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were V is the volume, r is the mass density, and bi are the vector components of the body force reckoned per unit mass.
The second, and in reality more common, force we deal with in biosolid mechanics is the surface force. Surface forces typically occur
due to contact between two bodies, or due to fluid pressure on a solid body. In biosolid mechanics, we see surface forces develop on
skeletal joint surfaces due to contact between two joints. We also see stresses develop on skeletal tissue due to muscle forces generated
that are transmitted to bones through tendons. Muscle is a unique tissue in that it can actively generate forces. However, a the
microstructural level the mechanism of force generation is actually contact between two muscle proteins, actin and myosin. Surface forces
on arteries and in the lung alveoli are developed due to blood fluid and gas pressure, respectively, on these tissues. Finally, surface forces
on tissues may also be developed by contact of the human body with external objects, as occurs in a variety of sports and in car crashes.
Surface forces are reckoned or written per unit area. Therefore, to determine the total surface force we integrate over the area:
where S is the surface area and ti are the components of the surface force vector.
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Each traction vector in 3D will have three components. These three components can be are shown below on the cube:
Note that since we are dealing with continuum mechanics, we assume that the volume of the cube can be sequentially shrunk down to a
point, if the volume is homogeneous. In reality, this is generally not the case, especially in biologic tissues. However the concept of stress
so defined is still very useful for engineering analysis of tissue mechanics. More advanced concepts of multiscale continuum analysis are
considered in the advanced course BME 456.
When the material cube shown above is shrunk to an infinitesimal point, then three components of each of the traction vectors on the cube
face become the nine components of a second order stress tensor. It is important to note that this stress tensor is always defined in the
deformed state of the material, and is known as the Cauchy stress tensor. This definition will become important when we deal with
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small versus large deformation mechanics. The 2nd order Cauchy stress tensor may be written in matrix form as:
From the tetrahedral geometry, we can induce the fact that the three components of the normal vector n lie along the x1, x2 and x3 axes.
These components may be written as:
We can also see that the altitude of the tetrahedral, ON with length h, is a leg of each of the three right triangles ANO, BNO, and CNO,
with hypotenuses OA, OB, OC. Thus, the length h can also be written as:
We also know from basic geometry that the volume of a tetrahedral is one third the base times. If we first consider the height as h, we can
write the tetrahedral volume as:
If we next consider the height to be OA, and the base S1, we have:
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If we then substitute for h in the volume expression the results relating h to each of the normal components we have:
These geometric relationships will be useful for establishing the balance of forces as described next.
There is an arbitarily oriented traction vector on the largest face that is balanced by traction vectors on the three orthogonal faces:
We know that each of the traction forces, s, s1, s2, and s3 have are vectors whose components may be rendered along the three
orthogonal axes. We can then, according to Newton's 1st law of physics, write the balance of forces in terms of each one of these
components. Since the surface forces are reckoned per unit area, we must multiply each surface traction component by the surface area
on which it acts. Also, since body forces are reckoned per unit mass, we must multiply the body forces by the mass. Thus, we may write
the balance of forces in the x1 direction as:
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If we substitute for delta V, S1,S2 and S3 with delta S using the relationships we derived from the tetrahedral geomety, we obtain:
Since delta S now multiplies all terms, we can divide delta S out from the equations to leave:
Now, since we are operating under a continuum assumption, we will assume that we can shrink the tetrahedron to a point, and that the
material contained within the tetrahedron will remain homogenous. Also, since the traction vectors s and t represent average forces over
the face areas, there averages will converge to a single value as the volume of the tetrahedron shrinks to zero. Thus, in the limit, the base
areas and the height of the tetrahedron will approache zero. Any terms multiplied by the height or base area will become zero in the limit.
In the above equations, the body force terms become zero as we shrink the tetrahedron. This leaves the following:
At this point we note that the three components of the traction vector on the orthogonal surfaces are essentially equivalent to the 2nd
order stress tensor as the tetrahedron is shrunk to a point. Thus, we can write the three components of the three traction vectors as
components of the nine element 2nd order stress tensor and re-write the balance of force equations as (placing the stress tensor
components on the right hand side of the equation):
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Since the n face is an arbitrary plane, we may drop the n superscript and simply write:
If we examine the above traction-stress vector equation, we see that it may be directly written in index notation as:
We also note that the arbitrary cut face denoted as N on the original tetrahedron may naturally occur on the exterior surface of the body.
In this state, we recognize that the traction vector is an applied surface traction, and so the equation relating a traction vector to the
internal stress state and the normal to the surface can relate the surface traction to the internal stress state. We will later see that this
corresponds to a boundary condition for the stress equilibrium partial differential equation.
V. Derivation of the governing equilibrium equations and symmetry of the Cauchy Stress tensor
Now that we have an understanding of the Cauchy stress tensor, we will derive the governing stress equilibrium equation. To start, let
us first consider again a small cube of material inside the body. If we consider that stresses act on the body, we draw a cube of material
and look first at force balance in the x direction. Here forces include the stresses that are rendered per unit area times the cube face area
and the applied body force:
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where s11 is the normal stress on the plane perpendicular to the x1 axis, s21 is the shear stress on the plane perpendicular to x2 axis
acting in the x1 direction, and s31 is the shear stress on the plane perpendicular to the x3 axis acting in the x1 direction. In general, sij
represents a stress acting on the plane perpendicular to the xi axis in the direction of the xj axis. Thus, s11 is acting on the plane
perpendicular to the x1 axis in the x1 direction. In the fgirue above, b is a general body force. Only the b1 component of the body force
enters into the balance of forces in the x direction. We can now write the balance of force in the x direction noting two facts. First, stress
is defined as force per unit area so to get the force we must multiply the stress by the area of the plane on which it acts. Thus the area of
the plane perpendicular to the x1 axis is
, the area of the plane perpendicular to x2 is
, and the plane perpendicular
to x3 has an area of
. Next we note the the positive and negative forces in the same direction are separated by
, or
. If we add all the forces that are acting including the x1 component of the body
force b we obtain:
where it is important to note that all multiplication of terms is represented by an asterisk *. We next divide the above equation through by
the quantity
*
*
, the volume of the infinitesimal cube to obtain:
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Next, because we are now using principles of continuum mechanics, we let the size of the incremental cube in the limit shrink towards
zero. Note that the cube volume does not become zero, but approaches zero. In this case, the quantities involving forces acting in
different directions turn out to be partial derivatives of the stresses with respect to the direction of the denominator. For example,
Likewise, we can definte the derivative for the other terms as:
Using this defintion for all terms, we obtain the equilibrium equation in the x1: direction as:
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If we again divide by the infinitesimal cube volume and then in the limit let the cube volume approach zero we have:
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We can write the equation for force balance in the x3 direction as:
We again divide by the infinitesimal volume and let the volume approach zero to obtain:
Thus, we can see that if we balance internal forces on an infinitesimal piece of material inside a body, we obtain three equations that define
the stress state, assuming we have a body force active:
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Again, we see three equations that have perturbations in the second index, and there are three equations in the first index. Therefore, we
can write the above three equations in index notation as:
Stress Symmetry:
In addition to force balance, Newton's first law also states that any moment on an infinitesimal cube must balance. Let us consider
balance of moments due to stress tensor components about each of the three orthogonal axes, also called balance of angular momentum.
We first consider a moment about the x1 axis:
Now let's write the moment create by the stress s32. s32 acts on the face whose area is delta x1*delta x2, therefore the total force
exerted by s32 is:
The moment arm is the distance to the middle of the cube, delta x3 divided by 2. Therefore, the total moment is:
The normal stresses do not cause a moment since they have a moment arm of zero. If we write the balance of moment for the four shear
stresses, we obtain:
Next, consider the moments generated on the planes perpendicular to the x1 and the x3 axes:
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where the first two delta x terms are the area of the plane and the last term is the moment arm. We can now balance the moments in the
x2 plane due to these shear stresses. It is important to note that on the innfinitesimal cube there are no externally applied moments (there
are some continuum theories that assume moments at this level, but they are not widely used and are beyond the scope of these notes).
Thus the balance of moments in the x2 direction leads to:
Probably by now you have the idea, so we will skip the moment balance about the x3 axis. The bottom line is that balance of angular
momentum gives us the result that the stress tensor is symmetric:
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As mentioned, the stress tensor invariants have physical meaning. The first invariant is the hydrostatic stress or pressure. This plays an
important role in tissues that are assumed to be incompressible. Incompressibility means that no matter how high the hydrostatic pressure,
it will not cause a volumetric deformation. The second invariant is related to shear stress. In fact, the octahedral shear stress is computed
from the second invariant as:
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VII. Summary
In this section we have developed the 2nd order Cauchy Stress tensor and derived the stress equilibrium equations and stress
symmetry. It is important to summarize what the stress equilibrium equations mean. First, note that we did not make any assumptions
about the nature of the material when we derived the stress equilibrium equations. Therefore, these equations hold from any material,
including any biological tissue. Second, we did not specify the amount of deformation when deriving the Cauchy stress or the stress
equilibrium equation. Thus, these equations hold for any amount of deformation. However, it is critical to remember that both the Cauchy
stress tensor, and the stress equilibrium equations must be solved in the deformed state of the material. We will learn later in the next
section the nomenclature for deformed and undeformed, as well as small and large deformation. We will see that in reality to solve large
deformation problems, which are the norm for soft tissue mechanics, we will need to derive more stress tensors and modify the stress
equilibrium equations. Finally, it is important to take stock of the stress equilibrium equations shown below and what they mean. In
compact index notation the three stress equilibrium equations for 3D (there would be two equations for 2D) are written as:
There are three equations since i is an independent index and takes values from 1 to 3. Note that given our definition of the divergence
operator, the above equations can be written symbolically as:
Now let us look at how many unknowns are in the above equation. Basically, our goal in doing stress analysis of a tissue is to solve the
stress equilibrium equation for a body subject to a given body force b and surface traction t. Therefore, both b (if present) and t must be
given for us to even have a chance theoretically to solve the problem. When we try to solve a full blown 3D problem, we will immediately
see that even accounting for stress symmetry, there are six unknowns (three normal and three shear stresses), but only three equations.
Given that the number of equations is less than the number of unknowns, we have an indeterminate problem, which means that the
solution, if we can even find it, will not be unique. That is, there will be more than one solution that will satisfy the stress equilibrium
problem in 3D. Thus, we obviously cannot find a true solution unless we do one of three things:
1. We can simplify the problem based on intelligent assumptions (or is that guesses?) so that the number of unknowns is reduced to equal
the number of equations. This is the reason why material testing is done with specimens of simple geometry, so that we may simplify the
stress state to uniaxial (one stress) or biaxial (2-3 stresses). Obviously, there will be many cases in which this approach will not work.
2. We can supplement the stress equilibrium equations with additional equations and additional unknowns until we can balance the
number of equations and unknowns.
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3. We can optimize, in which we recognize that more than one solution exists, but we identify a criteria by which we choose a best
solution.
It turns out for deformable body mechanics, the we choose option number 2. In choosing option number 2, we supplement stresses as
unknowns with strains and displacements, which are kinematic variables. We will find that option number 3 is used when it is not possible
to add additional variables and unknowns. This is a common approach when we want to estimate musculoskeletal forces, since in force
balance we do not want to add additional variables, so we assume that the body tries to pick a best solution to muscle recruitment and
force generation. We will learn that in many cases we actually blend the 2nd and 3rd approach, using the 3rd approach to estimate
boundary conditions and traction forces, and then inputting these to the deformable body mechanics problem. Thus, in our next section
we will study kinematics and derive strain displacement relationships.
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