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Appendix

Appendix
1. Elementary relations of the complex functions in the mathematics
For the interesting readers we can suggest (in Hungarian) the books of Gspr
and Fazekas [1951][1968] , in English (among others) the book of Sadd [ 2005] . This
short mathematical summary follows also his basic ideas about this theme, because the
engineering aspects are strongly emphasized in his excellent book.
Let us start the summary with basic definition of the complex number. A z
complex number can be defined with the help of two real numbers (x and y) as follows:
z = x + iy,
(A.1/1)
1
where i is the so called imaginary unit , its definition is i = 1 . In (A.1/1) x means
the real, and y means the imaginary part of the complex number. Their standard symbols
are:
x = Re(z), y = Im (z).
(A.1/2)
We can give a complex number with the help of polar coordinates, see the two different
versions in (A.1/3), and figure A.1.1 (here r = x 2 + y 2 and = arctan( y / x) ):

z = r (cos + i sin ) = r ei ,

(A.1/3)

y
Figure A.1.1:
Representation
of a complex number

z
We note that in the engineering practice is widely used to represent the complex number
as a vector with two element (the real and imaginary terms are the two components), as
we can see on figure A.1.1.
We call complex conjugate the complex number z , having the same real part, but with
imaginary parts of equal magnitude and opposite sign as z:
(A.1/4)
z = x iy = rei .

It was introduced into the mathematics firstly by the Italian mathematician, Rafael Bombelli
(1526 1572), but it became popular in the different calculations only in the age of Euler and
Gauss.
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Appendix

We shall use very often in the complex analysis the following differential operators:

= + ,
= i ,
z z
x z z y
(A.1/5)

1

1

= i ,
= + i .
z 2 x
y z 2 x
y
We define the complex function as follows:
f (z) = f (x + iy) = u (x,y) + i v (x,y),
(A.1/6)
where u (x, y) is the real and v (x, y) is the imaginary part of the complex function. For
example:
f ( z ) = az 2 + bz = a( x + iy )2 + b( x + iy ) =

= ax 2 ay 2 + bx + i (2axy + by )
u ( x, y ) = ax 2 ay 2 + bx, v( x, y ) = 2axy + by.
Similarly to a complex number a complex function has also a conjugate pair:
f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) iv( x, y ).

(A.1/7)

The differentiation of the complex functions is also very important in the engineering
practice. Assuming the continuity of the functions we can define the differentiation at a
point z0 in a given domain D as follows:
f ( z0 + z ) f ( z0 )
(A.1/8)
f ( z0 ) = limz0
.

z
If a complex function f(z) is differentiable in every points of the domain D, we call it
analytic (or holomorphic) function. Those points, where a function is not analytic we
shall call singular points.
Let us apply now the differential operators (A.1/5) for the function f (z):

1 u v 1 v u
f ( z ) = (u + iv) = + + i .
z
2 x y 2 x y

(A.1/9)

Because the value of derivative defined by (A.1/8) will not depend from the path, where
the value of z tends to zero, so the relationship (A.1/9) must give the same result in
both cases either x = 0 or y = 0 . According to this statement we can write (A.1/9)
as follows:
1 u 1 v 1 v 1 u
f ( z ) = + i = + i .
(A.1/10)
2 x 2 x 2 y 2 y
From comparison of the real and imaginary parts we obtain the so called CauchyRiemann equalities:
u v
u
v
(A.1/11)
=
,
= .
x y
y
x
If we use polar coordinates then (A.1/11) has the following form:
u 1 v
1 u
v
=
,
= .
(A.1/12)
r r
r
r
From further differentiations of (A.1/11) we can proof that both u and v are harmonic
functions:

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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

u = 0, v = 0 .
(A.1/13)
There is also an important comment, that using (A.1/11) we can write the total
differentiation of u with the help of the function v:
u
u
v
v
(A.1/14)
du =
d x+
dy=
d x d y ,
x
y
y
x
namely if we know v, from (A.1/14) we can determine u. This is right of course in
opposite order, from u we can calculate the function v. Based on this nature u and v are
called conjugate functions.
Let us discuss now the most important integral calculation rules on a complex
domain, using figure A.1.2:
y

z2

Figure A.1.2:
Path of integral
calculation
in a complex domain

z1
x

Let us write along the curve C the line integral between the points z1 and z2

f ( z ) d z = (u + iv)(d x + i d y ) = ((u d x v d y ) + i (u d y + v d x )) . (A.1/15)

C

With the help of the Cauchy-Riemann equalities we can proof that the function is
analytic in every points of the domain D containig the curve C, then the value of the line
integral is independent from the path between the points z1 and z2 . From this statement
we can generate two important rules of complex functions:
-

If the function f(z) is analytic inside and in all points of a closed curve C, then

f ( z) d z = 0 .

(A.1/16/a)

This is the so called Cauchy integral theorem.

-

If the function f(z) is analytic inside and in all points of a closed curve C,
furthermore z0 is a point inside the curve, then f ( z0 ) can be calculated as follows:
1
f ( z)
f ( z0 ) =
dz.
(A.1/16/b)

2i C z z0
This is the so called Cauchy integral formula.

We must often approximate a complex function with some kind of series. If f(z)
is analytic inside a closed curve C with the centre z = a, then we can approximate it
inside the curve with a Taylor series:
f ( n) a)
(A.1/17)
f ( z ) = f ( a ) + f ( a ) ( z a ) + ... ... +
( z a ) n + ...
n!
If a = 0 then (A.1/16) gives the Maclaurin series. From practical point of view it is an
interesting case when we have to make the series for the points lying between two

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Appendix

concentric curves C1 and C2 (we assume that C1 > C2 ). In these cases we generate
Laurent series:

Bn
,
(A.1/18/a)
f ( z ) = An ( z a ) n +
n
n=0
n =1 ( z a )
where
1
f ( z)
1
f ( z)
An =
d z , n = 0,1, 2,..and Bn =
d z , n = 1, 2,...

n +1
2i C ( z z0 )
2i C ( z z0 ) n+1
(A.1/18/b)
1

If the analyzed domain contains singularities, the we must use different methods. We
discuss now only a specific type of the singularitis, this will be the so called pole
singularity. If f(z) is singular at the point z = a, but the product ( z a ) n f ( z ) is analytic
at any integer value of n, then the function f(z) has an n-order pole at the point z = a. In
this case we can approximate the product itself with a series at the point z = a:

1 dk
( z a) n f ( z ) = Ak ( z a) k , Ak =
{( z a)n f ( z)} . (A.1/19)
k
k ! dz
k =0
z=a
We obtain from this equation f(z) as follows:

( z a)k
.
(A.1/20)
f ( z ) = Ak
k =0
( z a)n
Let us integrate this relationship along a closed curve C, and the point a let be inside the
curve. Using the Cauchy integral formula we have:
(A.1/21)

f ( z ) d z = 2i An1 .
C

The terms An1 are the residuum of the function f(z) at the pole z = a. If we know its
value, then we can determine the integral itself even in this singular case. Using the the
second term of the relationship (A.1/19):
1

d n1
n

.
f
(
z
)
d
z
=
2

i
(
z

a
)
f
(
z
)
(A.1/22)
{
}


n1

C
(n 1)! d z

z=a
If we have more poles in one domain, then we determine the integral also with the help
of (A.1/22), but in this case we must summarize the residuum of all poles. This process
is called residuum calculation method in the complex calculus. If we apply this
technique together with the Cauchy integral formula, then we obtain the following
practical relations:
0, if n > 0,
1
1
d

=
(A.1/23)

1, if n = 0.
2i C n ( z )
where C means now a circle with unit radius, and z lies inside the circle.
As a last mathematical problem of this short summary we mention the complex
conformal transformation. In this case (see figure A.1.3/a) we generate a definite
conformal transformation between the complex domains R and D (the word
conformal means that during the transformation the angle between two arbitrary line
elements will not change):

z = w(), = f ( z )

z = w(), = f ( z )
y

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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

r=1
R

z plane

x
z plane

plane

a./ Connection between the domains

plane

b./ Transformation to a circle with

unit radius

Figure A.1.3: Complex conformal transformation

The variables of the domains can be connected in definite way to each other, we always
know the
z = w(), = f ( z )
(A.1/24)
functions. In many practical problems we select the domain D as a circle with unit
radius, see figure A.1.3/b. In this case the transformation

z = ck k

(A.1/25)

k =0

might be very practical, here the constants ck can be calculated from knowledge of
geometry of the domain R. In the problems of the fracture mechanics we transform
mostly the external part of the domain R into the unit circle. A possible version of the
transformation in this case can be seen in the relationship (A.1/26):

C
(A.1/26)
z = + ck k ,
k =0
where the coefficients C and ck can be calculated with the help of geometry of the
domain R. The literature suggest the work of Kober [1952] , as an excellent collection of
complex conformal transformations for practical engineering problems.

2. Description of the mathematical and continuum-mechanical

background of the mechanical modeling of heterogeneous materials2
2.1. Mathematical basis. Application of Greens functions
The analytical solutions of problems related to the existence of cracks (and inclusions,
inhomogeneities, etc.) might be based on the application of Greens functions too.
To understand the formulae given in different chapters of the Fracture Mechanics,
we introduce the most important mathematical expressions from the Fourier series to
Greens functions through the integral transforms.
2

The 2nd and 3rd points of this Appendix were made with the help of the proper chapters of the
Student Scientific Work of Edit Gbor [ 2014] . Her complete work could be download from
the website of the department of Structural Mechanics.
5

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Appendix

2.1.1. Fourier series and Fourier integrals

2.1.1.1. Fourier series
The Fourier series of a function f ( x ) , where f ( x ) is a continuous, integrable

f(x)

function defined on the interval [ c, c] :

a
k x
k x
f ( x) = 0 + ak cos
+ bk sin
. (A.2/1)
c
c
2 k =1
The coefficients ak and bk ( k : integer):
c

1
k x
ak = f ( x ) cos
d x, n = 0,1, 2,... ,
c c
c

(A.2./2)

bk =

1
n x
f ( x ) sin
d x, n = 1, 2,... ,

c c
c

(A.2/3)

If f ( x ) were an odd function (Figure A.2.1A.2.1): f ( x ) = f ( x),

then an = 0 ( n = 0,1, 2,...) , thereby we can express

f ( x ) as a sinusoidal function with the help of its Fourier

series extension. If f ( x ) were an even function (

Figure

Figure A.2.1: Odd function

f(x)

A.2.2A.2.2): f ( x ) = f ( x ) , then bn = 0 ( n = 1, 2,...) ,

hence its Fourier series extension will not include the
sinusoidal term.

2.1.1.2. Double Fourier series

Let n ( , ) be a set of continuous functions defined on

the region a a , b b. The set of functions is
orthogonal, if
(A.2/4)
n ( , )m ( , ) d d = 0, n m .

Figure A.2.2 Even function

The norm of n ( , ) :
1

2
n = 2 n ( , ) d d .

We say that a set of function is normalized, if: n = 1 .

(A.2/5)

It is possible to extend a function of two variables f ( , ) in terms of n ( , )

orthogonal functions:

f ( , ) = cnn ( , ) .

(A.2/6)

n =0

The coefficients can be calculated based on the orthogonality of the functions:

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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

f ( , ) ( , ) d d
n

cn =

2
n ( , ) d d

(A.2/7)

If the orthogonal set of functions are normalized, the denominator in (A.2/7) is

2
n ( , ) d d = 1 , and the coefficients become:

cn = f ( , ) n ( , ) d d .

(A.2/8)

2.1.1.3. Double trigonometric series

Considering the orthogonal set of functions:
1, cos ( mx ) , sin ( mx ) , cos ( ny ) , sin ( ny ) ,
cos ( mx ) cos ( ny ) , sin ( mx ) cos ( ny ) ,
cos ( mx ) sin ( ny ) , sin ( mx ) sin ( ny ) , ... ( n, m = 1, 2, 3,...)
defined on the region x , y , it is leading to the system:
1
amn = 2 f ( x, y ) cos ( mx ) cos ( ny ) d x d y ,

bmn =
cmn =
d mn =

2
1

2
1

(A.2/9)

y x

f ( x, y ) sin ( mx ) cos ( ny ) d x d y ,

(A.2/10)

y x

f ( x, y ) cos ( mx ) sin ( ny ) d x d y ,

(A.2.11)

y x

f ( x, y ) sin ( mx ) sin ( ny ) d x d y ,

(A.2.12)

y x

with m, n = 1, 2,... . Extending the possible values that m, n can take by either m = 0 or

n = 0 , the series expansion of function f ( x, y ) can be written as:

f ( x, y ) =

mn

(amn cos(mx) cos(ny ) + bmn sin(mx) cos(ny ) + cmn cos(mx) sin(ny ) +

m,n=0

+ d mn sin(mx)sin(ny ))
(A.2 / 13)
with the coefficients
1
for m = n = 0,
4

1
mn =
for m > 0, n = 0 or m = 0, n > 0,
(A.2/14)
2
1
for m, n > 0.

The x, y [ , , ] variables and domain can be transformed into

, [ a, a b, b] , where x =

, y=

2.1.1.4. Integral transforms

7

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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

The function f ( x ) has a convergent integral3 on [ 0,] if

I f ( ) = f ( x ) K ( x ) d x

(A.2/15)

is convergent. I f ( ) is the integral transform of function f ( x ) by kernel4 K ( x ) .

If (A.2/15) is satisfied by only one particular f ( x ) , then the integral (A.2/15) has an
inverse form:

f ( x ) = I f ( ) H( x) d .

(A.2/16)

If K ( x ) = H ( x ) , then K ( x ) is a Fourier kernel, and the integral transform of

function f ( x ) by a Fourier kernel K ( x ) is called the Fourier transform F ( ) of the
function:

F ( ) = f ( x ) K ( x ) d x .

(A.2/17)

The Mellin transform K ( s ) of kernel K ( x ) :

K ( s ) = K ( x ) x s 1 d x ,

(A.2/18)

where the kernel K ( x ) itself is transformed by the Mellin kernel

M ( x, s ) = x s 1 .

(A.2/19)

If K ( x ) is a Fourier kernel, it has the property

An infinite series

f ( n ) of non-negative terms f ( x )

defined on the unbounded interval

n =0

[0,]

on which it is monotone decreasing, converges to a real number if and only if the

improper integral

f ( x ) d x is finite. In this case, the improper integral is the limit of a definite

0

integral as the endpoint of the interval of integration approaches to infinity: lim f ( x ) d x . If

b

the improper integral is finite, then the proof also gives the lower and upper bound for the

infinite series:

n =0

f ( x) d x f (n ) f (0) + f ( x) d x .

An integral transform is a particular type of mathematical operator, where the input is a

function f ( x ) , the output is another function I f ( ) dependent on the choice of the kernel

function K ( x ) of variables x and . There are some special integral transforms, such as
Fourier transform, the Mellin transform (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellin_transform , see:
H. Mellin: "ber die fundamentelle Wichtigkeit des Satzes von Cauchy fr die Theorie der
Gamma- und hypergeometrischen Funktionen", Acta Soc. Sci. Fennica, 21:1 (1896) pp. 1115),
and the identity transform (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_transform), they are
dependent only on the applied kernel function.
8
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

K ( s ) K (1 s ) = 1 .

(A.2/20)

2.1.1.5. Dirichlets conditions

Dirichlets conditions give integrability properties of a given function f ( x ) .

f(x)

f(ai-0)

Figure A.2.3: A function f ( x )

satisfying Dirichlets conditions

f(ai+0)

a a1 ai

ai+1

...

an

A function f ( x ) satisfies Dirichlets conditions if f ( x ) has only finite number n of

extrema and of finite discontinuities in interval [ a, b] (Figure A.2.3). If f ( x ) satisfies
Dirichlets conditions in [ a, b] , then in each subinterval defined between an extremum
or discontinuity ai and ai +1 , the function is monotone increasing or decreasing and
b

lim f ( x ) sin( x) d x = 0 ,

lim f ( x ) cos( x ) d x = 0 ,

(A.2/21)

a
b

(A.2/22)

where means that the upper bound b of the definite integral approaches infinity,
resulting in an improper integral.
The function f ( x ) can be expanded in a Fourier series which converges to the function

f ( x ) at continuous points, and to the mean of the positive and negative limits
1
( f ( x + 0) + f ( x 0)) at points of discontinuity:
2
if a < 0 < b,
f ( x + 0) + f ( x 0)

b
f ( x + 0)
if a = 0 < b,
(A.2 / 23)
2
sin(u )

lim f ( x + u )
du =

if a < 0 = b,
f ( x 0)
u
a

0
if 0 < a < b or a < b < 0.
If f ( x ) satisfies Dirichlets conditions, then

1
1
( f ( x + 0) + f ( x 0)) = d f (u ) cos( (u x)) d u ,
2
0

at points of discontinuity and at continuous points

1
1
f ( x ) = ( f ( x + 0) + f ( x 0)) = d f (u ) cos( (u x )) d u .
2
0

(A.2/24)

(A.2/25)

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Appendix

2.2.2.6. Integral theorems

If a function f ( x ) has a convergent integral in interval [ 0,] and satisfies Dirichlets
conditions, we can extend f ( x ) in interval [ ,0] such that f ( x ) = f ( x ) , i.e. by
constructing an even function. In this case, from (A.2/24) comes

2
2
f ( x) = cos( x) d f ( ) cos( ) d =
Fc ( ) cos( x) d , (A.2/26)

where the Fourier cosine transform of f ( x ) is defined as

Fc ( ) =

f ( ) cos( ) d .

(A.2.27)

If we extend f ( x ) in the interval [ ,0] such that f ( x ) = f ( x ) , i.e. by constructing

an odd function, then, similarly to (A.2/26):

2
2
f ( x) = sin( x) d f ( ) sin( ) d =
Fs ( ) sin( x) d , (A.2/28)

where the Fourier sine transform of f ( x ) is

Fs ( ) =

f ( )sin( ) d .

(A.2/29)

Noting that
m

cos ( ( x ) ) d = 2 cos ( ( x ) ) d ,
m

(A.2/30)

sin ( ( x ) ) d = 0 ,

(A.2/31)

from (A.2/25) it can be written that

m
1
f ( x ) = lim f ( ) d cos ( ( x ) ) d =
m

0
= lim

(A.2/32)

1
i x
f ( ) d e ( ) d
2 m

which further implies

f ( x) =

1
2

i
i x
e d f ( )e d .

(A.2/33)

The Fourier integral of a function f ( x ) is defined as

1
f ( x) =
2

F ( )e

i x

d ,

(A.2/34/a)

where

1
f ( x)ei x d x .
(A.2/34/b)

2
The Fourier integrals can be considered as limiting cases of the Fourier series, where
c in (A.2/1).
F ( ) =

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Appendix

2.1.1.7. Convolution integrals

The convolution theorems can be used to evaluate integrals. The convolution of
functions f ( x ) and g ( x ) is defined as

( f g )( x ) =

f ( x ) g ( ) d .

(A.2/35)

Let us consider the Fourier transforms

1
F (t ) =
f ( x)eitx d x ,

G (t ) =

(A.2/36)

1
2

g ( x )e

itx

dx.

(A.2/37)

The convolution of f ( x ) and g ( x ) can be written with the help of their Fourier
transforms F ( t ) and G ( t ) as

( f g )( x ) = F (t )G (t )e

itx

dt =

f ( x ) g ( ) d .

(A.2/38)

In a special case, when x = 0 , the convolution ( f g )( x ) can be written as

( f g )( 0 ) = F (t )G(t ) d t =

f ( ) g ( ) d .

(A.2/39)

If f ( x ) is an even function, i.e. f ( x ) = f ( x ) , then we can replace F ( t ) with the

Fourier cosine transform Fc ( t ) and G ( t ) with Gc ( t ) , respectively (see (A.2/27)).
Hence, (A.2/39) becomes

( f g )( 0 ) = Fc (t )Gc (t ) d t = f ( ) g ( ) d .

(A.2/40)

2.1.1.8. Fourier transforms of derivatives of a function

The formula for the Fourier transform of the r -th derivative of a function f ( x ) can be
obtained by integrating by parts

1
d r f ( x) i x
F ( r ) ( ) =
e dx.
(A.2/41)
r

2 d x
The general formula can be written as
(A.2/42)
F ( r ) ( ) = (i ) r F ( ) .

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Appendix

h(s)

2.1.1.9. Dirac delta function

Figure A.2.4: Identity transform

of function f ( s )

1/e
f(s)

by kernel ( s, a )

a-e/2

a+e/2

It can be seen in Figure A.2.4 that the improper integral of the step function ( s, a )
along s yields

( s, a ) d s = 2 2 = 1 .

(A.2/43)

By expanding f ( s ) around point s = a , only the first term of its Taylor series will
nonzero be. Thus,

lim ( s, a ) f ( s ) d s = f (a) .
0

(A.2/44)

Note that

lim ( s, a ) = at s = a

(A.2/45)

lim ( s, a ) = 0 at s a .

(A.2/46)

and
0

Let us define the Dirac delta function such that

lim ( s , a ) ( s a ) ,
0

(A.2/47)

and

f ( s ) ( s a) d s = f (a) ,

(A.2/48)

with
if s = a,
(A.2/49)
0 if s a.
Regarding the case a = 0 , the Dirac delta function can be written as
if s = 0,
(s) =
(A.2/50)
0 if s 0,
hence, from (A.2/43), the integral of the Dirac delta function over an unbounded region
is always of unit magnitude:

( s a) =

(s) d s = 1 .

(A.2/51)

From the property (A.2/48) the Dirac delta function ( s a ) is also considered as the
kernel function of the identity transform (see figure A.2.4).

12
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Appendix

2.1.2. Greens function

2.1.2.1. General definition of Greens function
In general, Greens function G ( x, s ) is the impulse response of an inhomogeneous
partial differential equation
Lu ( x ) = f ( x )
(A.2.52)
defined on a domain with prescribed boundary or initial conditions:
Du ( x ) = 0 .
(A.2/53)
At time-invariant, linear problems, the impulse response G ( x, s ) of a linear
transformation L = L ( x ) acting at point x = s , is the image of the Dirac delta function

( x s ) under the transformation:

LG ( x, s ) = ( x s ) ,
(A.2/54)
where the case x s results in a homogeneous equation due to the property of Diracs
delta function given in (A.2/49). If the kernel of L is non-trivial, then the Greens
function of the problem is not unique. In general, due to the prescribed boundary or
initial conditions, Greens function is always unique.
The convolution of Greens function G ( x, s ) with any arbitrary function f ( s ) on that
domain is the solution for the inhomogeneous differential equation for f ( s ) :

LG ( x, s ) f ( s ) d s = ( x s ) f ( s ) d s = f ( x ) ,

(A.2/55)

where the Dirac delta function appeared as a kernel function of the identity transform
(see (A.2/48)). Substituting (A.2/52 into (A.2/55) we have
(A.2/56)
Lu ( x ) = LG ( x, s ) f ( s ) d s .
Since the linear operator L is only a function of x , it can be taken out from the
integration along s and
(A.2/57)
Lu ( x ) = L G ( x, s ) f ( s ) d s ,
which implies
u ( x ) = G ( x, s ) f ( s ) d s .

(A.2/58)

It is the exact solution of the inhomogeneous partial differential equation (A.2/52). The
difficult part of finding the solution with the help of Greens function is finding the
Greens function itself for a given linear operator L . Moreover, the evaluation of the
integration in (A.2/57) is quite complicated, but this method gives a theoretically exact
result for inhomogeneous partial differential equations.

2.1.2.2. Mechanical interpretation of Greens function

In applied mechanics, Greens functions are used to solve inhomogeneous boundary
value problems, such as the general boundary value problem of mechanics defined in
the following, where body forces appearing in the elastic media are also considered. In
anisotropic elastic media, the equilibrium equations (Cauchy equations):
i j , j + bi = 0 ,
(A.2/59)
where bi is the vector of body force per unit volume.
13
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

The constitutive equations:

i j = Ci j k l kl = Ci j k l uk ,l ,

(A.2/60)

where k l denotes the small elastic strains and Ci j k l stands for the elastic stiffness tensor
of the media. Substituting the stresses in (A.2/60) into the equilibrium equation (F.2/59),
we obtain:
m
Ci j k l uk ,l j = bi .
(A.2/61)
If bi is concentrated, acts at point x = x ' in
direction xm , and its magnitude is unity, then

0
if i m,

bi =
(A.2/62)
( x x ') if i = m,
or it can be written as:
bi = im ( x x ') ( i = 1, 2,3) , (A.2/63)

x'

bm

x-x'
x

where ( x x ') is the Dirac delta function and

i j indicates the Kronecker delta tensor:

1 if i = j ,
(A.2./64)
0 if i j.
Based on (A.2/63), equation (A.2/61) can be
rewritten in a form
Ci j k l uk( m,l )j = im ( x x ') , (A.2/65)

ij =

Figure A.2.5:
Physical meaning of
m
displacement uk( )

uk(m)

where the physical meaning of uk( ) is (Figure A.2.): the component of displacement u
in the k -th direction at point x , caused by a point force acting in the m -th direction at
m

point x '. Displacement uk( ) generates a connection between two vectors, thereby this
quantity is a tensor, and this is the Greens function Gmk of the boundary value problem
under consideration:
m
(A.2/66)
u k( ) = Gmk .
Greens function is always symmetric, Gmk = Gkm , therefore (A.2/65) can be written in
the form
Ci j k l Gk m , l j ( x, x ') = im ( x x ') .
(A.2/67)
The requirement for Greens function is the influence of the point force to vanish
sufficiently rapid in the physical space:
1
1
Gkm ~
= as r ,
(A.2/68)
x x' r
m

i.e. the displacements at x caused by the point force at x ' vanish as the distance x x '
tends to infinity. The solution of (A.2/59) can be obtained with the help of the Fourier
transform of Greens function:

g km ( K ) =

km

( x, x ')eiK x d 3 x ,

(A.2/69)

hence, the Fourier-integral of Greens function is:

1
Gkm ( x , x ') =
g km ( K )e iK x d3 K ,
3
(2 )

(A.2/70)

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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

where K is the Fourier vector in Fourier space. Multiplying (A.2/67) by eiK ( x x ') and
integrating over the unbounded domain, we have

i jkl

Gkm,l j ( x, x ')e

iK ( x x ')

d x = im ( x x ')eiK ( x x ') d3 x ,
3

(A.2/71)

where d3 x = d3 ( x x ') because of the fixed position of x ' . Taking into account
(A.2/68), integration by parts yield

K j K l Ci j k l Gkm ( x, x ') d 3 ( x x ') = im .

(A.2/72)

If we define a unit vector T along vector x x ' , we can express Greens function as
sgn ( s )
(A.2/73)
Gkm ( x , x ' ) = Gkm ( sT ) =
Gkm (T ) ,
s
and the n -th derivative of Greens function:
sgn( s )
(A.2/74)
Gkm ,1 2 ... n ( x , x ') = Gkm ,1 2 ... n ( sT ) =
Gkm ,1 2 ... n (T ) ,
sn
where s is an algebraically signed scalar expressing the distance between x and x ' .

2.1.2.3. Isotropic Greens function

In case of isotropic elastic media, we can define the elastic stiffness tensor Ci j k l with
the help of the Kronecker delta tensor i j and Lams constants and :
Ci j k l = ij kl + ( ik jl + il jk ) .
The isotropic Greens function can be expressed by
1
+ 2
2
Gkm ( x x ') =

km
x x'
8
+ 2 xk xm
with
2
2 x x ' =
.
x x'
The displacement uk(

m)

(A.2/75)

(A.2/76)

(A.2/77)

is independent of the positions x and x ' , it is only the function

of the distance x x ' between them, resulting in Greens function being translation
invariant. At linear, time-invariant problems, Greens function is always translationinvariant, and due to this property, it acts as a convolution operator:
G ( x, x ' ) = G ( x x ' ) .
(A.2/78)

2.2. Mechanical basis. Definitions of eigenstrains and eigenstresses, basic equations

2.2.1. General theory of eigenstrains
2.2.1.1. Definition of eigenstrains
Eigenstrains are such nonelastic strains as thermal expansion, phase transformation,
initial strains, plastic strains or misfit strains. This type of strain appears in a body even
if there is no external load acting on it.

15
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

Eigenstresses are such self-equilibrated internal stresses caused by eigenstrains in

bodies which are free from any other external force and surface constraints. This stress
field is created by the incompatibility of the eigenstrains.

2.2.1.1. Fundamental equations of elasticity

If a free body D is subjected to a given distribution of eigenstrains, otherwise it is free
from any external surface or body force, then the actual strain ( i j ) can be computed
as the sum of the eigenstrains ( ij ) and the elastic strains ( ei j ) defined by Hookes law
in elastic bodies:
i j = ei j + i j .
(A.2/79)
The compatibility equation written for the total strain:
1
(A.2/80)
i j = (ui , j + u j ,i ) .
2
The connection between the elastic strains and stresses:
i j = Ci j k l ekl = Ci j k l ( kl kl ) ,
(A.2/81)
and its inverse form:
i j i j = C 1i j k l k l ,
(A.2/82)
which for isotropic materials can be expressed with the help of Lams constant
(also known as shear modulus) and Poissons ratio :

i j k k
1
(A.2/83)
i j
.
2
1 +
If body D is not free from external forces, then the actual stress field is the sum of the
eigenstress of the free body and the solution of the boundary value problem. The
equations of equilibrium if we neglect the body forces:
i j , j = 0, i = 1, 2,3 .
(A.2/84)
The boundary conditions for free external surface forces:
i jnj = 0 ,
(A.2/85)
i j i j =

where ni is the outward unit normal vector on the surface of D .

We can express the stress field with the help of eigenstrains and the displacement field
based on (A.2/80) and (A.2/81):
i j = Ci j k l (uk ,l kl ) .
(A.2/86)
The conditions (A.2/84) and (A.2/85) yield:
Ci j k l uk ,l j = Ci j k l kl , j ,
(A.2/87)

Ci j k l uk ,l n j = Ci j k l kl n j .

(A.2/88)

From (A.2/87) we can see that the eigenstrain contributes as a body force bi :
Ci j k l uk ,l j = bi .

(A.2/89)

16
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

It is also visible that in (A.2/88) the eigenstrain behaves like a surface force on the
boundary of D . Summarizing these two observations, the elastic displacement field in
an elastic body caused by a given eigenstrain ij is equivalent to that caused by a body
force Ci j k l kl , j and surface force Ci j k l kl n j . In most cases, D
is considered as an infinitely extended body, thus (A.2/85) can be
replaced with the following condition:
ij (x) 0 as x .
(A.2/90)
The compatibility conditions can be given with the help of the
third-order Levi-Civita permutation tensor pki :

p k i q l j i j ,k l = 0 .

(A.2/91)

Figure A.2.6: Uniform eigenstrain ij in an

The fundamental equations to be
solved are equations (A.2/87). ellipsoidal domain in an infinitely extended body
Several methods for calculating the
D
associated elastic fields under a given distribution of eigenstrains were developed. The
most important one was made by Eshelby [1951,1957,1959,1961] , when a uniform
eigenstrain is given in an ellipsoidal domain in an infinitely extended medium D (see
Figure A.2.6). The results are useful regarding the mechanical properties of solids that
contain precipitates, inclusions, voids and/or cracks.

2.2.2. General expressions of elastic fields for given eigenstrain distributions

2.2.2.1. Periodic solutions
If the eigenstrain is given in the form of a single wave of amplitude ij , which is a
function of the wave vector :

ij ( x ) = ij ( )ei x ,
the corresponding displacement field can also be written in the form:
i x
ui ( x ) = ui ( )e .

(A.2/92)
(A.2/93)

In Mura [1987 ] one can find explicit expressions for the resulting elastic field:
ui ( x ) = iC j l m n m n ( ) l N ij ( ) D 1 ( )e

i x

(A.2/94)

1
(A.2/95)
2
i j ( x ) = Ci j k l C p q m n m n ( ) q l N k p ( ) D 1 ( )ei x kl ( x ) , (A.2/96)

i j ( x ) = Ck l m n m n ( ) l ( j N ik ( ) + i N jk ( ) ) D 1 ( )ei x ,

with
Ki k ( ) = Ci j k l jl ,

(A.2/97)

D ( ) = m nl K m1 K n 2 K l 3 ,

(A.2/98)

1
(A.2/99)
N ij ( ) = i k l j m n K k m K l n .
2
The periodic solution was used by Mura [1964] for periodic distributions of dislocations

and by Khachaturyan [1967 ] for a coherent inclusion of a new phase.

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Appendix

2.2.2.2. Method of Fourier series and Fourier integrals

If the eigenstrain is given in the Fourier series form:
ij ( x ) = ij ( )ei x ,
(A.2/100)
its solution is the superposition of the elastic fields of single waves of the form (A.2/92):
i x
u i ( x ) = i C j l m n m n ( )l N i j ( ) D 1 ( )e ,
(A.2/101)
1
i x
Ck l m n m n ( ) l ( j Ni k ( ) + i N j k ( ) ) D 1 ( ) e ,
2
i j ( x ) = Ci j k l C p q m n m n ( ) ql N k p ( ) D 1 ( ) ei x kl ( x ) .

i j ( x) =

(A.2/102)
(A.2/103)

If ij is given in the Fourier integral form:

ij

( x) =

ij

( )e

i x

d ,

(A.2/104)

where

ij ( ) = (2 )3 ij ( x ) e i x d x ,

(A.2/105)

the corresponding displacement, strain and stress field:

u i ( x ) = i C j l m n m n ( ) l N i j ( ) D 1 ( ) e

i x

d ,

(A.2/106)

1
i j ( x ) = Ck l m n m n ( ) l ( j N ik ( ) + i N jk ( ) ) D 1 ( ) ei x d ,
2

(A.2/107)

i j ( x ) = Ci j k l C p q m n m n ( ) q l N k p ( ) D 1 ( )ei x d kl ( x ) . (A.2/108)

2.2.2.3. Method of Greens functions

The integral representations of the elastic field can also be given with the help of Greens
functions, it is called the fundamental solution. If Greens function5 Gi j ( x, x ') is
defined as:

Gi j ( x x ') = (2 )

ij

( ) D 1 ( ) e

i ( x x ')

d ,

(A.2/109)

the solution:

ui ( x ) = C j l m n m n ( x ')Gi j ,l ( x x ') d x ' ,

(A.2.110)

i j ( x) =

1
Ck l m n m n ( x ')(Gi k ,l j ( x x ') + G j k ,l i ( x x ')) d x ' , (A.2/111)

i j ( x ) = Ci j k l C p q m n m n ( x ')Gk p , ql ( x x ') d x '+ kl ( x ) . (A.2/113)

Having the property of translation invariance, Greens function Gi j ( x, x ') is only a function

of the distance between xi and xi ' , thus it can be written as Gij ( x x ') .
18
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

Explicit expressions for Greens functions are only available for isotropic and
transversely isotropic materials, otherwise the Fourier integral forms are more
convenient.

2.2.3. Static Greens functions

The equations of equilibrium with respect to a displacement Gk m ( x x ') when the body
force im ( x x ') is applied:
Ci j k l Gk m,l j ( x x ') + i m ( x x ') = 0 .

(A.2/114)

2.2.3.1. Isotropic materials

For isotropic materials, Lord Kelvin found the Greens function, expressing it with the
help of Lams constants , and/or Poissons ratio :

( + 2 ) ij 2 ( + )i j

Gi j ( x ) = (2 )3

( + 2 )

i x

d =
,

xi x j

1
=
(3 4 ) ij + 2
16 (1 ) x
x

(A.2/114)

where x 'i is taken as zero without the loss of generality, and x = ( xi xi ) 2 .

The expression for Greens function is usually given as a line integral. Let us define a
unit sphere S 2 in the -space centered at the origin of the coordinates i (Figure A.2.7).
Greens function at point xi can be expressed by a line integral along the unit circle S 1
which lies on the plane perpendicular to xi :

Gi j ( x ) =

(2 ) 2
2

(2 )
=
2x

( x x )
S

S

( + 2 ) ij ( + )i j

( + 2 )

( + 2 ) ij ( + )i j

( + 2 )

d S ( ) =
(A.2/115)

d,

where i j = i j and xi = x xi . is an angle on the plane perpendicular to xi , bounded

by the unit circle S 1 , and the starting line of measuring this angle is arbitrary.

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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

Figure A.2.7: Unit sphere S 2 and unit circle S 1 in -space

2.2.3.2. Anisotropic materials

For anisotropic materials, the surface- and line integral expression of Greens functions
are the following:
1
1
Gi j ( x ) = 2 ( x x ) Ni j ( ) D 1 ( ) d S ( ) = 2
Ni j ( ) D 1 ( ) d . (A.2/116)
8 S 2
8 x S1

2.2.3.3. Krners formula

Since N i j ( ) D 1 ( ) is a continuous function on S 2 , it can be extended into a series of
surface harmonic functions, which is any linear combination of spherical harmonics (set
of solution of Laplaces equation):

N ij ( ) D 1 ( ) = U n ( ) ,

(A.2/117)

n=0

where

U n ( ) =

2n + 1
Pn ( ') Nij ( ') D 1 ( ') d S ( '), n = 0,1, 2,...

4 S 2

(A.2/118)

and Pn is the Legendre polynomial6. The solution of Legendres differential equation

for n = 0,1, 2,... form a polynomial sequence of orthogonal polynomials called the
Legendre polynomials. Each Pn ( z ) polynomial is an n -th degree polynomial:
1 dn
Pn (z) = n
2 n ! dz n

(( z 1) ) .
2

(A.2/119)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendre_polynomials
20

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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

Krners formula is a series expression of Greens function for general

materials using surface harmonic functions:
1
Gi j ( x ) =
Pn (0)U n ( x ) .
4 x n =0
Krners formula was modified by Mura and Kinoshita [1971] , their
continuously differentiable:
1
Gi j ( x ) =
Ni j ( ) D 1 ( ) x d S ( ) .
16 2 S2

anisotropic
(A.2.120)
solution is
(A.2/121)

2.2.3.4. Derivatives of Greens functions

We note that in the solution of eigenstrain problems we usually need the derivatives of
Greens function. The formulae can be found in the previous section in (A.2/74),
furthermore in Mura [1987 ] found by Barnett [1972] and Willis [1975] .

3. Mechanical study on the environment of inclusions. Analytical

solutions for determination of the resulting elastic field
3.1. Inclusions
3.1.1. Definition of inclusion
When an eigenstrain is prescribed in a finite subdomain in a homogeneous material D ,
and it is zero in the matrix defined by D , then is called an inclusion and D is
called matrix (
Figure A.3.1.:
Inclusion with eigenstrain ij
in homogeneous body D
, C,

). The elastic moduli in the inclusion and in theD,matrix

is assumed to be the same.
C

Figure A.3.1.:
Inclusion with eigenstrain ij
in homogeneous body D

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Appendix

The elastic field due to the inclusion can be written with the help of Greens functions:
(A.3/1)
ui ( x ) = C j l m n m n ( x ')Gi j ,l ( x x ') d x ' ,

i j ( x) =

1
Ck l m n m n ( x ')(Gi k ,l j ( x x ') + G j k ,l i ( x x ')) d x ' ,

i j ( x ) = Ci j k l C p q m n m n ( x ')Gk p ,ql ( x x ') d x '+ kl ( x ) ,

or, considering its Fourier integral forms:

(A.3/2)
(A.3/3)

ui ( x ) = i (2 )

( x ')l Nij ( ) D 1 ( )ei ( x x ') d d x ' , (A.3/4)

j l mn mn

i j ( x) =

= (2 )

,
1
i ( x x ')

1
C

(
x
')

N
(

)
+

N
(

)
D
(

)
e
d

d
x
'
(
)
k
l
m
n
m
n
l
j
i
k
i
j
k
2

(A.3/5)

i j ( x) =

,(A.3/6)
i ( x x ')
3
= Ci j k l (2 ) C p q m n m n ( x ') q l N k p ( ) D 1 ( )e
d d x ' kl ( x )

where k l ( x ) = 0 for x D .

When the eigenstrain is uniform in an inclusion and has an arbitrary shape, it is

convenient to rewrite (A.3/1) as a surface integral, where is the boundary of :
ui ( x ) = C j l m n m n Gij ( x x ') nl d S .

(A.3/7)

3.1.2. Interface conditions

The eigenstrain field is discontinuous on the boundary of the inclusion, but some
quantities must be continuous, like displacements and tractions. The continuity
conditions:
(A.3/8)
( ui ) jump ui ( S + ) ui (S- ) = 0 ,

( )
ij

jump

n j ( i j ( S + ) i j ( S )) n j = 0 ,

(A.3/9)

where S denotes the interface between the matrix and . The positive side is the one
belonging to the matrix. The displacements can be discontinuous only if the inclusion
can slide on the interfacial surface.
The displacement gradient or distortion is discontinuous at the interface:
( u i, j ) ui, j (S + ) ui, j (S ) = i n j ,
jump

(A.3/10)

where is the proportionality constant, which gives the magnitude of the jump. It is
shown in Mura [1987 ] that the displacement gradient, the strain and the stress field can
be calculated from
(A.3.11)
( ui, j ) = Cl k m n mn nk n j Nil ( n) D1 (n) ,
jump

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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

1
= Cl k m n m n (S ) nk ( n j N i l ( n ) + ni N j l ( n ) ) D 1 ( n ) ,
2
+
i j (S ) i j (S ) =

( )
ij

( )
ij

jump

= Ci j k l

Appendix

jump

( uk ,l ) jump ( kl )

jump

= Ci j k l ( C p q m n m n nq nl N k p ( n ) D 1 ( n ) + kl ).

(A.3.12)

(A.3/13)

Equation (A.3/13) is applicable when computing the strains and stresses just outside the
inclusion, if the strain and stress field is given inside the inclusion. The uniqueness
theorem for inclusion-matrix interface states that if the stress or strain is known locally
at one side of the interface between an inclusion and the surrounding matrix, then their
jumps and consequent values at the other side of the interface are explicitly determinable
in terms of the matrix moduli, the eigenstrain in the inclusion and the interface normal.

3.1.3. Some examples of eigenstrains

Let us consider an aluminum ball under given eigenstrain, let it be thermal strain. First,
there is no constraint, hence no stress is induced by the temperature change.
Consequently, the elastic strain is zero:
ei j = i j ij = M i j k l k l = 0 ,
(A.3/14)
where M i j k l is the fourth-order flexibility matrix7.
The total strain is then equals to the eigenstrain:
i j = ei j + ij = ij = Al T i j ,

(A.3/15)

where Al is the thermal coefficient of aluminum and T is the change of temperature

in the aluminum ball.
Next, let this ball be embedded in a rigid matrix. In this case, the total strain must be
zero because of the rigid constraint:
i j = ei j + ij = 0 .
(A.3/16)
Hence, the elastic strain is no longer zero, which results in a nonzero stress field in the
aluminum ball:
ei j = i j ij = ij = Al T i j ,
(A.3/17)

i j = Ci j k l ek l = Al Cn ni j T .

(A.3/18)

Finally, the aluminum ball is embedded in deformable copper matrix. In both material,
the total strain is nonzero. Due to the deformability, the elastic strain is also nonzero:
i j , Al = ei j , Al + Al TAl i j ,
(A.3/19)

i j ,Cu = ei j ,Cu + Cu TCu i j ,

(A.3/20)
thereby stresses are induced in the ball and in the matrix, too. The associated stress field
cannot be obtained easily, but it is shown above, that stresses exist due to the different
physical behavior of the materials.
7

The 6-by-6 compliance matrix is the inverse of the 6-by-6 stiffness matrix, but this statement
does not hold for the fourth-order compliance and stiffness tensors. In this case, we can use the
1

following equality: ( Ci j ) = Ri k ( C kl1 ) Rl j , where ( Ci j )

is the inverse of the stiffness matrix,

thus, it is the 6-by-6 compliance matrix, ( Cij1 ) is the contracted form of the inverse of the
fourth-order stiffness tensor and Ri j = 1,1,1, 2, 2, 2 is the diagonal Reuter matrix.

23
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

3.1.4. Ellipsoidal inclusion with uniform eigenstrains. Eshelby solution

Consider an ellipsoidal inclusion with given uniform eigenstrain ij in an infinite
domain D . The inclusion is defined by its semi-axes a1 , a2 , a3 (Figure A.3.2:A.3.2):

Figure A.3.2:
Eshelbys solution:
Ellipsoidal inclusion
in x -space with
semi-axes a1 , a2 , a3

2
2
2

x1 x2 x3
= x1 , x2 , x3 ; + + 1 .
(A.3.21)
a1 a2 a3

The eigenstrain distribution is given in the form

for x
.
(A.3.22)
ij ( x ) = i j
0 for x
Applying the Greens function for the solution of the eigenstrain problem, we have

Gmi
( x x ')
(A.3/23)
ui ( x ) = C m j k l kl
d V ( x ') ,
x ' j

i j ( x) = Ck l mn mn
Pi j k l ( x ) ,

i j ( x ) = Ci j k l ( C

pqmn mn k l pq

( x)

(A.3/24)

kl

),

(A.3/25)

where Gij ( x, x ') is the infinite domain Greens function and

Pi j k l ( x ) = ij k l ( x, x ') d V ( x ' ) .

(A.3/26)

The fourth-order tensor ij k l ( x, x ') is defined by

i jkl

2
2
2
2
1 Gk i ( x, x ') Gk j ( x , x ') Gl i ( x , x ') Gl j ( x , x ')
( x, x ') =
+
+
+
.(A.3/27)
4 x j yl
xi yl
x j yk
xi yk

These expressions are valid for x both inside and outside the inclusion. For x the

Pi j k l ( x ) is a constant fourth-order tensor:

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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

Pi j k l ( x ) = Pi j k l =

a1 a2 a3
H i j k l ( ) a 3 D 1 ( ) dS2 ( ), x , (A.3/28)
4 S

where Pi j k l is the Hill polarization tensor8 and

H i j k l ( ) = N i k ( ) j l + N j k ( ) i l + N il ( ) j k + N j l ( ) i k , (A.3/29)

a=

(a ) + (a ) + (a )
1

(A.3/30)

The integration is carried out over the surface of a unit sphere S 2 in -space (fFigure
A.2.7), where

= ( + +
2
1

2
2

1
2 2
3

= .

(A.3/31)
(A.3/32)

Let us introduce a fourth-order tensor

Si j k l ( x) = Cmnk l Pi j mn ( x) ,

(A.3/33)

thus the strain and stress field in D can be rewritten as

i j ( x) = Si j k l ( x) kl ,

(A.3/34)

i j ( x ) = Ci j k l ( S k l m n ( x ) m n kl ) = Ci j k l ( S k l m n ( x ) I k l m n ) m n

(A.3/35)

with I i j k l fourth-order identity tensor:

1
(A.3/36)
( i k j l + i l j k ) .
2
From equations (A.3/28) and (A.3/33), for x , Si j k l ( x ) is also constant, thereby the
total strain and stress field is uniform inside the ellipsoidal inclusion given that the
eigenstrain is uniform:
i j ( x ) = Si j k l kl , x .
(A.3/37)
Ii j k l =

The Si j k l fourth-order tensor is the Eshelby inclusion tensor and equation (A.3/37) is
called the Eshelby ellipsoidal inclusion solution. From Hookes law, the stress field can
easily be obtained:
i j = Ci j k l ( k l kl ) = Ci j k l k l + ij ,
(A.3/38)

ij = Ci j k l kl .

(A.3/39)

ij indicates the stress polarization, which is the stress inside the inclusion caused by
eigenstrain ij when the inclusion is not allowed to deform, that is, the total strain ei j
is zero. It is the case, when in the previous example the aluminum ball with given
thermal strains was embedded into a rigid matrix.
The Eshelby tensor Si j k l is nonsingular, independent of the eigenstrain but it is
dependent on the material of the matrix. About the symmetry of the tensor, in general
the Eshelby tensor does not possess the diagonal symmetry Si j k l S k l i j , but the minor
symmetry Si j k l = S j i k l = Si j l k = S j il k always holds. In case of general anisotropic
8

See: Hill, R.: Continuum micro-mechanics of elastoplastic polycrystals, J. Mech. Phys. Solids,
13, pp. 89-101, 1965.
25

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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

materials, the integration in the Eshelby tensor needs to be carried out numerically. For
isotropic materials, the integral can be rewritten as elliptical integrals and for special
shaped inclusions, explicit expressions can be obtained (see Mura [1987 ] ).
Please note, that Eshelbys ellipsoidal inclusion solution is only valid for material points
inside the inclusion, hence, when computing the strain and stress field in the surrounding
matrix, one has to carry out the integration in (A.3/26) or it is also convenient to use the
solution based on the uniqueness theorem, namely if we know the elastic field inside the
inclusion, we can compute the jump in the required quantities and we get the solution of
the problem for exterior points. Another solution was obtained by Tanaka and Mura
[1982] . For a given stress field i j S inside the inclusion, find the stress field

( )

i j ( S + ) of the exterior points by assuming that is a void and the applied stress is
ij ( S ) . The stress field of the exterior points for the inclusion problem is the sum of

ij ( S ) and ij ( S + ) .
A different approach to determine the elastic field of exterior points is to use Greens
functions. In this case, two integrals should be carried out in order to obtain the
associated stress and strain field:
(A.3/40)
( x) = x x ' dx ' ,

( x) =

1
dx ' .
x x'

(A.3/41)

Norman Macleod Ferrers [1877 ] and Frank Watson Dyson [1891] expressed the above
integrals in terms of the following elliptic integrals (the so-called I-integrals):

ds
,
(A.3/42)
I ( ) = 2 a1 a2 a3
(s)

ds
,
( a + s ) ( s )

(A.3/43)

ds
,
2
( a + s )( a j + s ) ( s )

(A.3/44)

I i ( ) = 2 a1 a2 a3

2
i

I i j ( ) = 2 a1 a2 a3

2
i

where
( s) =

(( a

2
1

+ s )( a 2 2 + s )( a 2 3 + s )

1
2

and is the largest positive root of the equation

x32
x12
x2 2
+
+
= 1.
a 21 +
a 22 +
a 23 +

) (

) (

(A.3/45)

(A.3/46)

For interior points, = 0 . In order to define the elastic field for both exterior and interior
points, one must compute the higher order derivatives of (A.3/40) and (A.3.41). If the
I-integrals are applied, due to the fact, that the lower bound of the integrals (A.3/42)(A.3/44) are only a function of x , the derivatives of I ( ) , Ii ( ) and Ii j ( ) can be
reduced to the derivatives of . The I-integrals are given for ellipsoids (see Mura

26
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

[1987] ), therefore this is the easiest way to determine the elastic field in a material
caused by the presence of inclusions.

3.1.5. Isotropic inclusions

3.1.5.1. Ellipsoidal inclusions with polynomial eigenstrains
Consider an elastic infinite body D with an ellipsoidal inclusion . The eigenstrain on
the inclusion is given in the form
ij ( x) = Bi j k xk + Bi j k l xk xl + ... ,
(A.3/47)
where Bi j k , Bi j k l ,... are constants symmetric with respect to the free indices i and j (e.g.
Bi j k l = Bi j l k ) and the constant term was excluded for the sake of simplicity. The
displacement field of both the interior and exterior points can be expressed with the help
of functions
(A.3/48)
i j ( x ) = x x ' ij ( x ') d x ' ,

i j ( x ) =

ij ( x ')
x x'

dx ' .

(A.3/49)

i j ( x ) and i j ( x ) are the harmonic and biharmonic potentials due to a body of

density ij ( x ) . Substituting the polynomial eigenstrain into the potential functions, we
have
i j ( x ) = Bi j k k + Bi j k l k l + ... ,
(A.3/50)
i j ( x ) = Bi j kk + Bi j k lk l + ...

(A.3/51)

i j ...k ( x ) = x 'i x ' j x 'k x x ' d x ' ,

(A.3/52)

with

i j ...k ( x ) =

x 'i x ' j x 'k

(A.3/53)
dx ' .
x x'
The harmonic potentials (A.3/52) and (A.3/53) can be expressed in terms of the
following elliptic integrals:

U (s)
(A.3/54)
V ( x ) = a1a2 a3
ds,
(s)

U ( s)
ds,
( a + s ) ( s )

Vi ( x ) = a1a2 a3

2
i

(A.3/55)

U (s)
ds,
2
a
+
s
a
+
s

(
s
)
(
)(
)

Vi j ( x ) = a1a2 a3

2
i

(A.3/56)

where
x2
x22
x32
1
.
U (s) = 1 2
+
+
(A.3/57)
( a1 + s ) ( a22 + s ) ( a32 + s )

According to Dyson [1891] the potentials (A.3/52) and (A.3/53) are related to the Vintegrals in the following way:
27
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

=V ,
n = a N2 xnVN ,

(A.3/58)
(A.3/59)

The I -integrals (A.3/42)-(A.3/44) and V -integrals (A.3/54)-(A.3/56) are related:

1
(A.3/61)
V ( x ) = ( I ( ) xr xr I R ( ) ) ,
2
1
(A.3/62)
Vi ( x ) = ( I i ( ) xr xr I Ri ( ) ) ,
2
1
(A.3/63)
Vi j ( x ) = ( I i j ( ) xr xr I R i j ( ) ) .
2
Eshelby pointed out in (Eshelby [1961] ) that in case of an eigenstrain which is a

mn = aM2 xm xn aN2 VMN + mn (V xr xrVR aM2 (VM xr xrVRM ) ) .(A.3/60)

homogeneous polynomial of xi with degree n , the total strain inside the inclusion
becomes an inhomogeneous polynomial of xi with terms of degree n, ( n 2 ) , ( n 4 ) ,...
The same result was obtained for anisotropic materials by Asaro and Barnett (Asaro
Barnett, [1975] ). The I-integrals are of great importance in the explicit expressions of
the solutions of special shaped inclusions.

3.1.5.2. Energies of inclusions

Consider a finite body D with homogeneous and isotropic (or anisotropic) material.
The body D contains inclusions i (Figure A.3.3.:), the sum of domains occupied by
them is denoted by , and the volume of is V .

Figure A.3.3.: Inclusions i

in finitely extended body D

3.1.5.2.1. Elastic strain energy

If the body D is free from any external force and surface constraint, but eigenstrains
are prescribed in , the elastic strain energy:
1
1
W = i j ei j d D = i j ij d D .
(A.3.64)
2D
2
28
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

If is an ellipsoidal inclusion and the eigenstrain is uniform, the stress field will also
be uniform, thus the strain energy becomes
1
(A.3/65)
W = V i j ij .
2
If is the sum of two inclusions 1 and 2 , the strain energy can be written in the
form

1
1
2
1
1
2
2
W = i( j) + i( j ) i( j) d D + i( j) + i( j ) i( j ) d D =

2 1
2

(A.3/66)

1
1
1
2
2
2
1
= i( j) i( j) d D + i( j ) i( j ) d D + 2 i( j ) i( j) d D ,

2 1
2
1

where i(1j) and i( 2j ) are the eigenstrains in the first and second inclusion, and i(1j) and

i( 2j ) are the stress fields caused by i(1j) and i( 2j ) , respectively. Then consider the case
when body D is subjected to given surface tractions Fi . The displacement field is the
sum of the displacements ui0 caused by Fi only and the displacements ui caused by the
eigenstrains only. The elastic strain energy in this case
1
1
1
W = ( i0j + i j )( ui0, j + ui , j ij ) d D = i0j ui0, j dD i j ij d D , (A.3/67)
2D
2D
2
where i0j is the stress field caused by ui0 and i j is that caused by the eigenstrains.
Please note, that the elastic strain energy is the sum of the energies caused by the
external force and the eigenstrain, respectively, which is a Colonnettis theorem9.

3.1.5.2.2. Interaction energy

The total potential energy of a finite body D containing inclusions with external
surface tractions Fi on S and eigenstrain ij in :
W = W Fi ( ui0 + ui ) d S .

(A.3/68)

If there is no eigenstrain in D , the total potential energy becomes

1
W0 = i0j ui0, j d D Fi ui0 d S .
(A.3/69)
2D
S
If the external forces are zero, the total potential energy of D :
1
1
W1 = ij ( ui , j ij ) d D = i j ij d D .
(A.3/70)
2D
2
The interaction between the traction forces and the eigenstrain appears in the total
potential energy as well. The interaction energy is defined as
W = W W0 W1 = Fi ui d S = i0j ij d D .
(A.3/71)
S

Colonnettis theorem states that if a body containing an inclusion is subjected to traction forces
on its boundary, there will be no cross term in the total elastic energy of the body, between the
internal stress field and the applied stress field. Gustavo Colonnetti (1886 1968) was an Italian
mathematician and engineer who made important contributions to continuum mechanics and
strength of materials.
29
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

In case of uniform eigenstrain in an ellipsoidal inclusion , the interaction energy:

W = V i0j ij .
(A.3/72)
Under constant temperature, the elastic strain energy of a body is the Helmholtz free
energy of the body. The Gibbs free energy of a body is the total potential energy of it,
which is defined as the sum of the elastic strain energy of the body and the potential
energy of an external force. W0 is the Gibbs free energy of D when only the external
force is the source of the stress field. W1 is the Gibbs free energy of the body when there
is no external force but there is an internal stress field due to the inclusion. Thus, W
is an additional term in the Gibbs free energy when not only an external force acts on
the body, but also there is an eigenstrain-induced stress field in it. It represents the
coexistence of the two effects acting on the body.
For example, in fracture mechanics, we are interested in the energy that is produced in
a body initially subjected to external tractions Fi , when due to inclusions, eigenstrain
is introduced in the material as well:
W = W W0 = W1 + W .
(A.3/73)
This energy is formed due to the eigenstrain and the interaction between the inclusions
and the external forces. Please note that all the expressions for energy calculations are
given by integrals over , thus, the calculations become easier.
For dilatational eigenstrains

ij = i j ( x) ,

(A.3/74)
the elastic strain energy per unit volume of an inclusion is constant independently of the
shape of the inclusion, and can be expressed in terms of Lams constant and
Poissons ratio of the material under consideration:
2 1 +
W
,
(A.3/75)
= 2 ( )
V
1
with the volume of :
4
(A.3/76)
V = a1a2 a3 .
3

As a result, the hydrostatic pressure ii is uniform for any shape of inclusion in case of
3
dilatational eigenstrain that can be constant or a function of x as well :
1 +

in ,
4
.
(A.3/77)
ii =
1
0
outside .

The stress field inside an inclusion is only a function of the dilatational eigenstrain inside
this particular inclusion, hence in case of several simultaneous inclusions, the
dilatational eigenstrains do not interact. This observation holds only for isotropic
materials and only for inclusions.

30
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

3.1.5.3. Cuboidal inclusions

Cuboidal shaped inclusions (Figure A.3.4.:) are interesting

from that point of view, that the stress field inside the
cuboidal inclusion will not be uniform in case of uniform
eigenstrains. There are also logarithmic singularities in
shear stresses in certain edges and corners of the cuboidal
inclusion when ij has no shear strain components.

Figure A.3.4.: Cuboidal inclusion in

body D

3.1.5.4. Inclusions in a half space

Figure A.3.5.:
Inclusion in a semi-infinite medium D
bounded by the free surface x3 = 0 .

Consider a semi-infinite domain where x3 0 and the plane x3 = 0 with unit normal ni
is free from external tractions (Figure A.3.5.:A.3.5). The Greens functions of the halfspace have the properties
Ci j k l Gk m ,l j ( x , x ') + i m ( x, x ') = 0
(A.3/78)
on x3 0 , and
Ci j k l Gk m , l ( x, x ')n j = i m S ( x, x ')

(A.3/79)

on x3 = 0 . In the above equations, i j is the Kronecker delta, while ( x , x ') and

S ( x, x ') are the three- and two-dimensional Dirac delta functions. S indicates the
surface x3 = 0 and

31
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

f ( x ') ( x , x ') d x ' = f ( x ) ,

(A.3/80)

f ( x ') ( x, x ') d S ( x ') = f ( x ) at x

S

=0,

(A.3/81)

( x, x ') = S ( x, x ') = 0 if x x' .

(A.3/82)
The explicit expression for the Greens function of an isotropic semi-infinite body was
found by Mindlin [1953] . One can look up the formulae in Mura [1987 ] .

3.1.5.4.1. Ellipsoidal inclusion with a dilatational uniform eigenstrain

The elastic field of the ellipsoidal inclusion with given dilatational uniform eigenstrain
close to the free surface of the half-space (Figure A.3.5.:A.3.5) can be calculated with
the help of the V -integrals (see Mura [1987 ] ). It was shown by Seo and Mura [1979]
that the stresses in the inclusion and the surrounding matrix depends on the shape of the
inclusion sphere or ellipsoid, and on the depth of the inclusion. Also the uniformity
of the stresses inside the inclusion is mitigated by the existence of the free surface and
tensile stresses may appear in the matrix. The free surface has less effect on the spherical
inclusions, moreover, it was observed that this effect ceases, if the distance between the
free surface and the centroid of the inclusion is greater than the diameter of the sphere.
On the other hand, in case of spherical inclusions, there are large tensile stresses in the
matrix close to the free surface. This behavior diminishes when the inclusion is
embedded deeper in the semi-finite body. These tensile stresses are smaller when
considering ellipsoidal inclusions, but they do not disappear with being deeper in the
matrix.
The elastic strain energy of a semi-infinite body with given dilatational eigenstrain is
extended by a correction factor that represents the effect of free surface. The force acting
on the inclusion is negative, thus the free surface attracts the inclusion.

3.1.6. Anisotropic inclusions

Since explicit expression for Greens functions of anisotropic materials are not
available, one must carry out the integrals either in the Fourier space or in the physical
space.
For any type of eigenstrain distribution in an ellipsoidal shaped inclusion embedded in
an infinitely extended anisotropic material, the resulted elastic field both inside and
outside the inclusion can be calculated from
ui ( x ) =
=

a1a2 a3
8 2

1
d z d r d r Ck l m n n m ( x ') Ni k ( ) D ( ) l '( y z ) dS( )

,(A.3/83)

S2

ui , j ( x ) =
=

a1a2 a3
d z d r d r Ck l m n nm ( x ') N ik ( ) D 1 ( )l j ''( y z ) d S ( )
2
8 1 0
0
S2
(A.3/84)
32

18.11.14.

Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

Figure A.3.6.:
The polar coordinate system
used in case of ellipsoidal shaped
anisotropic inclusions
transformed into unit sphere S 2

The new coordinates yi and i (Figure A.3.) come from

x'
yi ' = i , i = 1, 2,3; = ,

ai
a
i = i ,
i
yi =

with = ( + +
2
1

2
2

1
2 2
3

xi
ai

) = (a

2 2
1 1

2 2
2 2

1
2 2 2
3 3

+a +a

(A.3/85)

The transformation from the ellipsoid to the unit sphere S 2 can be written in the form
x
y=
(A.3/86)

and the distance between the observed plane and the centroid of the unit sphere becomes
x'
z = y' =
.
(A.3/87)

Likewise, in the polar coordinate system we have

d x ' = d x1 'd x2 'd x3 ' = a1a2 a3 d y1 'd y2 'd y3 ' =

,
(A.3/88)
= a1a2 a3r d r d d z
and the following property has also been applied in the derivation of
Hiba!
A
hivatkozsi
forrs
nem
tallhat.
and
Hiba! A hivatkozsi forrs nem tallhat.:

( ( x x ' ) ) = l ' ( ( x x ' ) ) .

(A.3/89)
xl
For constant eigenstrains, ui , j will also be constant, and for linear ij , the distortions
will be linear. In case of uniform eigenstrains, we can write the displacements inside the
inclusion in the form
1
2
1

(A.3/90)
ui ( x ) =
C j l m n n m xk d 3 Gi j k l ( ) d ,
4
1
0
where is measured counter-clockwise from the 1 -axis and

33
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

Gi j k l ( ) = k l Ni j ( ) D1 ( ) .

(A.3/91)

Figure 1
Unit sphere in -space

This way, we can write Eshelbys solution for ellipsoidal inclusions with the Eshelby
tensor for anisotropic materials and uniform eigenstrain:
1
2
1
(A.3/92)
Si j m n =
C p q m n d 3 ( Gi p j q ( ) + G j p i q ( ) ) d .
8
1
0
Formulae for the elastic field of exterior points in an anisotropic media due to eigenstrain
ij can be found in Mura [1987 ] .
The stress jump on the boundary of the inclusion can be computed from
i j jump = i j ( S + ) ij ( S ) =
,
= Ci j k l C p q m n nm ( x ) N k p ( n ) D 1 ( n ) nq nl + kl ( x )

( )

(A.3/93)

which can be used in the evaluation of the stress concentration factor of a lens-shaped
void and its relation to the stress intensity factor of a crack.
When examining the interaction of two ellipsoidal inhomogeneities subjected to an
applied stress, it is convenient to give the eigenstrain as a solid harmonic function of y
in the ellipsoidal inclusion :

y
,
y

ij ( x ) = ij ( ) y n Pn

(A.3/94)

where is an arbitrary vector on the unit sphere S 2 and Pn is the Legendre polynomial
of degree n .

34
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Bojtr: Fracture Mechanics

Appendix

References:
Asaro, R. J., Barnett, D. M. (1975), The non-uniform transformation strain problem
for an anisotropic ellipsoidal inclusion. J. Mech. Phys. Solids (23), pp. 77-83.
Barnett, D. M. (1972), The precise evaluation of derivatives of the anisotropic elastic
Green's functions. Phys. stat. sol.(49), pp. 741-748.
Dyson, F. W. (1891), The potentials of ellipsoids of variable densities. Q. J. Pure and
Appl. Math.(25), pp. 259-288.
Gbor, E. (2014), Mechanical Study on the Mesostructure of Heterogeneous Materials,
Student Scientific Work, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Dep. of
Structural Mechanics.
Eshelby, J. D. (1951), The force on an elastic singularity. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., A244,
pp. 87-112.
Eshelby, J. D. (1957), The determination of the elastic field of an ellipsoidal inclusion,
and related problems. Proc. Roy. Soc., A241, pp. 376-396.
Eshelby, J. D. (1959), The elastic field outside an ellipsoidal inclusion. Proc. Roy. Soc.,
A252, pp. 561-569.
Eshelby, J. D. (1961), Elastic inclusions and inhomogeneities. (I. N. Sneddon, & R.
Hill, Eds.) Progress in Solid Mechanics 2, pp. 89-140.
Fazekas F. (1951-68), Exercises of technical mathematics (in Hungarian): B.IV.
Complex functions, Tanknyvkiad.
Ferrers, N. M. (1877), An elementary treatise on spherical harmonics and subjects
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Gspr, Gy. Szarka Z. (1969), Complex functions (in Hungarian). Tanknyvkiad.
Khachaturyan, A. G. (1967), Some questions concerning the theory of phase
transformations in solids. Sov. Phys. Solid State(8), pp. 2163-2168.
Kober, H. (1952), Dictionary of Conformal Representations, Dover.
Mindlin, R. D. (1953), Force at a point in the interior of a semi-infinite solid.
Midwestern Conf., Solid Mech., (pp. 56-59).
Mura, T. (1964), Periodic distribution of dislocations. Proc. Roy. Soc., A280, pp. 528544.
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Publishers.
Mura, T. Kinoshita, N. (1971), Green's functions for anisotropic elasticity. Phys. stat.
sol.(47), pp. 607-618.
Sadd, M.H. (2005), Elasticity Theory, Applications and Numerics, Elsevier.
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with unifrom dilatational eigenstrains. J. Appl. Mech., 46, pp. 568-572.
Tanaka, K., Mura, T. (1982), A theory of fatigue crack initiation at inclusions.
Metall. Trans.(13A), pp. 117-123.
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