November 18, 2014

Emperor
Augustus
Tiberius
Gaius (Caligula)
Claudius
Nero
Galba
Otho
Vitellius
Vespasian
Titus
Domitian
Nerva
Trajan
Hadrian
Antonius Pius
Marcus Aurelius
Lucius Verus
Commodus
Pertinax
Didius Julianus
Septimus Severus
Pescennius Niger
Clodius Albinus
Caracalla
Geta
Marcrinus
Elagabalus
Severus Alexander
Maximus Thrax

Roman Imperial Army

Years of Reign
31 BCE 14 CE
14 CE 37 CE
37 41 CE
41 54
54 - 68
68 69
69
69
69 79
79 81
81 96
96 98
98 117
117 138
138 161
161 180
161 169
176 192
193
193
193 - 211
193 197
198 194
198 217
209 211
217 218
218 222
222 235
235 - 238

Soldiers: Marius Military Reforms and Sullas Dictatorship

104 100 BCE, C. Marius was elected to consulship; Romans faced terrifying invasions from
migrating German tribes who had defeated three consular armies and were approaching Italy
Reformed the army in a changing way by eliminating the property requirement many
propertyless citizens became professional soldiers and serving as long as they could pay for;
turned army into that of soldiers who served for a fixed term. Solders came to expect grant of

land when retired even though there was no official policy; generals after Marius relied on the
support of huge grateful armies
88 BCE, King Mithradates VI of Pontus invaded the Roman province of Asia and slaughtered all
the Romans there Marius (70 yrs) wanted to serve there, so he raised an army and allied with
one of the consuls Sulla and recaptured Rome. Sulla held dictatorship until 78 BCE
Increased senate to 600 by enrolling equites who were loyal to him, Sulla
Sulla became one of the most bloodthirsty tyrants and the champion of the traditional oligarchy

Cicero and Roman Society

Succeeded in entering the senate and reached consulship in 63 BCE; a new man. Defended and
prosecuted his fellow senators in high court
One of the first to write philosophy in Latin
Wrote private letters which are a source of info about the social structure and life in the late
Republic
Friends defend each other in court, supported each other financially, also had women along his
friends, many people supported him, even if against other senators

Pompey and Caesar

Their partnership and rivalry dominated the politics of a dying Republic

Pompey rose to fame with a series of special military commands; senate was vary of his power
and prestige so refused him; thus he allied with Caesar who had returned home with a huge
army. With Pompeys help in the upcoming election, Caesar agreed to support him with his
claim to senate
Caesar won with the support of Crassus as well by promising to reduce amount of tax due to
state alliance known as the First Triumvirate
Caesar was granted the Transalpin Gaul
In 53 BCE, the Roman constitution was in death-throes with an atmosphere of violence and
paranoia and the senate appointed Pompey sole consul for 52; he had married Caesars
daughter Julia who died then married the daughter of one of Caesars enemies. Crassus was
killed in a campaign in Parthia and Caesar was afraid prosecution and of no longer being a ruler.
49 BCE there was a civil war and Caesar marched Italy with an army lasted until 45 BCE and
engulfed Italy, Greece Macedonian, Spain, Asia, Egypt, and Africa. They drafted enormous
armies and flung at one another.
Pompey was murdered in 48 BCE, in Egypt and his last supporters were crushed at Munda, Spain
in 45 BCE. Pompey portrayed himself as a champion of the traditional senatorial oligarchy
against a populist usurper. Cato the younger was one of his supporters and he committed
suicide in 46 BCE

The First Emperor

Caesar assassinated in 55 BCE leader of conspiracy was Brutus , but then faced opposition
from M Antonius (Mark Anthony) and Octavius
Octavian(A/O) formed an alliance with Anthony and Aemilus Lepidus, known as triumvirs for the
restoration of the state
There was a purge in which Cicero and others were killed; Anthony took over the eastern half of
the kingdom and had an alliance with Cleopatra resulting in three children
Anthony and Octavian went to war against each other in 31 BCE in which Os general Aggripa
won a naval victory and after Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide Octavian ruled until
14 CE in which he died
O was careful to call himself a champion of the people over a king had tribunician power; the
title of imperator came to be his name. given the name Augustus (venerable)
Augustus referred to himself as princeps (foremost) and his rule is known as the Principate
Armies led by himself or by others in his name were known as legates, and they campaigned in
northern Spain, Danube, Germany, Ethiopia, Armenia, and Arabia
Claimed descent from Aeneas son Iulus whose mother was Venus

The Emperors

After A/O, Rome was ruled by one man (imperator) whose successors were their sons, and
would chose successors if no children through adoption
Some emperors were assassinated and in 69 CE and 193 CE, there were civil wars
Emperors were deified after their deaths (apotheosis)
Emperors made decisions through the help of a council of advisors (friends/companions) who
were of high rank; senators or equistrians
Owned property all over empire
Mainly came from Italian families, but over time veteranas spread out and citizenship was
granted to some prominent provincials.
In 212 CE, emperor Caracalla granted citizenship to all free inhabitants over the empire; some
non-Italians became knights or senators and some emperors
In 98 CE, Trajan was the first emperor who was not Italian; he was Spanish
Emperors like Nero and Domitian terrorized the senate with bloody purges due to respectful
treatment of the senateo paranoid fears
Other emperors won a reputation for their good treatment of the senate

The Emperor and the City of Rome

Emperors cultivated their relationship with plebs by attending public events such as horse races,
gladiator games, and dramatic performances plebs could demonstrate rhythmic shouting for
things such as lower grain prices, a cash distribution, freedom for a slave actor or tax relief, and
then the emperor addressed the matters

Would pay for public buildings to gain popularity after the fire of 64 CE, Nero rebuilt several
buildings at his own expense
Senators may have resented being driven out of Romes most prestigious locations, and this may
like behind some ancient authors criticism of Neros private buildings
Vespasian (succeeded Nero) drained out Neros private lake and built and amphitheatre
Trajan built a complex bath over part of Neros palace

The Army

Under Augustus, the army became more permanent and professional

A disbanded most of the army that fought with him in the civil wars and decided to keep only 28
legion
Legions were destroyed in 9 CE when Arminius slaughtered the army in Germany and were
never replaced just kept adding more until reached 33 under Severans
Theoretically, there were 5000 men, but due to retirement, deaths, deserters ect, werent
always accurate.
Mostly came from Italy but then recruited outside Rome
Noncitizen troops were known as auxiliaries and were organized into units of 500 or special
units of 800 many were cavalry units
In third century, might have been 450,000 altogether
Soldiers were supposed to be discharged after 25 years of service but many served longer; the
pay was 250 denarii/year and only raised once before Severus
Upon retirement would receive cash bonus; auxiliaries received citizenship
Soldiers were not allowed to marry, but had relationships with girls who they would marry after
they retired
Army was unevenly distributed around the empire, concentrated in some provinces; some
frontier provinces had more soldiers as they needed to drive out an invading army or invade
enemy territory, and others had rebellious populations that needed to be controlled
In war times, units or detachments from units had to be moved; troops marched overland and
could travel 15 miles/day pop. sometimes took the opportunity to revolt
Army was also public labour force; policed roads/borders against bandits, guarded officials, built
roads/sewers, dug mines, gathered supplies, collected taxes ect. Also manufactured their own
equipment
After A/O Rome stabilized and did not change much hereafter
Each provinces governor commanded its entire army

Taxes

Used to pay/supply the army; collected it in cash, and in labour

Tribute was assessed differently in different provinces some had tax on land, others it was a
poll on ones head, some did both; some paid percentage of crops, others paid cash, some oxhides; all paid inheritance taxes, slaves paid tax if free, sales tax, customs tax
All goods could be requisitioned by the army (esp in times of war) with only chance of
reimbursement
If vigorous taxes, provinces sometimes revolted
The decurions (wealthy citizens) were responsible that the tribute owned by their town was
paid
Exception from munera (service/duty) was a privilege

Roads and Cities

Network of roads = one of major accomplishments maid of sand and timber then paved with
stones
CENTURIATION the process of surveying through using a grid pattern used in Rome
Administration depended on cities; territory was subjected to an urban centre responsible for
tax collection which sometimes resulted in various levels of urbanization depending on the area
EUGETISM good deed-doing; Each city developed previously rural areas and had a wealthy class
as political leaders who were obliged to provide for their city, sometimes in the form of
buildings due to social obligation
Concrete = characteristic building material of the Roman Empire; used in arches, vaults, ect.
Designed by the Greeks, but exploited by the Romans
Aqueducts carried water to the towns and cities, an d there were sometimes more than one
Rome had 7 total by mid first century
o Water was piped through to fountains, baths, businesses, and sometimes private houses
or farms
Baths were common and sometimes there were baths of different temps, sweat-rooms,
changing rooms, latrines, and pools ect.
AMPHITHEATER used for games, like gladiatorial, beast hunts, present forums, ect
Gladiators could be prisoners of war, or criminals condemned to death, but often trained
professionals who were slaves, or freed slaves who chose this as a career
Agora = heart of the city; had shops, senate-house, and a basilica

Law

Most law comes from the Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of civil law)
o Came after the 12 tables
o Set out principles and procedures which the urban praetor was responsible to
administer and would resolve private disputes brought to him

Not a fixed rigid system always a gap between the theory and reality of administration;
interpretation was up to the governor but they did not make decisions alone; used help of
jurists (group of senators/knights knowledgeable in law)
Golden age of jurisprudence was the early 3rd century
Most law took shape as a system of responses to petitions or cases referred to him
Similarities in Jewish and Roman law
o Jewish had rabbis who saw themselves as intellectual descents of Pharisees and gave
their opinions on questions of the law, and were middle-class land owners or tradesmen
who judged ordinary people (as opposed to jurists)
WOMEN AND FAMILY IN ROMAN LAW
o Concerned inheritance and property
o Paterfamilias (patriarch) owned all assets, but did not own wifes property
o All women were supposed to have a tutor to authorize legal transactions for them and
into the Imperial period it became illegal for the tutor to disobey wards requests
o The dowry could be donated by father, mother, patron/patroness, relatives/friends, or
by herself; while it belonged to the man, there was restrictions on what he would do
with it. Upon divorce, was returned to woman.
o Independent men or women with no male successors had power to leave property to
whomever they wished. Wealthy left it to their friends and their families, or to the
emperor
o Women had substantial power, despite patriarchy

Greek Culture in the Roman Empire

THE SECOND SOPHISTIC

o Sophists experts on public speaking; professional educators, but were also charismatic
performers who could attract crowds
o Some were prominent benefactors of their cities who served as ambassadors to the
emperor and became their friends or of Roman Aristocrats and some worked directly for
them emperor and would take charge of the correspondence
THE NOVEL
o All tell of a young couple in their teens who are either in love, recently married, become
separated, and find their way back to each other, with different ways of happening
o Illuminate values of the audience focus on heterosexual romantic love, values, and
humiliation of slaves
GALEN
o Served and treated Emperor Macus Aurelius; was a doctor
o Wanted others to also see him as a master of other fields champions the ideas of
Hippocrates and Plato
o Thought apes and pigs were the most similar to man

Imperial Rule: The Example of Judaea

Army was relatively small; the rule depended on their ability to enlist support of the native
population which Rome had conquered due to the Jewish having a strong literary culture
In 66 CE, the Jewish revolted, leading to the sacking of Jerusalem and the destruction of the
temple in 70 CE
JOSEPHUS a jewish general who was taken hostage; emperor granted him citizenship to help
their cause and blame the revolts on the disreputable segments of the jewish populations
HEROD THE GREAT: A FRIENDLY KING
o Ruled Judaea from 40 BCE until 4 BCE; in 40 BCE the Parthian invaded Judae and
deposed Hycranus (appointed by Pompey)
o Roman senate offered support to Herod benefitted both parties
o Constructed an aqueduct at Caesatea, a temple to Augustus, a large harbour ect
JUDAEA UNDER ROMAN RULE
o Ruled by a prefect of equestrian ran
o Until 66 CE, they were governed by Aggripa and his son after Herod were all Roman
citizens
o Were bloody conflicts between Jews and Greeks due to sacred law
o Not everyone equally supported the bloody revolts
o Blame it on bandits - Bandits were the ones mostly attracted to make trouble
BABATHA: A RURAL WOMAN AND THE ROMAN GOVT
o Took refuge in a cave were killed during revolts was rich
o Appeared twice before the governor and sent him 2 3 petitions for land dispute claims

The Army in Roman Britain

Had the largest army was difficult to conquer and rule over; gained in 43 CE under Claudius
In late 70s and 80s, Romans moved more troops north and tried to conquer Scotland only
succeeded temporarily.
Built Hadrians wall on which they stationed men all the way from the Tyne and Solway rivers in
the 80s CE
Found tablets that show how the Army was a vehicle for Romanization
Used hundreds of hands to build wall and police
Retired soldiers would marry local women and stay there

Society in Roman Egypt

Records of census gives us information

WRITING AND LITERACY
o Used written contracts for common transactions involving people from all classes
o If could not read/write would find someone who could
FAMILY

Males over 14 paid head taxes

Had complex families sons would stay in household with wives 4.3 ppl/household
average
o Women married young and males later; would marry at least once if a free persons
o 1/6th of household was that of slaves and they made up 11 % of population
o Male slaves were freed at 20, and women were freed after they no longer could bear
children
o High infant mortality explains why only a few children/marriage; also due to infant
exposure
o Named women who were hired for breastfeeding purposes as KOPROS
o Lots of marriages between siblings land distribution purposes
MORTALITY AND DISEASE
o Life expectancy was low twenties; mortality highest in first few years of life 1/3 of
children survived past infant years and most died before 5
o Leading causes were dysentery and other gastro-intestinal illnesses, typhoid, similar
diseases, TB, and maybe bubonic plague
o In 166 CE, smallpox struck and swept most of the population
CITY AND COUNTRY
o 1/3 Egyptians lived in cities
o Egyptians who were citizens of the four greek cities were exempt from poll tax, could
buy state land, and gain large estates, gain gym memberships
o Guard or trade associations were an important part of urban life; every craft/profession
had a guild where dues were collected, held meetings, banquets, and elected officialsl;
would take in members during hard times and arrange funerals
o While most of countryside was hard to farm in, quite a few people lived in small villages
o There were taxes on farming land owend by the state, and villagers would flee if unable
to pay
o Villages had councils with lower property reqs.
o Most peasants produced bear minimum supplies to feed their families
o
o

Wars and Emperors

In 235 CE, Severus Alexander was murdered by his troops and produced Maximus as a successor
caused a series of revolts
In 220 CE, there was a revolt in Persia by the Sasanians who gained control of the former
Parthian Empire; under Severus they invaded northern Mesopotamia. Then a German group
known as the Alamanni began to invade as well causing destruction on both sides
From 235 to 284 CE there were 30 major emperors and dozens of usurpers; most were
proclaimed by the army had had a short rule (assassinated a lot)
Rome suffered military disasters that were prev. unthinkable
The Empire began giving up territory
In 260 BCE Emperor Valerian was captured alive and in 270 BCE they build a wall

Huge parts of the kingdom broke away and formed separate kingdoms like the Guals, Syria,
Egypt, and Asia Minor

Economic Crisis

Some European provinces began to decline in size, wealth, and population due to economic
crisis
Added inflation by Severus adding in silver to the denarii caused hyper inflation
Most people did not take note of this and kept spending money in large transactions caused a
strain on political and religious offices

Diocletain and the Later Roman Empire

Diocletian was at first like any emperor; was a solder from Dalmatia and assassinated the prev.
emperor ruled for 2 decades before he retired
Abandoned the idea of a single emperor assigned a co-emperor Augustus and two junior
emperors Caesars could conduct a war on four fronts
Formed a price edict to fix prices for goods and services with death as the punishment for failure
to comply
Divided up the provinces into 12 dioceses under equestrian officials (vicarii) under Diocletian
Divided up the responsibilities to duces commanded the army and civilian tasks were handled by
officials separately
Tried to create a more uniform tax collection method each person owed certain number of
units based on their revenue prevented people from squirming out of their duties
Professions became hereditary
Constantine (Ds successor) increased importance and size of mobile army; by the mid 300s CE,
the mobile army had 1/4th of the empires total forces
After a prolonged series of civil wars, Constantine became sole emperor from 324 CE until his
death in 337 CE
There was a tendency to divide the empire into eastern and western halves until Romulus
Augustus, the last western emperor was disposed in 476 CE
Rome remained the capital but emperors moved toward Milan, Trier, Sirmium, Thessalonica,
and Nicomedia