continue) buying groceries
Repent committing a sin
Resist doing the wrong thing
TO INFINITIVE OR GERUND:
no difference in meaning
Attempted to climb/attempt climbing
Bear I cant bear to hear/hearing him
Begin It began to rain/raining.
Bother to request/requesting help
Cease to bother/bothering
Commence to go/going
Continue It continued to rain/raining.
Hate to keep/hate keeping
Love I love to swim/swimming here.
Neglect neglected to paint/painting it.
Scorns to go/going
PLUS TO INFINITIVE OR
GERUND: difference in meaning
forgot to go home (meant to do it but
didnt) I forget going home. (I cannot
remember going.)
like to go (habit)/like going
(enjoyment)
mean meant to tell her(intended). It
means moving. (to signify or imply)
propose I propose to open a cafe.
(intention) I propose going to that
hotel. (to suggest)
try I tried to open it, but couldnt.
(attempted & failed) I tried opening a
door and then a window. (Experiment,
without success or failure.)
COMPLEX CATENATIVES:
ACTIVE VOICE VERBS PLUS TO
INFINITIVE
Accustom the dog to go outside
Aided the woman to walk
Appointed the senator to lead
Asked him to visit
Assisted the children to learn
Authorized the people to travel
Backed the president to create a law

Badgered the parent to give a toy

Beckoned the others to come over
Begged us to help
Beseeched the kidnapper to release
Blackmailed the cheater to pay
Bribed the manger to sell
Bring you to see the doctor
Bring up the children to speak well
Brought the children to visit
Cause him to fall
Cautioned the drivers to drive slowly
Challenged the kids to try broccoli
Coaxed the animal to come inside
Commanded the troops to advance
Commissioned the group to write
Compelled him to march
Condemned the man to die
Constrained the men to sit down
Convinced him to try
Defied them to march in the parade
Design it to fit everyone
Direct them to go to the library
Discipline him to stop yelling
Drive him to get help
Empower them to support each other
Encourage me to go
Entice them to eat vegetables
Entitles her to teach in public schools
Entreat her to come to the party
Equip him to climb the mountain
Exhort her to do her homework
Expect you to come
Fit you to look nice
Forbid him to walk
Force him to study
Hire him to trim
Implore her to stay
Incite them to riot
Induce them to sleep
Inspire them to act
Instruct them to go
Invite them to stay
Lead them to success
Leave them to eat alone
Make him to go to bed
Nag them to get an ice cream
Need her to help
Nominate them to receive an award
Oblige us to visit
Ordered her to come
Permit her to go
Persuade them to visit
Pester her to give an ice cream
Press us to give a donation
Pressure us to give money

11

prod them to complete their work

Program it to accept new data
Prompts us to save money
Provoke us to fight
Push us to dislike
Remind us to see Niagara Falls
School us to learn manners
Second the motion to be passed
Select us to travel
Sentence us to serve a life sentence
Spur on the team to win
Stimulate the economy to grow
Stir the batter to become smooth
Summon us to speak to the president
Teach us to speak Arabic
Tell us to go to the beach
Tempt us to eat candy
Thank him to do the errand
Trouble her to get me a napkin
Trust her to follow through
Urge him to go to a doctor
Warn them to study hard
Will them to become strong
RAISED SUBJECT
These usually follow the form:
verb + noun phrase + to be. I
assumed there to be an error.
This sentence could be better
written as: I assumed there was a
problem or I assume there is a
problem.
Accept, affirm, allege, allow,
announce, argue, ascertain, assert,
assume, attest, believe, cause, certify,
concede, conceive, conclude,
conjecture, consider, declare, deduce,
deem, demonstrate, discern, disclose,
discover, enable, establish, estimate, 1.
fear, find, gather, grant, guarantee,
guess, hold, imagine, intuit, judge, 2.
know, let, make, note, order, permit,
presume, presuppose, proclaim,
3.
pronounce, prove, recognize,
represent, repute, reveal, rule, rumor,
say, show, state, stipulate, suppose,

surmise, suspect, take, think, tip,

4.
understand, verify
OTHER COMPLEX
5.
CATENATIVES
Appeal to her for being merciful
Bank on him going to work
Catch her trying
Count on him coming on time
Depend on her helping us
6.
Depict us needing food
7.
Discovered him driving too fast
8.
Envy us seeing Paris
Excuse us walking here
Feel them staring at us
Find him sleeping at his desk
Forgive me bumping into you
Hear him singing
Keep at him cleaning his room
Notice him walking by the pond
1.
Observe them running
2.
Overhear him yelling
Pardon us sitting here
Picture him riding a horse
9.
Portray him being responsible
Preclude him playing football
3.
Prevent him from going
4.
Prohibit him from singing
Rely on him coming over
See him traveling through the USA
Set him sailing down the river
10.
Smell him cooking
11.
Start it running/start learning/to
learn
Watch it showing the movie
12.
SIMPLE & COMPLEX CATEN.
WITH INFINITIVES
5.
(Sometimes a difference in meaning)
Ache (me) to see
agree She agreed(by contract) to work
aim We aim to please. aim it to
shoot the target.
2.
Apply (oneself) to go to grad school
arrange (with you) to put you here
asked (him) to leave; were asked
to leave

Be dying (for him) to go

beg I beg to differ with you.(set
6.
phrase)
Burst the bubble to reduce its size 13.
afford can afford the money to buy it.
care to choose another one
choose I will go when I choose to go;14.
chose the shoes to wear.
claim to know everything;
claim the doctor knows all
Clamor (up the path) to find
considered (him) working here

dare (him) to climb the tree. He dare

not climb the tree. He didnt dare (to)
climb the tree.
Desire them to come visit
Elect him to lead the nation

expect I expect (him) to receive it.

Get to (Africa) to go backpacking
Have (Sally) to go to the store

help I helped (to) pack her bags.

hope to see her

Itch for her to go swimming
keep trying for him to go outside

Keep on working
Know what to do
Long to go to Africa. (want, desire)
Motion for him to come over
Move to see better/us to study here
Need to do/need him to do
Opt for him to go
Pay for her to see the movie
Petition for her to get hired
Pine for him to come home
Pledge for her to study in the USA
Pray for her to be well
Prepare to help the needy/to go home
3.
Profess (to them) to help
1.
Promised (him) to go/to go
4.
Reckon (them) to be late
5.
Regret (them) leaving Regret is
6.
normally followed by a gerund, except
7.
with tell, say, and inform. I regret
8.
inviting him. I regret to tell you that.
9.
Request him to come in/request to see

Signal him to go
10.
Think to help/think he will help
11.
Train him to perform
2.
Wait for him to finish
12.
Want you to complete
13.
Wish to complain/wish him to be well3.
Yearn for him to return
14.
WITH GERUND OR INFINITIVE15.
(Sometimes a difference in meaning)16.
Acknowledge (him) to be an expert 17.
Advise leaving/him to go
18.
Cant bear (him) leaving/to leave 19.
4.
Cant stand (her) to go/going
20.
Confess taking/confess to be
Encourage getting ready/me to go 21.
intend I intend to finish/finishing this.22.
23.
Like finishing/to finish/them to finish
5.
Loathe to go/(him) going
6.
love him to hug me/to
7.
swim/swimming
24.
mean (for him) to go, means going/
plan playing/(for him) to play rugby
8.
prefer working/(him) to work late.
9.
Proved (it) to be wrong/proved going
25.
was a bad idea
26.
Recommend to wash/washing with
27.
remembered to lock up. (did not
28.
forget) I remember (him) locking the
house. (I can remember that I locked
it.) Note: The imperative takes the to
29.
infinitive: Remember to lock the
10.
house.
11.
Require singing/(him) to arrive
30.
Stop I stopped (it) running/to run
12.
WITH GERUND ONLY
often a difference in meaning
31.
Abhor (him) going
Advocate (him) seeing a specialist
Anticipate (him) having a good time
Appreciate (him) giving help
Begrudge (him) trying to win
Can(t) help (him from ) talking
Celebrate (her) going away to college
Chance (of him) going

Contemplate (her) trying karate

Delay (him) going
Deplore her going out alone at night
Describe him running away
Detest (him) working nights
Discourage her going to college
Discuss (him) opening
dislike (her) working on Sundays.
Dread (him) going alone
Endure (her) speaking
Enjoy (her) going to visit mom
Envisage (him) being an actor
Facilitate (him) going to college
Fancy (her) driving to Dallas
Fear him driving/fear driving
Foresee (him) becoming a pilot
Imagine (her) going to Antarctica
Include (him) coming to the party
Involve (her) singing
Justify (him) going on leave
Mind (Susie) staying over?
misses (Joe) playing soccer
Necessitate (him) stopping
Oppose (him) running for president
Put off (her) seeking election
Recall (them) meeting last year
Recollect (him) seeing
Relish (it) being here
Resent it happening; resent seeing the
mobster happy.
Risk him being hurt; risk tripping
Save (him from) going to the doctor
Support (him) going to college
Tolerate (him) singing
Understand (her) thinking that
way.
Welcome (them) leaving

12

English Parts of Speech

This is a table of the 8 basic parts of speech (there may be 9 or 10).
(These sheets are function-based.)
part of speech function or "job"
example words
example sentences
Verb
action or state
(to) run [active], appear
I do like cookies. They look
[link], do [helping]
lovely.
1
Noun
person, place, thing, or idea pen, music, town, John ,
This is my dog. He lives in my
teacher, swimming2
house. We live in London.
Adjective (inc. modifies/ describes a noun a/an, the, 29, Jons3, red,
The dog is big. Jons car is
3 articles)
or pronoun
Thai4, my5, better6, best7
better. Thai food is best.
Adverb8
modifies/ describes a verb, quickly, well, better6, best7, My dog eats quickly. When he is
adjective or adverb
very, really, no, not, never
very hungry, he eats very quickly.
Pronoun
replaces a noun
I, you, he, she, some, who
Tamara is Canadian. She is pretty.
Preposition
determines relationship
to, at, after, on, but
We went to school on Monday.
between words
Conjunction
joins clauses, sentences or
and, but, when, or
I like dogs and I like cats. He likes
words
cats, but not dogs.
Interjection
short exclamation,
Sick! Tight! Groovy!
Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are
sometimes in a sentence
ouch!, hi!, well, thanks
you? Well, I don't know.
1. prop. noun 2. gerund 3. poss. nouns behave as adj. 4. proper adj. 5. poss. adj. 6. comparative 7. superlative

Pronouns
Please compare personal pronouns with possessive adjectives.

PRONOUNS
number

person
1st

gender*
M/F

you
him
her
it
us
you
them

yours
his
hers
-------none------ours
yours
theirs

yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves

your
his
her
its
our
your
their

object

M/F
you
M
He
3rd
F
She
N
It
1st
M/F
We
plural
2nd
M/F
you
3rd
M/F/N
they
* m=male f=female n=neuter
Pronoun
Subject
examples
Predicate Nominative
singular

Reflexive/
intensive
myself

ADJECTIVES

me

Possessive
PRONOUNS
mine

subject

2nd

She likes homework.

PNs complete the meaning of linking verbs and identifies
The singer is she.
or refers to the subject of the sentence.

Object
Possessive/genitive

The professor gave me an assignment.

This assignment is yours.

Reflexive

Jeff did the assignment himself.

Intensive
Possessive adjective examples

(possessive)
my

He himself cleaned the stove.

The professor corrected our assignment.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
A demonstrative pronoun refers to a noun or pronoun. There are four demonstrative pronouns. They can also be used as
adjectives, depending on how they are used in the sentence.
NEAR
FAR
Singular
this
that
Plural
these
those
You may take those on the table. Note: This apple is red. (adj.) This is red. (pronoun)
eg.
8

Adverbs answer the questions: When? Where? How? Why? Under what conditions? To what degree/extent? How often? How long?
How much? The question words what, where, when, how, why can be adv.; who is a pronoun.

13

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
A reciprocal pronoun helps to refer to the individual parts of a plural referent. There are two reciprocal pronouns, and they
have genitives (indicating a relationship of ownership, possession, or association between one thing and another).
Reciprocal pronouns
each other
one another
Genitive forms
each other's
one another's
eg. The partners trusted each other fully.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
An interrogative pronoun introduces a question. One set of the interrogative pronouns, who, whom and whose, has
distinctions in the Subjective, Objective, Genitive case:
Subjective case
Objective case
Genitive case
Personal
Who, which
Whom, which
Whose
Non-personal
What, which
What, which
Which can be either personal or non-personal: e.g. Which do you prefer? Which did this?
What is normally only non-personal: e.g. What do you want for breakfast?
We use who and whom when we refer to persons:
eg. Who is your favorite rock singer? To whom should we speak?
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
A relative pronoun is used to connect a phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. It also has distinctions in gender
and case.
Subjective case
Objective case
Genitive case
whom/whomever
Personal
who/whoever (that)
whose
(that)
whose
which/whichever
which/whichever
Non-personal
what/whatever/that what/whatever/that
He is the teacher who / that taught me English. (Who is a better choice that that is.)
eg.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
An indefinite pronoun is a word referring to an identifiable, but unspecified person or thing. The most common indefinite
pronouns are:
Positive
Negative
Singular
Another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, enough,
Neither, no one, nobody, nothing
everybody, everyone, everything, less, little, much, one,
other, somebody, someone, something, you (editorial you)
Plural
Both, few, fewer, many, others, several, they (editorial)
-----------------------Singular or plural
All, any (in ?s), more, most, none, some, such
Any (in statements), none
(depends on usage)
Eg. Many have replied to the advertisement and several have been interviewed.
One negative word per sentence, please!
Barely, hardly, neither, never, no, no one, nobody, none, not (nt), nothing, nowhere, scarcely, seldom, rarely

THE THREE KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS: 1) COORDINATING

F A N B O Y S And joins 2 similar ideas. But shows how two ideas are different. Or shows a choice between 2 ideas.
When using a conjunction to join 2 sentences, use a comma before the conjunction. Do not begin a
or and nor but or yet so sentence with a coordinating conjunction. It is acceptable to begin a sentence with subordinating
conjunctions (see examples).
. 2) SOME CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
both...and
not only...but also Notbut
Either...or
neither...nor
Asas
whether...or
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs and join similar items. When joining singular and plural subjects with or or nor, the
subject closest to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural.
CONJUNCTIONS
WHAT IS LINKED
SAMPLE SENTENCE
both...and
Subject + subject
Both my sister and my brother play the piano.
either...or
Noun + noun
Tonight's program is either Mozart or Beethoven.
Eitheror
Verb + verb
You may either walk or bike to school.

14

3) SOME SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Subordinating conj., (subordinators) are most important in creating subordinating/dependent clauses. These adverbs that function like
conj. are placed at the front of the clause. Relative pronouns also introduce dependent clauses.
Subordinating Conjunctions (Some of the below came be in more than one column/category.)
Time
Reason/Cause/
ConPlace
Condition/Degree
Manner
Contrast/
Purp./Result
cession
(Creates COND MOOD)
Opposition
after once
because since
although
where
if
lest
unless
as if
even
before
so () that
though
wherever only if
in case (that)
when
as
though
since when
such () that
even
provided that
than
assuming that
though
while
whenever
in order that
though
in case
even if
until
how
whereas
while until
why as so while
inasmuch as
whether
insofar as
just as
than
as as . . . as
now that for even if
to the extent that on the condition that
as

THE SYNTAX OF COMPLEX SENTENCES, WHICH CONTAIN SUBORDINATE/DEPENDENT CLAUSES

All or part of
Rest of
HEAD
SUBVERB of clause
main clause
main clause
WORD6
JECT
+ rest of adj. cl.
The man
is there.
ADJECTIVE (RELATIVE) CLAUSE1
who
---saw us
restrictive subject
The woman
is my teacher.
(who)7
---(is) wearing red
A tuna
was caught.
that7
weighs7 200 lbs
A fish
that
weighing 200 lbs was caught.
restrictive object relative clause
The man
is there.
(whom)2, 7 I
Saw
restrictive indirect object relative clause
The girl
is there.
to whom2
we
gave the candy
restrictive object of the preposition
The people
are tall.
at whom2
he
is looking
restrictive possessive relative clause
The lady
is here.
whose
brother
works at DLI
The paper
was fantastic.
which
he
wrote
restrictive comparative clause
The girl
is here.
(that)
Susan
ran faster than
restrictive adjective clauses introduced by other
This is the house
where
I
am living.
adverbs
That is the reason
(why)
he
didnt come.
Can you tell me
when
we
can meet?
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: Three NON-REFERENTIAL IT (dummy it, anticipatory it) constructions4
1. Cleft Sentences (has a relative clause)
It was my son
who
--turned 8.
2. Extraposed (SUBJUNCTIVE here & complement clause)
It is important
(that)
we
be on time.
3. Raised Subject
It seems
(that)
Liz
convinced them.
ADVERB CLAUSES3 Subordinating
I ate my breakfast
while
I
was on hold.
conjunctions are adverbs that create
I love Picassos art
because
he
uses color so boldly.
dependent clauses and complex sentences.
Water boils
CONDITIONALS SENTENCES (see p.7-8)
if
it
reaches 100 C.
The main clauses below are in affirmative sentence order, but are not generally independent, stand-alone sentences.
NOUN CLAUSE5 wh sample (info?)
He wondered
who
she
was.
is kind.
Noun clause (with adverb head) as subject
---------------What
you
are saying
embedded question, if/whether yes/no
Can you tell me
if/whether he
is here?
reported speech example >>>> (info ?)
He asked
who
----would go to dinner.
reported speech, yes/no ? >>>>
She asked
if
they
would come home.
that type
I think/believe/doubt (that)
she
called.
reported speech example>>>>
Scientists said
(that)
earth
is round.
Infinitive nouns clause4
It is foolish
--------------to follow her advice.
Reported speech infinitive
He asked me
to use color.
Gerund noun clause as a subject5
Following her advice is foolish.
Infinitive noun clause as subject
To follow her advice
is foolish.
1 Adjective clauses replace adjectives, but usually follow the nouns they modify. Relative clauses have the same basic structure: Head word + (usually) subject + verb.
2. Used in formal speech and writing/old-fashioned. 3.Adverb clauses glue sentences together and are headed by adverbs; they are like adverbs in that they tell
why, how when, etc. 4. Can be rewritten as canonical: My son turned 8. That we be on time is important. Liz seems to have convinced them. 5. Noun clauses replace
nouns, often do not have head words or finite verbs, can be interchangeable, and can be in various parts in a sentence. 6. Often adverb, many options here. 7. These
sentences can be reduced in some cases. Also, relative clauses can be stacked or strung together: The folks who read the paper that we dont like live over there.

1 Non-restrictive:
Restrictive:

My brother, who lives in Maine, loves to fish.

My brother who lives in Maine loves to fish.

There is more than one brother and the person listening knows the one who loves to fish.
There may only be one brother and the person listening is just learning that the brother
loves to fish. That cannot be used to in nonrestrictive relative clauses.

15

Conjunctive Adverbs (presented for comparison)

accordingly, additionally, again, also, anyway, as a result, at the same time, besides, certainly, comparatively, consequently, contrarily, conversely,
elsewhere, equally, finally, further, furthermore, hence, henceforth, however, identically, in addition, in comparison, in contrast, in fact,
incidentally, indeed, instead, just as, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, notably, now, on the contrary, on the
other hand, otherwise, rather, similarly, so, still, subsequently, that is, then, thereafter, thereafter, therefore, thus, undoubtedly, uniquely, yet
Conjunctive adverbs are used to connect sentences. Example: I prefer to eat my breakfast at the dining room table; however, I often eat in front of the television. (This
example shows two sentences/independent clauses connected by a conjunctive adverb.)

SEQUENCING ADVERBS: after, after that, afterwards, again, alphabetically, before, chronologically, consequently, eventually, finally,
first, first of all, firstly, to start off with, initially, for another thing, for one thing, fourthly, in the end, eventually, lastly, in the first place, last,
lastly, lexicographically, next, ninthly, on the one hand, on the other hand, second, secondly, serially, suddenly, unexpectedly, tenthly, then,
after that, next, as soon as / when (+ full clause), ... but then, immediately, third, thirdly, while / as (+ full clause), during + noun (noun
clause)

COMMON PREPOSITIONS (list from Lindstromberg)

aboard
about
above
according to
across
across from
after
against
along

Alongside
Along with
amid
amidst
among
amongst
around
as
as far as

as for
as to
astride
at
atop
bar
barring
before
behind

below
beneath
beside
besides
between
betwixt
beyond
but
by

circa
close to
concerning
considering
despite
down
during
except
except far

excepting
excluding
failing
for
from
in
for
from
in

in between
inside
into
like
minus
near
next to
notwithstanding
of

off
on
onto
opposite
out
out of
outside
over
past

pending
per
plus
regarding
round
sans
save
since
sub-

than
Through
Throughout
til
To
toward
towards
under
underneath

unlike
until
Up
Up agaainst
upon
up to
versus
via

vis--vis
-ward
When
While
with
within
without
worth

(Do not say inside of or outside ofjust inside and outside)

Prepositions make up perhaps the most difficult part of speech for and English Learner to use naturally. One may listen to native speech, use books on tape, and study
collocations to acquire a native way of using prepositions. Another piece of the puzzle that may help to use prepositions properly is from Dr. Lindstromberg on prototypal
semantics. He believes that there are general abstract concepts that are covered by prepositions. Generally, prepositions that express identical concepts are
interchangeable. His classes are discussed below:
Accompany/accessory together/with
Walking together/with someone.
Activity/event
at, in, on
At five PM. At the Great Wall.,
In doing that. While doing that.
On/when walking to school.
Accompaniment/addition (no neg.)
On top of/with/along with/together with the snow
storm and other bad news
Agent/cause/means by, from
...written by Mr. Smith.
come by plane
encouragement from the evidence

Ingredient/part
from, of, out of, with
from milkof wood
out goldwith natural flavors
Physical Contact/impact against, on(to)
stand against corruption
hold a grudge against somewhat
talk on something.keep an eye on it
we got onto the topic of
Continuation/repetition/resume
along, away, over walk along with us
Ask away! (set phrase)
go onsing onget on with someone
I had to do it over.
Can I have a do-over? (informal)

Link events in time/circumstance At, by, in, on

at that, he laughedby dayin/on learning of his
lay-offrely onon arrival
Manner/way/instrument At, in, with
being at speedat pace They lived in/with
style. with scissorswith flairwith all this
snow
Method/instrument By, through, with
by broiling itby car/designby cutting it
through hard worktrim it with hedge clippers
Purpose/reason/function/target For, to
went for a walkwent to buy groceries
Recipient

Allotment/mapping for, to
for Mr. Smith.
to each his own (set phrase)
A corresponds to B.
Basis/foundation on
on the basison the table.
depends/relies/founded on.
Belong/possessing at moment
Of, on, to, with
with blonde hair
This is part of the car; it belongs to the car.
I have no money on me. (informal)
Cause/reason/agent/circumstance
By, from, of, out of, over, with
by roteby carmade money from it
die of pneumonia.do it out of concern
fight over the caketremble with love.
Circumstance/situation/manner
By, with, under
...under construction
By accidentwith arms wide open

Ear-marking/allocation for
for Bobbound for Glory
Evidence/logical grounds/reason from, off
From the evidence, we see that
You cant conclude that off his statement.
Focus of attention/target/topic
About, at, in/into, on, over, to, toward
fight aboutwild aboutgood atlook at
interested in religion.look into it
keep an eye on itthink overlook to
someone for supportattitude toward work
Function/purpose/reason for
The couch is for sleeping on.
Image of

picture ofunderstanding of.

Physical impact/contact Against, into, on(to)

ran into the streetlamp
hit ones elbow against/on the desk

To

Please give it to Bob.

State/circumstance At, on, in, under

at easeat seaon guard/displayin troublein
search ofunder scrutinyunder pressure
Target/goal/focus At, on
be surprised atcompliment on
Topic/main idea About, of, on, over
I have been thinking of/about you. spoke on the
topic....
Value/rank (sets of opposites)
Above/beneath, down/up, on/off, over/under, in/out,
in front of/behind, forward/backward
above reproachbeneath contemptfeeling
upfeeling downfeeling off todayon top of the
worldover the moonunder stressin fashion
out of orderbeing out in front of the
packbehind the eight ballforward thinking
backward people

16

If one broadens the view of prepositions to be the head of a phrase, as Huddleston and Pullum do, one may
add these words and phrases to a list of prepositions and similar phrases:
Abreast
Abroad
Absent
Abstain
According
Adjacent
Adrift
Aft
Afterward
Ago
Aground
Ahead
Ahead
Ahead of
Allowing
Aloft
Alongside
Anti
Apart
Apart from
As for
As from
As per
As to
As well as
Ashore
Aside
Aside
Aside from
At (the) risk of
At first
At the behest of
At the hands of
At last
At loggerheads with
At odds with
At the behest of
At the expense of
At the hands of
At the opposite end
At the other end
At the risk of
At variance of
At variance with
Away
Away from
Back
Back away
Back off
Backwards
Ban
Bar
Barring,
Because
Because of
Beforehand
Block

But
By (force) of
By dint of
By means of
By the force of
By virtue of
By way of
Cattycorner
Cease
Close
Concerning,
Consequent,
Contrary
Contrary to
Counter
Counting,
Delay
Depending on
Desist
Discourage
Disqualify
Dissuade
Distract
Divert
Downhill
Downstage
Downstairs
Downstream
Downwards
Downwind
Draw back
Due
Due to
East
Eastwards
Effective,
Enjoin
Except
Excepting,
Exclude
Excluding,
Exclusive
Exempt
Failing,
Far
Far from
Following
For (the) sake of
For all
For certain
For fear
For free
For sure
For the sake of
For want of
For/from want of
Forbid

Forth
Forward
Forward of
Further
Given
Gone (Brit.Eng.),
Granted
Hang back
Heavenwards
Hence
Henceforth
Here
Hereat
Hereby
Herefrom
Herein
Hereof
Hereon
Hereto
Herewith
Hinder
Hold back
Hold off
Home
Homewards
In (the) face of
In (the) front (of)
In (the) light of
In (the) process of
In accordance with
In accordance with
In addition to
In aid of
In back of
In between
In brief
In case
In case of
In charge of
In comparison with
In compliance with
In conformity with
In consequence of
In contact with
In exchange for
In favor of
In front of
In full
In league with
In lieu of
In line with
In order
In place of
In private
In quest of
In relation to
In return for

In search of
In short
In spite of
In step with
In terms of
In the back of
In the bottom of
In the event
In the face of
In the light of
In the middle of
In the midst of
In the name of
In the process
In touch with
In two minds
In vain
In view of
In/on behalf of
In/with reference (to)
In/with regard to
In/with respect to
Including,
Indoors
Inhibit
Inside
Instead
Instead of
Into
Inward
Inwards
Irrespective
Irrespective of
Keep
Leftwards
Near
Near to
Nearby
Next
North
Northwards
Now
Of late
Of old
On (the) ground(s) of
On account of
On behalf of
On board
On condition
On pain of
On the basis
On the grounds
On the grounds of
On the inside of
On the part of
On the strength of
On top of

Onto/ on to
Onwards
Opposite to
Opposite,
Other than
Out
Out from
Out of
Outdoors
Outside
Outward
Outwards
Overboard
Overhead
Overland
Overseas
Owing
Owing to
Percent Off
Pertaining
Pertaining to
Preclude
Preliminary
Preparatory
Preparatory to
Prevent
Previous
Prior
Prior to
Prohibit
Protect
Pursuant
Pursuant to
Pursuant,
Re
Recoil
Refrain
Regarding,
Regardless
Regardless of
Relating to
Respecting,
Restrain
Restrict
Rightwards
Save for
Saving,
Seawards
Shrink
Shy away
Skywards
South
Southwards
Step back
Stop
Subsequent
Subsequent to

Thanks
Thanks to
That of
Then
Thence
Thenceforth
There
Thereat
Thereby
Therefrom
Therein
Thereof
Thereon
Thereto
Therewith
To the effect (of)
Together
Together with
Touching,
Unbeknown(st)
Under the aegis of
Under the auspices of
Underfoot
Underground
Up against
Up to
Up until
Uphill
Upon
Upstage
Upstairs
Upstream
Upward(s)
Upwind
Wanting,
West
Westwards
When
Whence
Where
Whereat
Whereby
Wherefrom
Wherein
Whereof
Whereon
Whereto
Wherewith
With a view to
With effect from
With regard to
With respect to
With the exception of
Withdraw
COMPLEMENTATION
Amid(st)
Among(st)

As
At
Bar
Beside
Come
Despite
During
Ere
From
Into
Less
Like
Minus
Of
Onto
Per
Plus
Save
Than
Till
Times
Unlike
Until
Upon
Versus
Via
With
la
Chez
Circa
Contra
Modulo
Pace
Re
Sana
Vis--vis
MODIFICATION
Around
Between (+ andcoordination)
Close to
Fromto
In excess of
Over
Under
Up to

Words can be more than one part of speech, according to how they are used.
word
Read

But

Part of speech
Noun
Verb
Conjunction
Preposition
Noun
Adverb
Noun

Example These are just a few examples. There are more, even for some of these words.
That book was a good read.
Please read chapter 3 for tomorrow.
Joan came but Michele didn't come.
Everyone came but Michelle.
No buts about it.
There is but one answer.
In Scotland, ones kitchen in a cottage is called a but.

REFERENCES/ADAPTED FROM:
2000+ Essential English Verbs, by Living Language (2009).
501 ENGLISH Verbs, T.R. Beyer Jr. Barron's Educational Series; 2nd edition (2007).
The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, by Huddleston & Pullum, Cambridge UP (2002).
English Prepositions Explained, by Seth Lindstromberg, John Benjamins Publishing Co. (1998).
Modals and Quasi-modals in English, by Peter Collins. Rodopi (2009).
Mood and Modality, by F R Palmer. Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (2001).
Grammar Sense 3, by Susan Kesler Bland. Oxford UP (2004).
Premium-Verbtabellen Englisch, by Lutz Walther. Langenscheidt (2009).
The Teacher's Grammar of English., by Ron Cowan. Canbridge (2008).
Understanding and Using English Grammar, by Betty Azar. Pearson ESL; 4th edition (2009).

http://crab.rutgers.edu (modals, subjunctive) page no longer available

http://hi2en.com/grammar.aspx?Id=75 (subjunctive)
http://www.athabascau.ca/courses/engl/155/support/verb_tenses.htm (verb tenses)
http://www.brighthub.com/(catenatives, quasi modals, etc)
http://www.broward.edu, (conditional mood) page no longer available
http://www.englishclub.com, (parts of speech, pronouns)
http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwesl/egw/bryson.htm (conjunctions)
www.englishpage.com, (conditionals, modals)
www.orlapubs.com (subjunctive) page no longer available