7/20/2015

Midterm
- Remember! Extra 5% with clicker questions (up to 105% points!)
- Attendance to discussion sections: 10%!!!!
- The final exam will contain questions regarding the midterm, so
if you grade in the final exam is better than the midterm, I might
drop your midterm exam!!!
- Potential 5 extra credit questions on the final.
- The percentages might be shifted (87-100% A, etc).

Tips for success in class

1. ATTEND CLASS AND TAKE NOTES.

Taking notes keeps you actively engaged in class. Comparing your notes with the text
and with lecture notes we provide will help make clear which topics you grasp fully
and which you don't. Lectures will cover some material not contained in the readings.
2. DO THE ASSIGNED READINGS.
If you are having trouble following the lectures, read the textbook assignments before
coming to class. Some material briefly covered in lecture will be more extensively
described in the readings.
3. USE THE TEXTBOOK WEBSITE. There are a host of tutorials, guides, and self-quizzes
available to help you learn and review the material. Some questions from self-quizzes
will be used verbatim in exams!

Discussion sections THIS WEEK:

Our TAs will go over the midterm questions.

You will be able to see your exam in front of your TA, BUT you CAN NOT take it with you.
If there is a mistake in the grading, tell your TA.
If there is still a discrepancy, follow the next steps:
Only exams taken in pen, no whiteout or correction tape
Send me an email with:
A cover letter indicating which problem and describe dispute
Provide full name and email
Entire exam will be regraded
I will email you back in the next 48 hours

Tips for success in class

4. LEARN THE VOCABULARY.
You cannot understand complex biological concepts if you are not familiar with the words
that are being used. Definitions can be found in the glossary of your textbook and online.
5. ATTEND SECTIONS.
Hearing and seeing material presented in a smaller group and from a different
perspective can be enormously beneficial. Discussion leaders will elaborate on answers
to your questions.
6. TALK TO THE INSTRUCTOR AND TAS.
If you have a question or problem, visit the instructor during office hours. Put our office
hours in your weekly schedule planner. We have scheduled this time to meet and talk
with you, so please dont hesitate to stop by and ask questions.

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Tips for success in class

7. WORK WITH YOUR CLASSMATES.
Connect with your peers and set up informal study sessions or formal study groups. Also
take advantage of the online message board for group discussions with fellow students,
TAs and instructors.
8. TAKE ADVANTAGE OF CAMPUS PROFESSIONAL SERVICES:
A. OASIS (HTTP://OASIS.UCSD.EDU/)
The Office of Academic Support & Instructional Services gives students access to
counselors who can help them develop reading and writing strategies, design better time
management systems, write more effective class notes, and organize writing
assignments.
B. PSYCH SERVICES (HTTP://PSYCHSERVICES.UCSD.EDU/)
Confidential and free counseling and psychological services related to a wide range of
problems, including poor academic performance and study skills, homesickness,
roommate conflicts, alcohol and other substance use and abuse, relationship difficulties,
and depression.
C. ACADEMIC ADVISORS.
Both your college and your department have professional staff responsible for helping
students in choosing appropriate plans of study and coping with any academic difficulties.

Source: http://www.wilsondailyprep.com/

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/

Source: http://wishiwasherethefilm.tumblr.com/

7/20/2015

The Cell Cycle: Mitosis

What is the cell?

The cell is the smallest living thing that can

perform all the functions of life:
- Nutrition
- Communication
- Reproduction

Why is it important for cells to divide?

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQNxHGpK7Wc

The ability of unicellular

organisms to reproduce

2.

Source: http://www.tutorvista.com/

Regarding cells in a multicellular organism, they must

undergo cell division in order to:

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3.

The cell cycle

- produces two genetically identical cells -

Source: http://www.slideshare.net/
Source: http://book.bionumbers.org/

Cell Division?

Division of chromosomes into 2 nuclei (Mitosis)

2 Daughter cells

Division of the cytoplasm into 2 cells (Cytokinesis)

All steps are highly regulated to ensure precise cell

division, resulting in two identical daughter cells

Figure 12.9

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Cellular organization
of the genetic material

A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein
product, and is the molecular unit of heredity

All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cells

genome
A genome can consist of a single DNA
molecule (common in prokaryotic cells) or
a number of DNA molecules (common in
eukaryotic cells)
DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into
chromosomes (individual DNA strands)
Each eukaryotic chromosome constists of
one very long, linear DNA molecule
associated with proteins.
Each chromosome contains hundred to
thousand of genes.
Source: http://www.pgpstudy.org/

Clicker question 1

The total length of DNA in a typical cell is ~ 2 meters!!

This is 250,000 X greater than the diameter of the cell!

Every somatic cell in your body has the exact same DNA
(genome).

A. True
B. False

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Cellular organization
of the genetic
material
The genetic material must be organized
somehow to fit into the nucleus!!!!

DNA is double stranded

It wraps around histones
to form nucleosomes,
together called chromatin
Chromatin wraps around
itself and condensates to
form a coiled coil
chromatin bundle
The most tightly packed
form of DNA is found in a
dividing cell

DNA double
helix

DNA wraps
around histones
chromatin

chromatin

coiled coil
chromatin

unduplicated
chromosome

http://www.bio.miami.edu/

Cellular organization
of the genetic material

Clicker question 2
Is this cell haploid or diploid?

Somatic cells (non-reproductive cells)

Have two sets of chromosomes
Humans have ____chromosomes
in somatic cells (2n=diploid)

Gametes a.k.a. reproductive cells

Sperm and eggs
Have half as many chromosomes as
somatic cells
Humans have _____chromosomes in
gametes (n=haploid)

A) haploid
B) diploid

http://biology.westfield.ma.edu/

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The structure of a duplicated chromosome

If chromosomes look like this

what are these then?

Identical to
Sister
chromatids

Centromere

Saladin K., Anatomy and Physiology:

The Unity of Form and Function, 3rd Ed.

0.5 m

Figure 9.4

http://biology.westfield.ma.edu/

Clicker question 3

Centrosomes
(with centriole pairs)

Chromatin
(duplicated)

DNA is always present in the cell in the form of condensed

chromosomes.

A. True
B. False

Nucleolus

Nuclear
envelope

Plasma
membrane

Chromosomes

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The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle

Overview of Cell Division

INTERPHASE

Interphase
G1

S
(DNA synthesis)

G2

Stage
G1
S
G2

What happens?
Cell growth
Cell growth. DNA duplication.
Cell growth

First Gap
Synthesis
Second Gap

Stage
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

Mitosis
Mitotic phase

These overlap

Cytokinesis

The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle

INTERPHASE

INTERPHASE

G1

S
(DNA synthesis)

G2

G1

S
(DNA synthesis)

G2

When do chromosomes
duplicate?

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S Phase: DNA Duplication

All of the cells DNA must be copied in order to distribute
one genome to each daughter cell
(Replication, discussed on Wednesday)

Genome total DNA containing an organisms complete set of genes

Bacterial genome
Fruitfly genome
Human genome

4.6 x 106 base pairs (E. coli)

1.2 x 108 base pairs
3.3 x 109 base pairs

Chromosome 1 unit of double-stranded DNA; 1 set contains the genome

Bacteria
Fruitfly
Human

1 circular chromosome (1 total)

2 sets of 4 chromosomes (8 total)
2 sets of 23 chromosomes (46 total)

Diploid cells carry 2 sets of chromosomes, maternal & paternal

Source: http://bio1100.nicerweb.com/

Interphase

INTERPHASE

G1

S
(DNA synthesis)

Stage
G1
S
G2

First Gap
Synthesis
Second Gap

What happens?
Cell growth
DNA duplication
Cell growth

G2 OF INTERPHASE
Centrosomes
(with centriole pairs)

Chromatin
(duplicated)

G2

End of Interphase:
- DNA duplicated
- centrosomes duplicated
When are chromosomes
condensed?
Figure 12.6

Nucleolus

Nuclear
envelope

Plasma
membrane

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Mitotic Phase

INTERPHASE

Mitosis
G1

S
(DNA synthesis)

Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

G2

Cytokinesis

Clicker question 4

Remember PPMAT
Source: http://www.askavetquestion.com/

There are cells that never/almost never divide such as

neurons. In which part of the cell cycle you think are they ?
A)
B)
C)
D)

S
G2
Mitotic phase
G1
S

G1

G2

Source: http://tinleytime.blogspot.com/

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7/20/2015

Prophase

Prophase: Condensation of Duplicated Chromosomes

By End of Prophase:

condensed
chromosomes

- Chromosomes condense, sister chromatids

are visible by microscopy

Centrosome
Aster
Early mitotic
spindle

Centromere

- Mitotic spindle begins to form

- Centrosomes begin to separate

50 m

Chromosome, consisting
of two sister chromatids

Figure 12.6

Figure 12.3 - .4

Prometaphase
By End of Prometaphase:

Metaphase
By End of Metaphase:

- The nuclear membrane has disintegrated

- Chromosomes aligned along metaphase plate
- Centrosomes at opposite ends of cell
- The ends of the mitotic spindle attach to
kinetochores on each chromatid

- Sister chromatids are each attached to

kinetochores from opposite pole centrosome

Metaphase
plate

- Mitotic Spindle fully formed

Spindle

Figure 12.6

Figure 12.6

Centrosome at
one spindle pole

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7/20/2015

Anaphase

Telophase

By End of Anaphase:

By End of Telophase:
Cleavage
furrow

- Sister chromatids separate into 2 chromosomes: separase

- Kinetochore microtubules shorten
- Non-kinetochore microtubules lengthen to elongate cell

- Two nuclei begin to form

- Chromosomes become less condensed
- End of mitosis

Cleavage furrow

Nucleolus
forming

- Cytokinesis completes cell division by

pinching cells in two via formation of a
cleavage furrow (animals) or a cell wall
(plants)

Daughter
chromosomes

Figure 12.6

Cytokinesis
- division of the cytosol into two cells

Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push

against each other, elongating the cell
In telophase, genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite
ends of the cell
Cytokinesis begins during anaphase or telophase and the spindle
eventually disassembles

Figure 12.6

Nuclear
envelope
forming

Cytokinesis
- division of the cytosol into two cells Cleavage furrow separates
cytoplasm of animal cells by
actinomyosin ring
constriction

Cell plate separates

cytoplasm of plant cells by
localized membrane addition

emerging
cleavage
furrow

cleavage furrow

plant cells do not

have centrioles

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7/20/2015

Remember! Prokaryotic chromosome so

different from eukaryots! Also, no
microtubules!! How can bacteria divide then?

Dont Be Confused by the Collection of

C-words

Chromatin
Chromosome
Chromatids
Centromeres
Centrosomes
Cytokinesis

Video mitosis: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6hn3sA0ip0

Binary Fission in Bacteria

Origin of
replication
E. coli cell

1 Chromosome
replication
begins.

Two copies
of origin

Origin of
replication

Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome

E. coli cell
1 Chromosome
replication
begins.

2 One copy of the

origin is now at
each end of the
cell.

Figure 9.12-1

Two copies
of origin

Origin

Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome

Origin

Figure 9.12-2

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7/20/2015

Origin of
replication
E. coli cell
1 Chromosome
replication
begins.

2 One copy of the

origin is now at
each end of the
cell.

Two copies
of origin

Origin

Origin of
replication

Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome

E. coli cell
1 Chromosome
replication
begins.

2 One copy of the

origin is now at
each end of the
cell.

Origin

3 Replication
finishes.

Two copies
of origin

Origin

Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome

Origin

3 Replication
finishes.

4 Two daughter
cells result.
Figure 9.12-3

Figure 9.12-4

But biology is not black or

white

Chromosomes

The cell cycle must be tightly regulated

Microtubules

Intact nuclear
envelope
(a) Dinoflagellates

Kinetochore
microtubule

Intact nuclear
envelope

(b) Diatoms and some yeasts

Figure 9.13

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7/20/2015

Cancer: just uncontrolled cell division

Source: http://rise.duke.edu/

Source: http://book.bionumbers.org/

Figure 9.14

Experiment
Experiment 1

A molecular control system regulates the

eukaryotic cell cycle

G1

Experiment 2

G1

Results

Where is this molecular control system?

S

G1 nucleus
immediately entered
S phase and DNA
was synthesized.

G1 nucleus began
mitosis without
chromosome
duplication.

Conclusion Molecules present in the cytoplasm

control the progression to S and M phases.

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7/20/2015

Figure 9.16a

A checkpoint in the cell cycle is a control point where stop and goahead signals can regulate the cycle.

G1 checkpoint

Control
system

G1

M checkpoint

G2

G2 checkpoint

The cell cycle

control system is
regulated by both
internal and
external controls
The clock has
specific
checkpoints where
the cell cycle stops
until a go-ahead
signal is received
For many cells, the
G1 checkpoint
seems to be the
most important

G1 checkpoint
G0

G1

G1
Without go-ahead signal,
cell enters G0.
(a) G1 checkpoint

With go-ahead signal,

cell continues cell cycle.

Figure 9.16b

Clicker question 5 Case study

G1

G1
M G2

G2

You are a researcher, and you think youve found a new mutation in a
gene that causes cancer. You notice that the cells that have this
mutation replicate their DNA when normal cells do not. You think that
these cells have a mutant protein that cannot act at a checkpoint.
Which checkpoint is affected?

M checkpoint

Prometaphase
Without full chromosome
attachment, stop signal is
received.
(b) M checkpoint

Anaphase

G2
checkpoint

Metaphase
With full chromosome
attachment, go-ahead signal
is received.

A) G1 checkpoint
B) M checkpoint
C) G2 checkpoint
D) Not sure

INTERPHASE

G1

S
(DNA duplication)

G2

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7/20/2015

Cell signaling: three stages

Factors that control cell cycle:

Figure 5.20-1

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

External (to the cell):

- Biological factors: Growth factors (example of PDGF: platelet-derived
growth factor)

CYTOPLASM
Plasma membrane

Reception
Receptor

- Physical factors: density-dependent inhibition, anchorage-dependent

inhibition.
Internal
Signaling
molecule

Cell signaling: three stages

Cell signaling: three stages

Figure 5.20-2

Figure 5.20-3

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
Reception

CYTOPLASM
Plasma membrane
Transduction

Receptor

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
Reception

CYTOPLASM
Plasma membrane
Transduction

Response

Receptor
Activation
Relay molecules

Signaling
molecule

Relay molecules

Signaling
molecule

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7/20/2015

Figure 9.17-1

Figure 9.17-2

Scalpels

Scalpels

1 A sample of

1 A sample of

human connective
tissue is cut
up into small
pieces.
Petri
dish

human connective
tissue is cut
up into small
pieces.
Petri
dish
2 Enzymes digest

the extracellular
matrix, resulting
in a suspension of
free fibroblasts.

Figure 9.17-3

Figure 9.17-4

Scalpels

Scalpels

1 A sample of

1 A sample of

human connective
tissue is cut
up into small
pieces.
Petri
dish

human connective
tissue is cut
up into small
pieces.
Petri
dish

2 Enzymes digest

2 Enzymes digest

the extracellular
matrix, resulting
in a suspension of
free fibroblasts.

the extracellular
matrix, resulting
in a suspension of
free fibroblasts.

3 Cells are transferred

to culture vessels.

3 Cells are transferred

4 PDGF is added to

to culture vessels.

half the vessels.

4 PDGF is added to

half the vessels.

Without PDGF

With PDGF

Cultured fibroblasts
(SEM)

10 m

18

7/20/2015

Figure 9.18

Controlling the cell cycle clock

Anchorage dependence: cells

require a surface for division

Two types of regulatory proteins

are involved in cell cycle control:
cyclins and cyclin-dependent
kinases (Cdks)

Cdk activity fluctuates during the

cell cycle because it is
controlled by cyclins

MPF (maturation-promoting
factor) is a cyclinB - Cdk1
complex that triggers a cells
passage past the G2 checkpoint
into the M phase by
phosphorylating many proteins
which are needed during mitosis

Density-dependent inhibition:
cells form a single layer

Cdk 1
Density-dependent inhibition:
cells divide to fill a gap and
then stop

20 m

20 m

(a) Normal mammalian cells

(b) Cancer cells

CyclinB

MPF

Active!
P

Loss of cell cycle controls in cancer

cells

Cdk1
Degraded
cyclin B

G2
checkpoint

Cancer cells
Do not respond normally to the bodys control mechanisms
May not need growth factors to grow and divide
May make their own growth factors
May convey a growth factors signal without
the presence of the growth factor
May have an abnormal cell cycle control system

Cdk1

Cyclin B is
degraded
MPF

Cyclin B

http://leonardonoto.com/

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The growth and metastasis of

a malignant breast tumor

A normal cell
Converted to a cancerous cell

1)

2)

Process called transformation

Cancer cells
Form tumors
Masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue

If abnormal cells remain at the original site

Malignant tumors

The lump is called a benign tumor

Can metastasize: invading surrounding

3)

4)

tissues
Exporting cancer cells to other
parts of the body
May form secondary tumors

Most cancers that are lethal because of metastasis

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