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Journal of Contemporary
History, 12 (1977),
255-272
256
significance of India which was, as they knew well, not only Britain's
most important possession but the only section of the empire which
could immediately contribute a trained and coherent military force to
the war effort. Moreover, the Indian experience is important because
several of the key personnel involved survived to become active in
Soviet plans for disruption, in the colonial world in the 1920s. But it is
the richness of the documentation which makes the story of Germany's
Indian involvement not only interesting but as complete as it is possible
to make the history of events which were inherently secret. In comparison with, for example, their files on Ireland, the records of the
Auswartiges Amt on Indian revolution are extensive and revealing.
These microfilms are complemented on the British side by some thirty
volumes of Foreign Office documents devoted to the subject, and by
embassy and consular records which not only emphasise British concern
but contain invaluable material on revolutionary nationalism not otherwise available to South Asian historians. Finally, the India Office
Library possesses the transcript of the trial of Indian revolutionaries
and their German associates held in San Francisco in 1918. Though
basically a 'show trial' staged for propaganda reasons, its records have
much to tell about German activities in the United States. It is from
this material that the following account of attempted German subversion in India has been written.. Its purpose is to illustrate the
realism and flexibility of German and British officialdom as they
attempted to come to terms with an unfamiliar aspect of warfare.
Hopefully, it will also not only assist in understanding the small groups
of Indian revolutionary exiles who saw in German co-operation an unimagined opportunity of furthering their country's freedom but indicate
certain links between these events and subversion as it later developed.
From the first days of the war the Germans knew that Britain's
apparently strong position in India might by skilful manipulation be
made into a liability. As early as 1912 the polemicist General von
Bernhardi had pointed to the possibility of using pan-Islamic and
Bengali revolutionaries to German advantage.2 It is not altogether
surprising to find the Kaiser expressing similar sentiments on the fateful
night of 30-31 July 1914 when he learned that Russian mobilization
was irrevocable.3 It was only when he has become convinced of
Britain's resolve to fight the war a outrance that Bethmann Hollweg
officially sanctioned on 4 September a campaign of unrest in India and
Egypt.4 Before this, however, the Auswartiges Amt's eastern expert,
Max von Oppenheim, had begun to approach Indian exiles living in
Germany to form a committee. A former official of the Cairo con-
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Kabul and Baghdad in 1915 and 1916 but they were little more than
token gestures. The presence in Berlin of men like Chattopadhyaya and
Har Dayal ensured that the main German plans concerning India
operated through the established revolutionary networks in the United
States, East Asia and Bengal.
The advantages of using the United States as a revolutionary base
were considerable. Its anti-colonialist traditions ensured that many
public figures, including the Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan,
and
influential
Indian
with
Irish-Americans,
sympathized
nationalism.1 7 The Germans could hope that their support for the
Indians might help counter allied propaganda which portrayed them as
the oppressor of defenceless nations. On the other hand, they went to a
great deal of trouble to disguise acts which they knew were in breach
of American neutrality legislation. Even after the war, the ambassador,
Count Bernstorff, denied any knowledge of the 'so-called Indian
conspiracy', although the records reveal his intimate knowledge of the
various attempts to send arms to India from the United States. 8 His
two subordinates most concerned with these schemes were the military
attache, Franz von Papen, and the consul in San Francisco, Franz
Bopp, whose task was to concert measures with the Ghadr leader, Ram
Chandra.
In East Asia the Germans, though faced with the preponderant
power of Britain and Japan, managed to retain some assets even after
the loss of their stronghold of Tsingtao. From their foothold in the
Shanghai International Settlement they could hope to exploit China's
instability to secure sympathy and arms from men sympathetic to
Asian nationalism. Moreover, the Ghadr party was strongly supported
by the country's Sikhs. Because of these assumed advantages the
consul-general in Shanghai, Knipping, was given control of the various
Indian revolutionary schemes.19 His authority extended to the
Netherlands East Indies and Thailand, both of which enjoyed the advantages of neutrality and may crudely be termed the German 'forward
bases'. The former had a vigorous Austro-German community of over
six hundred adult males led by the brothers Emil and Theodor
Helfferich.20 The Helfferichs, whose brother Karl Helfferich was
Secretary for Finance in the German government, were ardent patriots
who knew that Holland's uneasy relationship with Germany ensured
they could work unhindered. They could also establish contact with
revolutionaries in India through the old-established trading routes
between Sumatra and Calcutta. Unlike the East Indies, Thailand had
no sizeable German community from which recruits could come, but
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tiring of her barren vigil at Socorro, eventually sailed to Java where her
arrival without the weapons proved a bitter blow to plans the Helfferich
brothers were arranging with revolutionaries in Bengal.
As these events developed over nearly seven months, Papen was slow
to realize the failure of his plan, and even before this had become
apparent he was preparing another. At the end of April 1915, a second
arms shipment, consisting of 7,300 Springfield rifles, 1,920 pistols and
ten gatling guns with nearly 3,000,000 cartridges was assembled by
Tauscher.3 On this occasion, Papen intended the plan to be a much
simpler affair -- the arms would be shipped to Soerabaya in the East
Indies on the Holland-America steamship Djember which was to leave
New York on 15 June.32 His plan avoided the tortured manoeuvres
which had bedevilled Jebsen on the west coast but it ignored the
obvious fact that a large cargo of arms consigned to a sensitive area of
the world was bound to attract the attention of British intelligence. The
consul-general in New York, Sir Courtenay Bennett, controlled a
network of agents who investigated all goods and passengers about to
leave the port. These men traced the projected cargo to Tauscher,
whom they knew to be a German agent, and Bennett passed this
information to the Holland-America Line.33 When the trucks arrived
at the quayside with the arms of the Djember, Tauscher's men were
told the company were refusing to honour the contract.34 Papen's
second scheme was altogether more discreet than his first; indeed he
refrained from mentioning it in his memoirs, but its collapse was just
as final.
These two affairs were scarcely examples of a dynamic Weltpolitik;
basically, they reflect the inability of an ad hoc organization to sustain
such sophisticated plans. With the exception of Papen's skill in
assembling the arms, German actions were naive and inept. Jebsen
complicated his plan in a way which was perhaps unnecessary and his
choice of the arid Socorro as a rendezvous was an error as basic as
Papen's inability to anticipate the vigilance of British intelligence.
These flaws in execution were compounded by their willingness to
despatch the Maverick with only the haziest instructions as to her final
destination, based on an uncritical acceptance of Ram Chandra's menda.cious reports. When all this has been said, however, the basic German calculation that a major revolutionary outbreak in India would need the
assistance of a large scale arms shipment was correct. It was on the understanding that this was being organized in the United States that they initiated two ambitious plans based on Thailand and the Netherlands East Indies.
In the spring of 1915 the Germans managed to contact Jatin
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Journalof ContemporaryHistory
267
Sachsen and Suevia, which had been carrying arms to China when the
outbreak of war had forced them to take refuge. In early July their
cargoes were transferred to a schooner for shipment to Thailand but
the American customs, aware of what was being attempted, refused
the vessel clearance.56 American neutrality did not extend to the
promotion of Asian nationalism. Their quiet, but effective, intervention
discouraged Wehde, Boehm and Sterneck from further participation in
the plan.
In Thailand itself there was greater initial success. The consul,
Remy, established a headquarters in the jungle near the Burmese
border where Ghadrites arriving from China and Canada were sent
for training.57 The Indian CID later estimated that by the end of
April 1915 over a hundred revolutionaries had passed through
Bangkok, a total which does not include Ghadrites already resident,
a group which went direct to Burma or those who arrived after that
date.58 If the Ghadrites did their utmost, so did the Germans.
Knipping sent three members of the Peking embassy guard to train
and lead the revolutionaries and persuaded a sympathetic Norwegian
ship's officer to smuggle arms regularly from Swatow.59 By late July,
with a sizeable group of armed Ghadrites near the Burmese border,
the Germans were as close to achieving an uprising in the Indian empire
as they would ever be.
Once again, however, their assumptions were unreal. They do not
appear to have considered the subtle relationship between the Indian
empire and Thailand which then, as now, adjusted its foreign policy to
accommodate the needs of its most powerful neighbour. Thai
dependence on British India meant that their principal police officers
were British who became aware of a major movement of revolutionaries
as early as March. Their information led to the arrest of over twenty
Ghadrites in Burma.60 In June an Indian secret agent posing as a
revolutionary was sent to Bangkok where he learned the main details
of the German plan from the Austrian charge d'affaires.6 1 Despite the
fact that the use of an Indian agent should have been an obvious
British ruse, no one suspected him. His reports coincided with the
arrival in Bangkok of a new British minister, Herbert Dering, who was
determined to suppress the plot. On 21 July he presented the Minister
for Foreign Affairs, Prince Devawongse, with a request for the arrest
and extradition of a number of Ghadrites identified by the secret
agent.62 There was no problem. At the beginning of August six leading
revolutionaries were arrested, to be followed by some fifty others.
The disheartened remainder fled to China, only six Ghadrites making
268
a forlorn raid into Burma where they were hanged after being betrayed
by men of an Indian mountain battery. Once the plan had been uncovered by the British, its destruction by the Thai government was
certain, as they could not afford to allow such a quixotic raid from
their territory. In planning such an operation the Germans should have
realized that, although Holland's delicate position in Europe enabled
them to work unhindered in the East Indies, they had no such advantage in Bangkok or, as it proved, in Manila.
The reason why Germany's Indian endeavours were so consistently
unsuccessful are clear: inefficient personnel, inability to detect treason
in their own ranks, underestimation of the efficiency of British
intelligence and a false idea of how certain neutral countries would
react. These lacunae ensured that they could not overcome the basic
problem of India's remoteness from Germany. If their over-optimistic
assessment of revolutionary potential in India are also taken into
account, then the overall impression is one of naivety and
incompetence. Their efforts left India's war effort unaffected; instead,
German officials in various countries had been revealed indulging in
unneutral practices which duly formed the basis of British memoranda
in Washington, the Hague and elsewhere. Papen's activities reinforced
the general picture of bungling German interference with American
neutrality which was being carefully built up by British and pro-allied
propagandists. In this sense the Indian plots contributed to American
alienation from Germany and, though they were not a major reason for
her belligerency, once hostilities had broken out they were usefully
exploited to show doubting Americans how their new enemy had
abused their benevolent neutrality. The resources of the British and
American intelligence services were combined to make the trial in
San Francisco of Ghadr and the German plotters one of the longest in
American legal history, given heightened drama by a disgruntled
Ghadrite assassinating Ram Chandra in the courtroom.
But if the Germans lost rather than gained from their Indian policy,
they had set in motion a chain of events which did not stop when their
Indian committee was formally disbanded in November 1918. As their
interest declined after the end of 1915, their Indian proteges came
to focus their hopes on revolutionary Russia. It was hardly surprising
that the internationalist left attracted the revolutionaries more than
imperialist Germany. Between 1917 and 1920, most of the survivors
became strongly attracted to communism, seeing Russia as the new
patron of colonial revolution. In the 1920s the revived Ghadr
party openly proclaimed its new communist beliefs, an intellectual
269
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Journal of Contemporary
History
NOTES
Documents from the German Foreign Microfilm are identified by the reel and
frame numbers, e.g. GFM 397/00413. References to Foreign Office documents
in the Public Record Office, London, have the series, followed by the volume
and documents numbers, e.g. FO 371/2784(8266). References to documents in
the India Office Library and Records, London, are prefixed by the letters IOR,
e.g. IOR.MSS.EUR.C.138.
1. See L.F. Rushbrook Williams, Pakistan under Challenge, (London 1975).
Professor Williams, who was the Government of India's first Director of Information from 1920-26, has been an informed observer of Soviet-backed subversion
for over half a century.
2. General Friedrich von Bernhardi, Germany and the Next War, (Stuttgart
1912, English edition 1914), 96.
3. See Michael Balfour, The Kaiser and His Times, (London 1964), 352.
4. Bethmann Hollweg to Auswartiges Amt, 4 September 1914, GFM 397/
00326.
5. For a sketch of Oppenheim's career see R.L. Melka, 'Max Freiherr von
Oppenheim; Sixty Years of Scholarship and Political Intrigue in the Middle East'
in Middle Eastern Studies, IX, January 1973, 81-93.
6. Polizeirat Henning to Oppenheim, 15 September 1914, GFM 397/00352;
J. Nehru, An Autobiography, (London 1936), 151-52.
7. Memorandum by Oppenheim, 8 September 1914, GFM 397/00332;
Request by Indian Committee for access to Konigliche Bibliothek, 5 March 1915,
GFM 397/00786.
8. 'Bhadralok' means 'respectable people' and describes a Hindu social
group drawn from the three dominant castes of Bengal, the baidyas, kayasthas
and brahmans. Amongst their attitudes was contempt for the Muslim majority of
the Bengali population - a factor which affected German plans.
9. For a discussion of the origins of the Ghadr movement see the author's
unpublished University of London PhD thesis 'The Intrigues of the German
Government and the Ghadr Party Against British Rule in India, 1914-1918'
(1974).
10. Oppenheim on Krishnavarma, 21 November 1914, GFM 397/00413.
11. V.C. Joshi (ed.), Lajpat Rai: Autobiographical Writings, (Delhi 1965),
198-99.
12. It was assumed during the war that Har Dayal was the inspiration behind
the committee. The German documents make it plain that this was not the case.
13. Miiller had a distinguished career at Oxford. His memorial is the classic
series of volumes, Sacred Books of the East.
14. For the development of Germany's cultural links with India see W.
Leifer, India and the Germans, (Bombay 1971).
1914-18
271
15. 'Die politische Lage in Indien nach Ausbruch des Krieges', Count Thurn,
5 December 1914, GFM 397/00502-6.
16. See note 8. Nor could the Sikhs of the Ghadr party be expected to favour
a Muslim approach.
17. In 1915 German propagandists reissued a pamphlet attacking British
rule in India written by Bryan nine years previously, to his considerable
embarrassment. See Bryan to Spring Rice, 16 August 1915, FO 371/2495
(123305).
18. Count Bernstorff, My Three Years in America, (London n.d.), 102.
19. 'Eine kurze Zusammenfassung der Plane des indischen Committees in
Berlin', n.d. (? December 1914), GFM 397/00461-8.
20. 'List of Germans, Austrians, Turks and Pro-Enemy Residents in the
Netherlands East Indies', Singapore 1917, FO 371/3065(60854).
21. Franz von Papen, Memoirs, (London 1952), 40.
22. Memorandum by Wesendonck, 18 October 1914, GFM 397/00390-1.
23. Testimony of H. Muck, Ghadr Trial, IOR.MSS.EUR.C.138, II 929;
Bernstorff to Auswartiges Amt, 20 October 1914, GFM 397/00473; Papen to
Auswartiges Amt, 11 February 1915, GFM 397/00772.
24. Testimony of J.B. Starr-Hunt, Ghadr Trial, IOR.MSS.EUR.C.138, VI
3085; Papen to Auswartiges Amt, 11 February 1915, GFM 397/00772. In this
document he gives the destination as Bangkok but in his memoirs refers to it as
Karachi.
25. Joshi, op. cit. 203-4.
26. Testimony of M. Martinez, Ghadr Trial, IOR.MSS.EUR.C.138, IV,
1953 -2002.
27. Papen to Auswartiges Amt, 24 March 1915, GFM 398/0046-8.
28. Testimony of P.H. Schluter, Ghadr Trial, IOR.MSS.EUR.C.138, VIII,
3799-3802.
29. Testimony of J.B. Starr-Hunt, Ghadr Trial, IOR.MSS.EUR.C.138, VI,
3084-3101.
30. Testimony of G. Kotzenberg, Ghadr Trial, IOR.MSS.EUR.C.138, II,
9834. This contains Othmer's diary of the voyage.
31. Testimony of H. Muck, Ghadr Trial, IOR.MSS.EUR.C.138, II, 930.
32. Papen to Auswartiges Amt, 31 May 1915, GFM 398/00176.
33. Memorandum by Bennett, 1 July 1915, FO 115/1895 ('Enemy Arms'
171).
34. Testimony of H. Muck, Ghadr Trial, IOR.MSS.EUR.C.138, II, 920.
35. M.N. Roy, Memoirs (Delhi 1964),82.
36. Memorandum by Oppenheim, 4 February 1915, GFM 397/00668.
37. J.C. Ker, Political Trouble in India, 1907-1917 (Calcutta 1917), 277.
Indian Independence Committee to Wesendonck, 7 April 1916, enc. report from
Harish Chandra, GFM 398/00608-12.
38. Statement of P.K. Chakravarti, 17 December 1915, FO 371/2788
(152538); Sedition Committee Report, (Calcutta 1918), 82.
39. Beckett to FO, 2 July 1915, FO 371/2494(106706).
40. Ker, op. cit., 279-80.
41. 'Andamanen', 4 May 1915, GFM 398/00090.
42. Kraft to Wesendonck, 12 April 1915, GFM 398/00057.
43. Memorandum by Indian Committee, 28 April 1915, GFM 398/00072.
272
Journal of Contemporary
History