Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and

no double bonds
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds
Hydrogenation is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by
adding hydrogen

In a phospholipid, two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol
The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its
attachments form a hydrophilic head

Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
Cholesterol is an important component of animal cell membranes
In mammals cholesterol is highly enriched at the plasma membrane.
It provides additional support and regulates membrane fluidity through its rigid
structure.

Lipid functions in cells

Lipids and fats are very abundant energy storage molecules.
Morphological support (e.g. stabilize high curvature regions of the bilayer during
endocytosis).
Certain lipids accumulate to the sites of the enzyme activities that they control.
Lipids modulate the localization and function of membrane associated proteins.
Some lipids to recruit soluble proteins to membranes by tagging the membranes

MACROMOLECULES II Polymers
1) CARBOHYDRATES (Polysaccharides) SUGARS
2) (LIPIDS - Make up membranes) Glycerol / FAs
3) PROTEINS - Enzymes, etc. Amino Acids

4) Nucleic Acids - DNA, RNA Nucleotides

Polypeptides
Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds
A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids
Polypeptides range in length from a few to more than a thousand monomers
Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids, with a carboxyl
end (C-terminus) and an amino end (N-terminus)
A peptide bond (amide bond) is a covalent chemical bond formed between two
amino acid molecules

Ligase- Covalently connects segments of DNA

Primase- enzyme that synthesizes short segments of RNA

Primary structure, the sequence of amino acids in a protein, is like the order of
letters in a long word
Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic information

The coils and folds of secondary structure result from hydrogen bonds between
repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone
Typical secondary structures helix andare a coil called an a folded structure
called a pleated sheet

Tertiary structure is determined by interactions between R groups, rather than

interactions between backbone constituents

 These interactions between R groups include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds,

hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals interactions
Strong covalent bonds called disulfide bridges may reinforce the proteins
structure Tertiary structure hydrogen bond disulfide bond polypeptide backbone
ionic bon

Quaternary structure results when two or more polypeptide chains form one
macromolecule
Collagen is a fibrous protein consisting of three polypeptides coiled like a rope
Hemoglobin is a globular protein consisting of four polypeptides: two alpha and
two beta chains
Chaperonins Are protein molecules that assist in the proper folding of other
proteins Hollow cylinder Cap Chaperonin (fully assembled) Steps of Chaperonin
Action: An unfolded poly- peptide enters the cylinder from one end. The cap
attaches, causing the cylinder to change shape in such a way that it creates a
hydrophilic environment for the folding of the polypeptide. The cap comes off, and
the properly folded protein is released.

In addition to primary structure, physical and chemical conditions can affect

structure
Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other environmental factors
can cause a protein to unravel
This loss of a proteins native structure is called denaturation
A denatured protein is biologically inactive

Contractile and motor proteins

Examples: Motor proteins are responsible for the undulations of

cilia and

flagella. Actin and myosin proteins are responsible for the contraction of
muscles.

Function: Movement

Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information
There are two types of nucleic acids Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Ribonucleic
acid (RNA)
The amino acid sequence of a protein is programmed by a unit of inheritance
called a gene
Genes are made of DNA, a nucleic acid made of monomers called nucleotides

The components of nucleic acids Nucleic acids are polymers called

polynucleotides Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called nucleotides
Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more
phosphate groups The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is
called a nucleoside

Nucleotide polymers are linked together to build a polynucleotide

Adjacent nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds that form between the OH
group carbon of oneon the 3 nucleotide and the phosphate carbon on the nexton
the 5
These links create a backbone of sugar-phosphate units with nitrogenous bases
as appendages
The sequence of bases along a DNA or mRNA polymer is unique for each gene

Nucleoside
Nucleoside = nitrogenous base + sugar

 There are two families of nitrogenous bases Pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, and
uracil) have a single six-membered ring Purines (adenine and guanine) have a sixmembered ring fused to a five-membered ring
In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose; in RNA, the sugar is ribose
Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group

The structures of DNA and RNA molecules

RNA molecules usually exist as single polypeptide chains
- DNA molecules have two polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis,
forming a double helix

Light Microscopes
Can magnify 1,000 times size of actual specimen
1. Bright Field
a. Unless cell is naturally pigmented or artificially stained, the image has
little contrast
b. Unstained, Clear, just little outlines
2. Phase-contrast
a. Can see clear dark outlines
b. Converts phase shifts in light passing through a transparent specimen
to brightness changes in the image. Phase shifts are invisible but
become visible when shown as brightness variations
3. Differential-interference contrast (Nomarski)
a. Outlines popping out looks like u can see surface
b. Use to enhance the contrast on unstained transparent samples.
4. Fluorescense- Confocal
Electron Microscopy
1. Transmission Electron
a. Study internal structure
2. Scanning Electron
a. 3D image

The nucleus
The nucleus contains most of the cells genes and is usually the most conspicuous
organelle
The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm
The nuclear envelope is a double membrane, consisting of two membrane bilayers
In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units called chromosomes
Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA molecule associated with proteins
The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called chromatin
The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
synthesis

Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein

 Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations In the cytosol (free
ribosomes) On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope
(bound ribosomes)

The endomembrane system

The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic
functions in the cell
Components of the endomembrane system are Nuclear envelope Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Vacuoles a.k.a. vesicles Plasma
membrane
These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles

New protein ER Golgi Apparatus Vesicles Fuse w/ plasma membrane

The endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total
membrane in many eukaryotic cells
The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope
There are two distinct regions of ER Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes and is
tubular in shape Rough ER, contains ribosomes
Generates new membrane for other parts of cell
Two types of ER have specific functions:
Smooth ER synthesis of lipids and steroids carbohydrate metabolism
Detoxification Ca2+ storage in lumen
Rough ER Synthesis and distribution of secreted & membrane proteins protein
modification (glycosylation)

The golgi apparatus

The shipping (trans) and receiving (cis) center of the cell
The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
Functions of the Golgi apparatus Modifies products of the ER e.g. glycosylation
Manufactures certain macromolecules Sorts and packages materials into transport
vesicles

Lysosomes
A lysosome is a membranous sac, formed from vesicles made at the Golgi
apparatus
It contains hydrolytic enzymes that can digest proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and
nucleic acids the resulting digestive products are mrecycled by the cell 1
Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment inside the lysosome
Lysosomes fuse with vesicles delivering the following cargo: 1) endosomes
engulfed molecules 2) phagosomes uptake and destruction of pathogens 3)
autophagosome recycles damaged organelles
Phagocytosis occurs when a substance is included into the cell from the outside by means of a
vacuole separated from the plasma membrane) and is then digested by the lysosome.

Pinocytosis
Autophagy occurs when lysosomes engulfs and digests components of it's own cell. (ie-damaged
organelles)

Van der waals- the sum of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules (or between
parts of the same molecule) other than those due to covalent bonds,
A force acting between nonbonded atoms or molecules. Includes dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole,
and London forces.

Components of the cytoskeleton

Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton

1) microtubules - tubulin dimers (a and b)
2) microfilaments (actin filaments) - actin monomers - two intertwined strands of
actin
3) intermediate filaments - several different proteins e.g. keratin fibres

Centrosome, centrioles, cilia, and flagella

In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near the nucleus
The centrosome is a microtubuleorganizing center
In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a ring
Microtubules control the beating of cilia and flagella, locomotor appendages of some
cells
Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns

Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single

membrane bilayer
Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water
Peroxisomes perform reactions with many different functions Major function is to
break down very long fatty acids through boxidation

Central vacuole
Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells, hold both inorganic and
organic compounds and water

 It provides support to soft structures such as leaves water enters central vacuole
by osmosis through aquaporins and cell becomes inflated
Plant cell can be larger than animal cells because thanks diminishes the amount
of to central vacuole cytoplasm needed

Pleiotropy- the ability of a single gene to have multiple phenotype effects

the nucleotide base U at the 5' end of a tRNA

anticodon can pair with either A or G in the third position (at
the 3' end) of an mRNA codon

LECTURE 5

All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cells

genome
A genome can consist of a single DNA
molecule (common in prokaryotic cells) or
a number of DNA molecules (common in
eukaryotic cells)
DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into
chromosomes (individual DNA strands)
Each eukaryotic chromosome constists of
one very long, linear DNA molecule
associated with proteins.
Each chromosome contains hundred to
thousand of genes.

DNA is double stranded

It wraps around histones
to form nucleosomes,
together called chromatin

 Chromatin wraps around

itself and condensates to
form a coiled coil
chromatin bundle
The most tightly packed
form of DNA is found in a
dividing cell