MARINE SEDIMENTS AND DEPOSITS

MARINE SEDIMENTS : NATURE AND SIG NIFICANCE

The unconsolidated materials, derived from various sources and deposited at the ocean floors are called
marine sediments, which include weathered and eroded par cles of rocks, fragments of dirt, dust, volcanic
ashes, remains of marine organisms, fragments of meteorites etc. The se ling of marine sediments on the ocean
floors is called marine snow fall. Besides, the broken parts of sunken ships and boats through ages have also
become parts of ocean floor materials. Thus, the ocean floors are the repository of sediments of various sorts
and dierent me periods and act as the library of the earths geological history. The unconsolidated marine
sediments are lithified due to tectonic ac vi es and thus we find layered consolidated materials on the deep
ocean floors. Such consolidated marine sediments are called ocean deposits. In fact ocean deposits includeds
both loose and unconsolidated materials lying on the ocean floors, and layered consolidated sediments in the
form of sedimentary rocks. It may be men oned that most of the sedimentary rocks of the earth are of marine origin i.e. these were deposited in the ocean floors and therea er were folded and deformed by tectonic
movements (plate movements) from me to me. Thus the study of marine sediments and deposits includes
the considera on of nature and significance of marine sediments, their types and sources, processes of their
forma on, methods of their transporta on, types of ocean deposits and their horizontal distribu on, lithological successions or ver cal varia ons in their distribu on and composi on.
The sediments derived from weathering and erosion of con nental rocks are transported to the oceans
by rivers, winds, glaciers (in high la tudes) etc. The sediments derived from weathering and erosion of coastal
rocks by sea waves, tsunamis, dal and storm surges are reworked and transported by sea waves. It may be
men oned that the transporta on of marine sediments by sea waves is bi-direc onal i.e. from the coasts towards the sea and from the sea towards the coasts.The analysis of marine sediments cores derived through deep
drilling from the ocean floors provides valuable clues to the oceanographers to reconstruct the past geological
and tectonic history of the earth. Thus, the study of marine deposits is geologically, biologically, culturally and
climatologically very significant as follows :

The analysis of nature of marine sediments in terms of lithological succession, nature and disposi on
of sedimentary beds provides vital proxy data for deciphering the tectonic history of the earth,
mainly plate movements.

The analysis of sediments cores provides vital clues (proxy data) to find out the chronology of
palaeoclimate. The nature of sediments and fossils of marine organisms (both phytoplanktons and
zooplanktons) embeded in dierent layers of sedimentary deposits provide significant proxy data
which enable the geologists and climatolo- gists to find out the past climate changes and sea level
fluctua ons.

The nature and pa erns of deposits of marine sediments on the ocean floors give clue to trace the
varia ons in the flow pa erns of ocean circula on mainly of ocean currents.

The analysis of fossils of marine organisms embeded in sedimentary layers enables the biologists
to trace the history of evolu on of marine life and mass ex nc on of marine organisms.

Besides, the analysis of marine sediments and deposits provides vital clues to the following
to assess the impacts of meteorites on the composi on of marine sediments.
to inves gate the nature and frequency of submarine volcanic erup ons and the materials coming
therefrom.
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 to understand the nature and pa ern of movements of ocean floors (sea floor spreading) that
might have taken place in the past geological history of the earth.

to ascertain the nature of nutrients supply to marine organisms.

It may be submi ed that the marine sediments and the ocean floors are significant archives of human
culture and civiliza on, science and technology because a large number of sunken ships and boats, submarines
and warships, weapons of various kinds, missiles etc. in the past centuries lying on the ocean floors have preserved cultural wealth of humans. Similarly, the ancient marine sediments are the informa on highways into
earths ancient past (Thurman and Trujillo, 1999).
Thus, the epic stories can be read from the record that is preserved in the vast sedimentary accumula on
on the sea bo om (P.R. Pinet, 2000).
The proxy data and clues from the ancient marine sediments about the aforesaid aspects may be summarized as follows :

clues about tectonic history of the earth and plate movements,

reconstruc on of palaeoclimate,
understanding flow pa ern of ocean water, mainly ocean currents,
evolu onary history of marine organisms,
impacts of meteorites on the composi on of marine sediments,
nature of undersea volcanic erup ons,
nature and pa ern of movement of ocean floors i.e. sea floor spreading,
reconstruc on of palaeomagne sm,
nutrients supply to marine organisms,
occurrence of mass ex nc on of marine organisms,
reconstruc on of sea level and climate changes,
cultural heritage from the sunken ships, and boats etc.

PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION OF MARINE

SEDIMENTS
There are 3 main mechanisms of the produc on of marine sediments as follows :
1. weathering,
2. erosion, and
3. decay of shells.
The con nental rocks are weathered through the processes of disintegra on and decomposi on into small
pieces. The weathered and weakened rocks are eroded by dierent agencies of denuda on mainly by fluvial
processes. The eroded materials (sediments) are brought to the oceans by rivers. The average annual surface
runo of 40,000 km3 from the con nents to the oceans through the rivers transports about 15,000 million
to 20,000 million tonnes of sediments per year to the oceans besides 4,000 million tonnes of soluble material in suspension (Ake Sundborg, 1963). The Yellow (China, 1640 million tonnes/year), the Ganga (India and
Bangladesh, 1450 million tonnes/year), the Amazon (Brazil, 850 million tonnes/year), the Brahmaputra (India
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and Bangladesh, 703 million tonnes/year), the Yangtze (China, 480 million tonnes/year), the Indus (Pakistan,
435 million tonnes/year), the Mississippi (USA, 300 million tonnes/year), the Irrawaddy (Mynmar, 300 million
tonnes/year), the Red (Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, 130 million tonnes/year) etc. are the significant contributors of sediments to the oceans.
The glaciers in the high la tudes also bring glacially eroded sediments in the oceans. Wind blown sands
and dusts from the coastal lands and hinterlands are deposited in the oceans.
The decay and decomposi on of skeletons of dead marine organisms provide biogenous sediments to
ocean repository.
The erosion of coastal rocks by marine waves, dal and storm surges also produces substan al quan ty
of sediments which are transported by the sea waves to the ocean floors.
The eroded materials are transported by sea waves in dierent manner but the transporta onal work of
sea waves varies significantly from other agents of erosion and transporta on. For example, the backwash, or
undertow currents (moving from the coast and beach towards the sea) pick up the eroded materials and transport them seaward but the uprushing breaker waves or surf currents pick up these materials and bring them
back to the coast and beaches. Thus, the transporta on of materials takes place from coastland towards sea
and from sea towards the coast. When oblique waves strike the coast, longshore currents are generated. These
longshore currents transport the materials parallel to the shoreline. The materials involved in the transporta on
by sea waves include sands, silts, gravels, pebbles, cobbles and some me boulders. When there is equilibrium
between incoming supplies of sediments by uprushing breaker waves and removal of sediments by backwash or
undertow currents on the wave- cut pla orm, a profile of equilibrium is achieved. If the wave-cut rock pla orm
is characterized by steep slope towards the oceanic slope, the destruc ve waves become very ac ve and thus
resultant powerful backwash removes the materials from the landward side so that the slope of the pla orm
is lessened. On the other hand, if the slope of the wave-cut pla orm is less steep, construc ve waves become
more eec ve as they favour sedimenta on and beach deposi on on the landward side so that the slope of
the pla orm becomes steeper. The surface is therefore con nually modified, in such away that at each point it
tends to acquire just the right slope to ensure that incoming supplies of sediments can be carried away just as
fast as they are received. A profile so adjusted that this fluctua ng state of balance is approximately achieved
is called a profile of equilibrium (A. Holmes and D.L. Holmes, 1978).

Mans Impact on Marine Sedimentaon

Human economic ac vi es aect the nature of coastal erosion, sediment produc on and their deposi on
atleast in the con nental margins and con nental shelves in a variety of ways as follows :
Dredging of ports and harbours to improve naviga on channels modifies the pa ern and velocity of waves
and currents. The materials derived from dredging are generally dupmped at many alterna ve loca ons e.g.
oshore loca ons, shallow areas adjacent to the harbour, onshore shallow areas (to reclaim land), beaches
(to enrich them) etc. These dumped materials are reworked and dispersed by waves in a variety of ways. The
dumping of dredged materials oshore creates new mounds which modify the direc on, strength, velocity and
overall pa ern of sea waves. Some mes sea floor is dredged to obtain materials to reclaim marshy coastal
lands or to replenish eroding beaches. This ac vity deepens the sea floor which in turn generates long waves
which erode the coastal land at rela vely faster rate than the normal waves.
Govt, of India launched a massive project of Sethusamudram in July, 2005 for dredging the shallow
por ons of sea to the south of Tamil Nadu coast in order to connect the Bay of Bengal and the Gulf of Manar
through Palk Strait inorder to facilitate easy and smooth movement of commercial ships between east and west
coasts of the country. Thus circum-naviga on of Sri Lanka would be avoided. The project was launched a er
proper analysis of environmental condi ons of the area such as marine, land and socio-economic environment
and proper environmental impact assement. The project also ensures to protect marine ecological resources
mainly coral reefs in the Gulf of Manar and Palk Bay. The work on the project has been stopped due to religious
objec on.

Mans ac vi es also aect sedimentological characteris cs of coastal environment of seas and oceans as
follows :

There is addi onal supply of waste materials coming out of quarrying in the coastal zones. These
materials are reworked and dispersed by sea waves and thus these materials are deposited in certain
locali es and new beaches are formed (example- prograda on of beach ridge plain on the east
coast of Jutland, Denmark, due to dumping of waste materials coming out from chalk quarry).

Ar ficial replenishment of eroded beaches due to altera on of sediment supply caused by

construc on of break waters.

Quarrying of beaches to obtain building materials leads to erosion of coastal land because of
deple on of beach and direct exposure of coast to severe wave a ack and thus addi onal sediments
are produced which are then deposited in the oceans.

Devegeta on and extensive cul va on, in the immediate hinterlands of the catchments of those
rivers which drain the coast, result in prograda on of coastal lands, phenomenal growth in beaches
and deltas because of increased supply of fluvial materials brought by the rivers. This process has
resulted into rapid rate of silta on of bays and inlets at the mouths of rivers along the Mediterranean
coast due to extensive removal of vegeta on (for increasing the cropland) and resultant accelerated
rate of soil erosion and supply of enormous quan ty of sediments.

Construc on of dams and reservoirs on major rivers (which drain into the seas) reverses the process
of growth of beaches and deltas because the dams trap the sediments and force them to se le down
in the reservoirs and therefore supply of fluvial sediments through the river mouths is markedly
reduced. This results in rapid rate of erosion of beaches and deltas which causes retrograda on.
It has been reported that the Nile delta is suering from severe wave erosion which is producing
more sediments. The shoreline is receding at the rate of 40m per year since the comple on of
Aswan High Dam in 1970.
Mans a empts to reduce or stop coastal erosion and therefore to check retrograda on on the one hand
and to promote deposi on to encourage prograda on on the other hand have not been successful because of
complex nature of mechanisms of coastal processes, both erosional and deposi onal. These direct a empts
of man to manipulate and modify coastal processes for specific purposes (to halt erosion at harbours, to build
beaches, to replenish already depleted beaches, to open inlets to encourage sea transport etc.) bring in changes
in nearshore topography, mechanism of wave and current ac ons and coastal erosion, nature and pa ern of
sediment movement and deposi on on the adjacent part of the coast where structural works have been ini ated, as follows :

Construc on of dierent types of sea walls along the sea coasts to check cli erosion leads to
deple on of sea beaches because (1) the supply of sands and shingles from cli erosion is stopped
due to protec on provided by sea walls parallel to the coast, and (2) sea waves a er striking
powerfully against the sea wals scour the beaches and remove the materials to be deposited on
ocean floors.

The construc on of breakwaters to shelter the harbours and the estuaries of river mouths results
in accumula on of sands and singles and forma on of beaches on the updri side of breakwaters
whereas beaches are eroded on the downdri side of breakwaters because of marked reduc on
in the transport of sediments downdri .
It appears from the above discussion that human economic ac vi es not only aect but modify the patterns of coastal erosion by sea waves, transport of sediments and their deposi on of ocean beds.

Factors of Marine Sedimentaon

The processes of sedimenta on i.e. deposi on of marine sediments on ocean beds are aected and controlled by the following 3 major factors
quan ty (density) of marine sediments
Factors of Marine
Sedimenta on

size and shape of par cles

energy condi on of currents at the site of deposi on

As stated earlier, the rivers are the major transpor ng agents of marine sediments. The con nental rocks
are eroded by surface runo and rivers and the eroded materials are brought to the oceans by these rivers. These
sediments are picked up by sea waves and currents and are deposited on sea floor under varying condi ons.
It may be men oned that terrigenous eroded sediments (of con nental origin) are reworked and dispersed by
sea waves and currents before they are finally deposited on sea floor. The rate of sedimenta on depends on
the rate of erosion of con nental rocks such as slow or rapid rate of erosion.
well sorted sediments e.g. coarse sands,
slow rate of sedimentaslow rate of erosion
fine sands, silt, mud etc.

rapid rate of ero-

rapid rate of sedimenta-

poorly sorted sediments e.g. mixed

sediments such as gravels mixed
with sands or mud mixed with
sands.

If the con nental rocks are resistant to erosion, they are eroded very slowly and hence there is very low
supply of sediments by the rivers to the oceans and hence sea waves and currents have enough me to rework
and disperse them. With the result the terrigenous sediments are sorted by the currents according to their size,
shape and quan ty before they se le down on the sea floors. For example, sands are graded into coarse and
fine categories. The terrigenous sediments grade from boulders to cobbles, pebbles, gravels, silt, sands, mud
etc. On the otherhand, the weaker and less resistant con nental rocks are rapidly eroded with the result there
is high rate of sediment supply and the currents do not have required me to sort out the sediments from large
size to smaller size. Thus, rapid rate of supply of sediments results in the deposi on of mixed sediments. The
quan ty or density of sediments also controls sor ng or non-sor ng of sediments before they are deposited.
The large quan ty of sediments with large size increases the density and hence high density sediments are
deposited more quickly than low density sediments. It may be noted that the rate of sedimenta on determines
the degree of sor ng of par cles. Thus, high density sediments are poorly sorted while low density sediments
are well sorted before they are deposited in layers on the sea floors.
The third important factor of marine sedimenta on is the energy condi on (energy level) of bo om currents at the site of deposi on (sea floor). The grain size of sediments is propor onal (posi vely correlated) to
the energy level of bo om currents at the me of sedimenta on on sea floor.high energy level
Strong currents

high energy level

deposi ons of coarser sediments

weak currents

low energy level

deposi on of fine dediments

The strong bo om currents are characterized by swi ly moving turbulent water. Such swi and turbulent
water carries fine sediments in suspension and hence does not allow them to se le down. Thus, strong bo om
5

currents of high energy level allow only coarser sediments to se le down. On the other hand, weak bo om
currents denote low energy level and thus cannot carry coarser sediments, rather they transport only fine sediments. Thus, weak currents of low energy level deposit only fine sediments. It, thus, becomes evident that the
analysis of grain size of sediments, deposited on sea floor, may reveal the energy condi ons at the me when
the sediments were deposited on the bo om, fine grained sediments denote low-energy condi on; coarse
sediments, high energy condi ons (P. R. Pinet, 2000).

Sources of Marine Sediments

The marine sediments are derived and supplied from 4 major sources as follows :

terrigenous or lithogenous source,

biogenous source or organic source,
hydrogenous source, and
cosmogenous source.
The above men oned sources of marine sediments may be alterna vely grouped into the following 3
categories :

external source (terrigenous source)

internal source (biogenous and hydrogenous sources)
cosmogenous source
The terrigenous or lithogenous source of marine sediments includes weathering and erosion of con nental rocks and transport of eroded materials by the rivers; coastal erosion by sea waves; and glacial erosion of
con nental rocks and their transport by glaciers to the seas in high la tudes. The winds also transport dusts
and sands from the hinterlands of the coasts to the oceans. The terrigenous source contributes rock fragments
of varying sizes such as boulders, pebbles, cobbles, gravels etc., quartz sands, quartz silt, clay, dusts etc.
The biogenous source of marine sediments comprises the processes of decay and decomposi on of shells
and skeletons of marine organismsin situ. Such sediments are grouped in two broad categories of (1) calcium
carbonate (calcareous oozes) and shells of marine organisms and fragments of corals, and (2) silica (siliceous
oozes). The biogenous sediments of calcium carbonate are produced in warm sea surface water while those of
silica are generated in cold sea surface water.
The hydrogenous source of marine sediments includes the sediments derived from precipita on of dissolved substances due to chemical reac ons such as phosphorites (phosphorous), oolites (calcium carbonate),
metal sulfides (copper, silver, zinc, iron, nickel etc.), evaporites (such as gypsum and some salts).
The cosmogeneous source of marine sediments includes the sediments produced from the collision of
meteorites in the space and thus the space dusts so produced directly fall into the oceans.
Besides, the volcanic dusts and ashes, which are ejected through con nental volcanic erup ons, are carried
away by the atmospheric circula on and finally they fall down through precipita on into the oceans.

Mode of Marine Sedimentaon

The processes of marine sedimenta on may be grouped into the following two categories :

bulk deposi on (bulk emplacement)

retail deposi on

The process of bulk deposi on of marine sediments, geologically be er known as bulk emplacement,
involves the slumping of sediments en mass including all types of terrigenous and biogenic sediments down
the undersea slope under the force of gravity. The rivers unload huge amount of terrigenous sediments of varying sizes (very coarse to very fine grained par cles) in the waters of con nental margins and inner con nental
shelves. The con nuous build up of terrigenous materials causes slope instability due to steepening of slope of
heaps of debris. This causes increase in gravity force which in turn causes mass movement of materials towards
the outer con nental shelves and con nental slope in the forms of debris slump, debris flow, mudflow etc.
It is important to note that beddings of sedimentary layers of terrigenous sediments are seldom disturbed,
rather they are maintained while they are slumped en mass down the slope under the force of gravity. Massive
undersea slides also occur in deep sea areas but such slides are not comparable to bulk slides of terrigenous
sediments because the former (undersea slides) is caused by tectonic ac vi es on the sea floor, while the la er
is caused by gravity alone.

The slumped sediments in the form of mudflows, known as slurries are picked up by powerful bo om
currents, called as turbidity currents, and thus these turbidity currents are laden with slurries and move down
the con nental slope under the force of gravity. As these slurry- laden bo om turbidity currents descend to
deep sea plain, their velocity is slowed down and hence they unload coaser sediments on the sea floor first.
Further movement of these currents carries fine sediments in suspension which are finally deposited on flat
sea floors (fig. 6.1). It may be men oned that the deposi on of sediments by turbidity currents shows graded
beddings of sediments wherein the size of sediments becomes finer from the bo om upward. In other words,
very coarse sediments are deposited at the sea floor whereas fine sediments are deposited in the uppermost
layer of sediments. The cone-shaped deposits of graded materials at the mouths of submarine canyons are
called deep sea fans. The glaciers resort to bulk deposi on of terrigenous materials in the oceans in high la tudes by the process of ice ra ing. The ice ra ing involves the transport of terrigenous sediments embeded in
the icebergs. The ice sheets associated with con nental glaciers in polar regions carry con nental sediments.
When the ice sheets are broken and dislodged from the glaciers, they float as icebergs on sea surface and are
carried away by ocean currents into deep sea area where they begin to melt. Thus the embeded sediments are
released and se le down on sea floors.
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The retail sedimenta on involves deposi on of sediments par cle by par cle in the same way as flakes
of snow fall down on the land one by one. This is the reason that fall down of par cles one by one on sea floor
is called marine snowfall.

CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE SEDIMENTS

The marine sediments register large varia ons in terms of their origin and forma on, size and shape,
composi on, loca onal aspect etc. because they are derived from various sources such as (1) lithogenous (terrigenous) sources wherein sediments are produced due to weathering and erosion of con nental rocks, and
marine volcanic islands, (2) biogenous sources, which provide sediments through decay and disintegra on of
marine plants and animals, (3) hydrogenous sources which include the precipitates of dissolved substances
in ocean water, (4) cosmogeneous source wherein sediments are produced due to collision of meteorites in
space and therea er these sediments fall in the oceans. Thus, marine sediments involve four major categories
of (1) terrigenous or lithogenous sediments, (2) biogeneous sediments, (3) hydrogenous sediments, and (4)
cosmogenous sediments. The sediments derived from the above men oned 4 major sources are alterna vely
named as inorganic sediments (terrigenous sediments), organic sediments (biogenous sediments), calcareous
and siliceous sediments (hydrogenous sediments) etc.
Thus, on the basis of sources and mode of forma on marine sediments are classified into the following
categories :
1.

Terrigenous (lithogenic) marine sediments

(1) con nental lithogenous sediments
(2) submarine volcanic lithogenous sediments
examples :
(i)

gravels

(ii) sands
(iii) silt
(iv) clay
(v) mud
(a) blue mud
(b) green mud
(c) red mud
2.

Biogenous marine sediments

(1) nere c sediments
(2) pelagic sediments examples :
(i) calcareous oozes
(ii) pteropod oozes
(iii) globigerina oozes
(iv) siliceous oozes
(v) radiolarian oozes
(vi) diatom oozes

3. Hydrogenous marine sediments (authigenic sediments)

(1) manganese nodules
(2) phosphates
(3) oolites (CaCo3, limestone par cles)
(4) metal sulfides
(5) gypsum, halite, other salts
4.

Cosmogenic marine sediments

(1) space dusts
(2) meteors par cles
(i) iron-nickel meteorites
(ii) silicate chondrites

5.

Voicanogenic marine sediments

1)

volcanic dusts

2)

volcanic ashes

1. Terrigenous (Lithogenic) Sediments

The lithogenic sediments are derived from the weathering and erosion of rocks (lithos = rocks, stones,
genic/genous = genera = to produce) whether on land (lithosphere) or in the oceans (weathering and erosion
of sea volcanic islands), whereas terrigenous (terri = lands, genere = to produce) sediments include only those
sediments of various sizes (ranging from boulders to clay par cles) which are produced by weathering and
erosion of only con nental rocks.
The con nental rocks are disintegrated and decomposed due to various types of weathering and thus fine
to coarse sediments are produced. These sediments of con nental origin are called terrigenous materials which
are brought to the rivers. Besides, rocks are also eroded by surface runo and streams through the processes of
surface wash, splash erosion, sheet wash, rainwash, rill and gully erosion, lateral and ver cal erosion of valleys
by rivers. The weathered and eroded materials are carried by the rivers and are ul mately unloaded into the
oceans and seas. Some 15,000 to 20,000 million tonnes of solid materials are discharged through the rivers
to the oceans annually. To this can be included a total of about 4,000 million tonnes of soluble materials. This
means that for every cubic meter of water reaching the sea an average of about half a kilogram of sediments is
carried away from the con nents (Ake Sundborg, 1983). The terrigenous sediments can be deposited in various
loca ons of oceans, namely bays and lagoons near the coasts, at the mouths of rivers in the forms of deltas, in
the river estuaries, parallel to the coasts form beaches. The terrigenous sediments brought by the rivers to the
oceans are also carried away and reworked by sea waves and currents. The turbidity currents carry sediments
to deep ocean basins.
In the high la tudes glaciers dump glacially eroded materials into the fiords. Most of terrigenous materials
are deposited in the areas of con nental margins and inner con nental shelves but high build up of terrigenous
sediments on con nental shelves forms heaps (mounds) of sediments with steep slope. Thus the sediments
slide down enmass under the impact of gravity along the con nental slope. The turbidity currents disperse
these sediments on deep sea floor. The slumping of sediments is called bulk emplacement. The mode of bulk
and retail sedimenta on has been explained in the preceding sec on.
The distribu on of terrigenous sediments on sea floor is ubiquitous i.e. widespread (omnipresent). In other
words, terrigenous sediments have been found almost in all parts of the oceans but most concentra on is found
in the con nental margins and con nental shelves. Only traces of terrigenous sediments have been found on
deep sea plains. The fine par cles are picked up by prevailing winds from tropical and subtropical deserts and
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are carried far away from the con nents to the deep ocean where these par cles fall down and se le down
on deep sea plains par cle by par cle, this process of sedimenta on in called retail deposi on. The se ling of
fine materials par cle a er par cle in the deep sea is called marine snowfall. It is, thus, evident that the great
deserts of Asia (Arabian and Thar deserts), Africa (Sahara and Kalahari), South America (Acatama), and Australia
are pools of fine par cles to be deposited in the oceans.
The terrigenous sediments are composed mostly of quartz mineral. The texture of terrigenous sediments
is determined on the basis of grain size for which the following Wentworth scale is used.
Table 6.1: Wentworth scale of grain size for sediments
Sediments type

Gravels

Sand

mud
colloide

Size range

(diameter inmillimeters)
1. boulder
> 256
2. cobble
65 - 256
3. pebble
4-64
4. granule
2-4
1. very coarse
1 -2
2. coarse
0.5-1.0
3. medium
0.25-0.5
4. fine
0.125-0.25
5. very fine.
0.0625 - 0.125
1. silt
0.0039 - 0.0625
2. clay
0.0002 - 0.0039
< 0.0002

Grain size

Energy conditions

Coarse-grained

High energy

Fine-grained

Low energy

Since there is much varia on in the size and shape of terrigenous materials, there is marked grada on of
these materials when they are deposited in the ocean, i.e. coarser and larger sediments (boulders, cobbles and
pebbles) are deposited near the coast and the size of sediments becomes smaller and finer away from the coast.
Very fine sediments are kept in suspension in the oshore regions. On the basis of size, composi on, and chemical characteris cs terrigenous sediments are divided into gravels, sands and silt, clay and muds, (table 6.1).
Gravels : The diameter of gravels ranges from 2 mm to 256 mm. There is marked grada on in the size
of gravels. The following are sub-types of gravels on the basis of diameter of par cles (figures in the brackets
indicate diameter) : boulders ( > 256 mm), cobbles (65 - 256 mm), pebbles (4 to 64 mm), granules (2 to 4) mm)
etc. Since these sediments are very large in size, these are deposited near the coast on the con nental shelves
by high energy currents. These sediments are further reduced in size due to further disintegra on caused by
sea waves. Gravels are brought to the oceans by the rivers.
Sands : The sediments varying in diameter from 2 mm to 1/16 mm are termed sands. On the basis of size
of grains sands are classified into five types viz. (figures in the brackets denote diameter). (i) very coarse sands
(1 to 2 mm), (ii) coarse sands (0.5 to 1 mm), (iii) medium sands (0.25 to 0.5 mm), (iv) fine sands (0.725 to 0.25
mm), and (v) very fine sands (0.0625 to 0.125 mm). The disintegra on and communi on of con nental rock
fragments into fine sediments produces sands which are deposited in the oceans by rivers, surface wash and
winds. There is marked grada on of sand deposits in the oceans i.e. coarser sands are deposited close to the
coast while fine sands are deposited away from the coast.
Silt, Clay and Mud : The finer sediments ranging in diameter from 1/32 mm to 1/8192 mm are grouped
under the category silt, clay and mud (silt = 1/32 mm to 1/256 mm, clay = 1/256 mm to 1/8192mm). Mud is
s ll finer than clay. Some mes, silt and clay are included in the category of mud. Clay is significant cemen ng
element. These materials are brought from the con nents by the rivers. Clay and mud are deposited in calm
seawater by low energy currents. Generally, these deposits are found at the depth of 100 to 1000 fathoms (600
to 6000 feet). Murray has divided mud into three types on the basis of colour.
(i) Blue mud includes the materials derived through the disintegra on of rocks rich in iron sulphide and

10

organic elements. These are generally found at greater depth of the con nental shelves. The original colour of
blue mud is bluish black and it contains 35 per cent of calcium carbonate. Blue mud predominates in the Atlan c
Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Arc c Sea and enclosed seas.
(ii) Red mud : The sediments derived through the communi on of rocks rich in iron oxides (FeO) form
red mud. The reddish colour is mainly due to the dominance of iron content. It contains 32 per cent of calcium
carbonate. The deposit of red mud is confined mostly to the Yellow Sea, Brazilian coast, and the floors of the
Atlan c Ocean.
(iii) Green mud is formed due to chemical weathering wherein the colour of blue mud is changed to green
mud due to reac on of seawater.
It contains green silicates of potassium and glauconite (form of iron) which cons tutes 7 - 8 per cent of
total mineral composi on whereas calcium carbonate ranges from 0 to 56 per cent. The deposits of green mud
are found along the Atlan c and Pacific coasts of N. America, o the coasts of Japan, Australia and Africa. These
are generally found at the depth of 100 to 900 fathoms (600 to 5,400 feet).

2. Volcanogenic Sediments
Volcanic materials deposited in the marine environment are derived from two sources, (i) Volcanic erup ons
on the land-the volcanic materials through violent central erup ons become very fine due to collision among
themselves and due to further disintegra on. Fine volcanic materials nearer to the coastal lands are blown by
wind and are carried to the oceans while volcanic materials of distant places are brought by the rivers via overland
flow, rainwash, rills and small rivulets, (ii) Volcanic erup on in the oceans and the seas-in such cases volcanic
materials are directly deposited. Volcanic materials resemble blue mud and are grey to black in colour.

3. Biogenic Sediments
Biogenous (bio = life, genere = to produce), also known as organic marine sediments, are the decay and
disintegra on of hard parts (skeletons) of marine organisms. Thus, the source of biogenic sediments is sea itself.
The process of forma on of biogenous marine sediments includes the disintegra on of hard parts of marine
animals and plants such as their bones, shells, teath etc. a er their death. Such materials fall down one a er
another and are deposited on sea floors of varying loca ons. Primarily biogenous marine sediments are divided
into the following two categories :

macroscopic biogenic sediments, and

microscopic biogenic sediments.
Macroscopic biogenic sediments include shells, bones, and teeth of large marine animals which are not
widespread sea living organisms. Such sediments are found on con nental shelves and very rare on deep sea
plains because deep sea floors are dominated by very small organisms. On the other hand, microscopic biogenous
sediments are very small par cles of very small sea organisms. They are so small and minute that they cannot
be seen without the aid of powerful microscope. There are countless ny microscopic marine organisms. The
ny shells of these organisms are called tests which con nuously fall down on the sea bed a er death. In fact,
there is con nuous rain of countless tests of microscopic organisms. The accumula on of these tests on deep
sea floors gives birth to the forma on of dierent types of oozes. The oozes consist of 30 percent of microscopic
biogenous sediments and remaining 70 percent of terrigenous clay. It may be men oned that microscopic biogenic materials and terrigenous clay fall down together to se le down on deep sea floors.
The biogenic sediments are composed of two main chemical cons tuents, namely calcium carbonate and
silica. Diatoms and radiolarians contribute most of silica to the microscopic biogenic sediments, while foraminifers contribute most of calcium carbonate. The microscopic algae, which is called as cocolithophores also
contribute calcium carbonate. The biogenous marine sediments, a er mixed with terrigenous clays and their
accumula on, form dierent types of oozes which are named a er the name of microscopic marine organisms
such as diatoms, pteropods, radiolaria etc.
11

The biogenic sediments are also divided into the following two broad categories :
nere c biogenic sediments, and
pelagic biogenic sediments.
The nere c ma er includes skeletons of marine organisms and plant remains while pelagic ma er consists
of remains of dierent types of algae. The skeletons of animals and dead plants are subjected to decomposion and chemical changes. Thus, they are changed to mud and sands and are ul mately deposited on the sea
floor.
Nere c ma er is deposited mostly on the con nental shelves and are generally covered by terrigenous
materials. These include shells of molluscs and their fragments, skeletons of radiolaria and spicules of sponges,
calcareous and siliceous plant remains.
Pelagic sediments consist of ma er derived from algae and are mostly in the form of liquid mud, generally
known as ooze. Pelagic materials are oozes which are divided into two groups on the basis of lime and silica
contents as follows.
(i) Calcareous oozes contain lime content in abundance and are seldom found at greater depth because
of their high degree of solubility. They are generally found at the sea floor between the depths ranging from
1000 fathoms (6000 feet) to 2000 fathoms (12000 feet). On the basis of principal organisms calcareous oozes
are further divided into two sub-types viz, (a) pteropod ooze, and (b) globigerina ooze.
(a) Pteropod Ooze : Most of the pteropod oozes are formed of floa ng pteropod molluscs having thin
shells of generally conical shape with average diameter of half inch. It contains 80 per cent calcium carbonate
and is mostly found in the tropical oceans and seas at the depth of 300-1000 fathoms. It decreases with greater
depths and prac cally disappears beyond 2000 fathom depth. It is found mostly in the regions of corals. The
main loca on of pteropod ooze includes the western and eastern parts of the Pacific Ocean, surroundings of
Azores, Canary Island, An les, mid-Mediterranean submarine ridge and Indian Ocean.
(b) Globigerina Ooze : Though this ooze is formed from the shells of a variety of foraminifera but most
of such oozes are formed of germs called globigerina. When this deposit is dried up it becomes dirty white
powder. Besides milky white colour, it is also blue, grey, yellow and green in colour. The chemical composi on
reveals 64.46 percent of calcium, 1.64 percent of silica and 3.33 percent of minerals. Globigerina is found mostly
in the tropical and temperate zones of the Atlan c Ocean, on the eastern and western con nental shelves of
the Indian Ocean and in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It is generally found between the depths of 2000 to 4000
fathoms and becomes absent at greater depths.
(ii) Siliceous Ooze : when silica content dominates, the ooze becomes siliceous in nature.
Silica is derived from a group of protozoa or radiolarians and benthic animals mainly sponges. This ooze
does not dissolve as compared to calcareous ooze because of less calcium carbonate and dominance of silica.
Thus, such oozes are found in both warm and cold water at greater depths. This group is further divided into
two subtypes on the basis of dominance of a par cular organism.
(a) Radiolarian ooze is formed by the shells of radiolaria and foraminifera. It changes to dirty grey
powder when dried. Silica predominates but calcium carbonate is also present (ranging between
5 to 20 percent, average being 4 percent). Lime content decreases with increasing depth and it
absolutely disappears at greater depth. This ooze is found upto the depth of 2000 to 5000 fathoms
in the tropical oceans and seas. It covers the largest areas in the Pacific Ocean.
(b) Diatom ooze is formed of the shells of very microscopic plants containing silica in abundance. It also
contains some clay. Calcium content varies from 3 to 30 percent. It is blue near the land and the
colour changes yellow or cream away from the land. It becomes fine coherent white powder when
dried. Diatom ooze is very frequently found at greater depth in high la tudes. Significant area of
this deposit includes the zone around Antarc ca and a belt from Alaska to Japan in the N. Pacific
at the depth of600-2000 fathoms.
12

4. Hydrogenic Marine Sediments

Hydrogenous sediments are also inorganic ma er and involve precipitates of dissolved substances from
water both on land and in oceans.
Majority of inorganic elements are basically precipitates which fall down from above. These elements
fall on the land as well as in the oceans. Some of the inorganic elements are transported from the land to the
oceans by various agencies. The inorganic precipitates include dolomite, amorphous silica, iron, manganese
oxide, phosphate, barite etc. Besides, glauconite, phosphorite, feldspar, phillipsite and clay minerals are also
found. The organic and inorganic materials are so mixed together due to chemical processes that it becomes
very dicult to isolate them from each other.
The significant hydrogenous marine deposi on includes manganese nodules, phosphates, carbonates,
metal sulfides, evaporites etc. These hydrogenous marine sediments have great economic significance.
Manganese nodules have round shape and consist of manganese, iron and some metals. These are formed
around nuclei of coral, volcanic rock, bones of fishes or fish teeths. Manganese nodules are primarily composed
of manganese dioxide and iron oxide which cons tute together 50 percent by weight. The other cons tuents of
manganese nodules include copper, nickel, cobalt etc. Phosphates are infact compounds of phosphorous which
are precipitated as coa ngs around rocks. They are also found in the form of nodules. Phosphates are used for
making fer lizers. Carbonates include two significant minerals i.e. aragonite and calcite which are composed of
calcium carbonate (limestone). Metal sulfides are generally found along mid-oceanic ridges and include iron,
coper, silver, nickel, zinc etc. Evaporites, as the word implies, result from excessive evapora on of seawater.
They are basically salts (halite). The other evaporite minerals are gypsum and calcite.
Red clay, previously considered to be of organic origin, is the most significant inorganic ma er and very
important member of pelagic deposits. It covers the largest area of deep sea deposits. Silicates of alumina (85.35
percent) and oxides of iron are the chief consituents of red clay. Besides, calcium (6.7 percent), siliceous organisms (2.39 percent) and a few minerals are also present. It also contains decomposed volcanic material. It may be
pointed out that red clay contains more radioac ve substances than any other marine deposit. It is so , plas c
and greasy in character. It becomes reddish brown powder when dried. Red clay is widely distributed at the
greatest depth in all the oceans. Its dominant loca ons include the zone between 40N and 40S in the Atlan c
Ocean, eastern part of the Indian Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean covering 129 million km2 of area.

5. Cosmogenic Sediments
Cosmogenous sediments are extraterrestrial materials which are produced due to collision of meteors in
space. This is why cosmogenic sediments are called space dusts which regularly fall down on the earths surface
(both on the lands and in the oceans). Cosmogeneous sediments comprise (1) microscopic spherules, and (2)
macroscopic debris of meteors.

CLASSIFICATION OF OCEAN DEPOSITS

Ocean deposits are classified on dierent bases as follows :
1.

On the basis of loca on

2.

On the basis of depth of ocean water

3.

On the basis of origin of sediments

1. On the Basis of Locaon

This classifica on is based ou typical loca ons of par cular marine sediment. Though several scien sts
have a empted to classify ocean deposits on the basis of their loca ons, the classifica ons of Sir John Murray
and J.T. Jenkins are widely acclaimed.

13

Generally, ocean deposits are loca onally classified into the following two categories :
shelf deposits
pelagic deposits
Shelf deposits include the deposi on of marine sediments of variable origin on the floors of con nental
shelves, while pelagic deposits consist of sedimenta on of fine par cles on the floors of deep sea plains.
Classifica on of Murray : Sir John Murray has classified the ocean deposits into two broad categories viz. (a)
terrigenous deposits, and (b) pelagic deposits. Terrigenous deposits are found mainly on the con nental shelves
and slopes whereas pelagic deposits predominate on the deep sea floor. Terrigenous deposits are composed
of coarser materials and are derived from the con nents through weathering and erosional processes and are
transported to the oceans by various agencies. Their colour may be blue, yellow, grey or red. Pelagic deposits
consist of the materials formed of skeletons and shells of marine organisms and a few inorganic substances.
They are generally blue, grey or red in colour.
Classifica on of Jenkins: Jenkins has divided marine deposits into three groups viz (a) deep sea deposits,
(b) shallow water deposits, and (c) li oral deposits. The following is the detailed classifica on of Jenkins :
(A) Pelagic deposits
(1) red clay
(2) radiolarian ooze
(3) diatom ooze
(4) globigerina ooze
(5) pteropod ooze
(B) Terrigenous deposits
(1) blue mud
(2) red mud
(3) green mud
(4) coral mud
(5) volcanic mud
(6) gravel
(7) sand

2. On the Basis of Depth

(A) Deep sea deposits
(below 100 fathoms)
(a) Pelagic deposits
(1) red clay
(2) radiolarian ooze
(3) diatom ooze
(4) globigerina ooze
(5) pteropod ooze
14

(b) Terrigenous deposits

(1) blue mud
(2) red mud
(3) green mud
(4) coral mud
(5) volcanic mud
(B) Shallow sea deposits
(between low de water and 100 fathoms)
(1) gravels
(2) sands
(3) mud
(C) Li oral deposits
(between high and low de water)
(1) gravels
(2) sands
(3) mud

3. General Classificaon
(1) Terrigenous deposits
(i) li oral deposits
(ii) shallow water deposits
(iii) terrigenous mud
(2) Neri c deposits
(i) shallow water neri c deposits
(ii) deep seawater neri c deposits
(iii) pelagic deposits.

4. Classificaon on the Basis of Origin of Sediments

(1) Li oral deposits (derived from land)
(i) shore deposits
(ii) shelf deposits
(2) Heunpelagic deposits
(partly from land and partly from marine origin)
(i) green mud
(ii) volcanic mud
(iii) coral mud
15

(3) Eupelagic deposits

(of marine and cosmic origin)
(i) red clay
(ii) radiolarian ooze
(iii) globigerina ooze
(iv) pteropod ooze

DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN DEPOSITS

Distribu on of ocean deposits may be a empted in various ways as follows :
ver cal distribu on of ocean deposits (fig. 6.2)
regional distribu on (ocean-wise distribu on)
marine province-wise distribu on, such as ocean deposits on con nental shelves, and on deep sea
plains.
sediment-wise distribu on, such as terrigenous deposits, and pelagic deposits.

Distribuon of Terrigenous Deposits

Terrigenous deposits include gravels, sands, muds, volcanic materials etc. which are derived through
weathering and erosion of con nental rocks by various denuda onal processes. There is marked grada on
of these sediments when they are deposited in the oceans. The sequence of these materials from the coast
towards the sea is gravel, sand, silt, clay and mud. The ocean currents and waves very o en disturb the gradaon and sequence of sediments. Terrigenous deposits are classified into 3 categories on the basis of loca on
and depth as follows :
li oral deposits
shallow water deposits
deep water deposits
(1) Lioral deposits are generally found on the con nental shelves mainly near the coastal margins upto the depth
of 100 fathoms (600 feet) but they have been also traced
upto the depth of 1000 m-2000 m. Li oral deposits consist
of gravels, sands, silt, clays and muds.
(2) Shallow water deposits include terrigenous sediments deposited between low de water and 100-fathom
depth. These deposits consist of gravels, sands, silt and clays
of varying propor ons. Sea waves and dal waves help in the
grada on and sor ng of sediments but undersea landslides,
slumping, strong storm waves, and storms some mes disturb
the ver cal stra fica on of sediments.
(3 ) Deep water deposits include the sediments deposited below the depth of 100 fathoms. There is marked
grada on of sediments in ver cal succession where the
sequence of sediments with increasing depths is blue mud,
red mud, green mud, coral mud and volcanic mud.

Distribuon of Pelagic Deposits

16

Pelagic deposits consis ng of remains of marine plants and animals in the form of dierent types of
oozes cover about 75.5 per cent of the ocean areas. Pteropod, diatom and radiolarian oozes cover 0.4, 6.4
and 3.4 per cent areas of all the oceanic deposits respec vely. Red clay cons tutes 31.1 percent of the total
ocean deposits.
Table6.2: Areas covered by pelagic sediments (million km2)
Sediments

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean

Total

(i) Globigerina

40.1

51.9

34.4

(ii) Pteropod

1.5

Total

41.6

51.9

34.4

127.9

(i) Diatom

4.1

14.4

12.6

(ii) Radiolarian

6.6

0.3

Total

4.1

21.0

12.9

102.2

Red Clay

15.9

70.3

16.0

102.2

Total

61.6

143.2

63.3

268.1

Calcareous Oozes

Siliceous Oozes

Pteropod oozes are found over an area of 12,90,000 km2. Globigerina oozes cover larger areas in
17 the

Pacific (64.5 million km2), the Atlan c (37.9 million km2) and the Indian (31.4 million km2) oceans (figs. 6.4, 6.5
and 6.6). Radiolarian oozes are found over an area of 5.16 million km2 in the Pacific and Indian oceans. Diatom
oozes are spread over an area of 1,03,000 km2 in the North Pacific Ocean and 27.6 million km2 in the southern
oceans. Red clay is distributed over an area of 129 million km2 of all the oceans.
Philippi has described a ver cal stra fica on of dierent pelagic sediments wherein the sequence from
top to the bo om includes pteropod ooze, globigerina ooze, radiolarian ooze, diatom ooze, and red clay. Figs.
6.4,6.5,6.6 & 6.7 depict, general pa ern of horizontal distribu on of ocean deposits. It is apparent from the

figures that terrigenous deposits are found along the coasts mainly on con nental shelves but they cover greater
extent near the East Indies, in the North Pacific and along the Labrador coast. Globigerina ooze, red clay and
diatom ooze dominate in the western, eastern and southern parts of the Indian Ocean whereas it contains
maximum areal extent in the Pacific Ocean.

Ocean Deposits on Connental Shelves

It may be recalled that con nental rocks are the most significant source of marine sediments, as con nental
rocks are weathered by dierent weathering processes (physical, chemical and physico-bio-chemical weathering)
and are eroded by surface runo. The eroded materials are carried by the rivers and are ul mately unloaded
in the oceans. Thus, terrigenous source is the major contribu ng source of sediments to be deposited on the
con nental shelves. The following factors determine the process of sedimental on con nental shelves :
amount of terrigenous materials brought
by the rivers from the lands,
velocity of river flow at their mouths,
distance from the coast,
depth of water,
energy condi ons of waves, and currents, etc.
18

It may be reestated that con nental shelves are broad, almost flat and shallow pla orms of land submerged
under seawater, which range in length (from coasts to the point of shelf break, fig. 6.8) from 70 to 100 kilometers or even more having depths from o m (at the shoreline) to 120- 150 meters. Tidal waves, wind-generated
sea waves and currents are primary energy sources. Since the energy of bo om currents decreases from the
shoreline with increasing distance of con nental shelves and increasing depth of seawater, and hence there
is marked grada on (sor ng) of terrigenous sediments on the floors of con nental shelves in the following
sequence (fig. 6.8) :
Shoreline : gravels (boulders, cobbles, pebbles granules)>coarse to medium grained sands > fine
grained sands>sand and mud > sandy mud >mud in oshore region > shelf break (outer margin of
con nental shelves).

Fig. 6.8: Sequence of deposion of marine sediments on connental shelves.

It appears from the above discussion and fig. 6.8 that grain size of sediments on con nental shelves is
propor onal to energy level of waves and currents. As the energy level decreases away from the shoreline, the
grain size of shelf sediments also decreases i.e. becomes finer towards outer margin of shelf (shelf break). Thus
shallow water is characterized by high energy condi on and coarser sediments whereas deeper water denotes
low energy condi on and fine sediments.
It may be men oned that the aforesaid ideal sequence of marine sediments on con nental shelves is
seldom found in reality because fluctua on in sea level causes transgression and regression of seawater on
coastal lands and the environment of energy levels of waves and current also changes. At the me of fall in sea
level (nega ve sea level change caused either by tectonic ac vi es or glacial age) the inner parts of con nental
shelves (coastward part) emerges above sea level while during rise in sea level (posi ve sea level changes caused
either by tectonic ac vi es or deglacia on of ice sheets during interglacial period) seawater transgresses on
to land. These events disturb the normal sequence of marine deposits on con nental shelves. The geological
records reveal fall of sea level due to late Pleistocene glacia on by about 130 meters 15,000 years before preset from the present sea level. Therea er deglacia on during Holocene period enabled the sea level to regain
its present level by rising 130m from the late Pleistocene sea level. This is why major por on of sediments on
con nental shelves is relict sediment. Around 60-65 percent of outer con nental shelves is characterized by
relict sediments of coarse texture (gravels and sands). It may be men oned that the outer con nental shelves
(seaward por on) have rela vely deeper water where low energy condi on predominates. Thus coarse grained
sediments cannot be deposited on quiet sea condi on of present me. On the other hand, the inner parts of
con nental shelves are characterized by coarse to fine grained sediments which are in accordance with high
energy level of bo om currents at present me. In other words, the coarse and fine grained sediments on the
floors of the inner con nental shelves are modern sediments.
The worldwide distribu on of marine deposits on con nental shelves denotes la tudinal varia on. K.O.
Emery (1969) has iden fied zonal pa ern of distribu on of marine sediments on con nental shelves at world
level as follows :
(1) Tropical shelves are dominated by biogenic sediments.
19

(2) Temperate (midla tudes) shelves are characterized by the dominance of terrigenous sediments brought
by the rivers.
(3) Con nental shelves in the polar areas are dominated by glacial marine sediments ( lls and ice-ra ed
debris).
Table 6.3 : Distribuon of deep-sea ocean deposits (pelagic deposits) (in percentage)
Type of sediments

Composion

Atlanc

Pacific

Indian

Whole Globe

Ocean

Ocean

Ocean

Globigerina ooze

carbonate

65

36

54

47

Pteropod ooze

carbonate

0.1

0.5

Ditom ooze

silica

10

20

12

Radiolarian ooze

silica

0.5

Red clay aluminium

26

49

25

38

silicate

Oeep-Sea Ocean Deposits

As already stated pelagic deposits predominate in the deep sea marine deposits. The areal distribu on
of deep sea ocean deposits consis ng of calcareous oozes (globigerina and pteropod oozes), silicines oozes
(diatom and radiolanian and red clay) has been shown in table 6.2 while percentages of these deposits in different oceans (Atlan c, Pacific and Indian Oceans) have been shown in table 6.3. It is apparent from table 6.3
that globigerina ooze is the most widespread deposits on the floors of deep oceans, as it occupies 47 percent
of total global deep sea deposits. Except the Pacific Ocean, the Atlan c and Indian Oceans are dominated by
globigerina ooze as they account for 65 and 54 percent of their total deep sea deposits respec vely. It is the
red clay which is most widespread in the Pacific Ocean (49 percent). The Atlan c and Indian Oceans account
for 26 and 25 percent of their respec ve total deep sea deposits. Diatom ooze is the third significant deep-sea
deposit (12 percent of total global deep sea deposits). The Indian, Pacific and Atlan c Oceans contain 20, 10
and 7 percent of their total deep sea deposits respec vely. Radiolarian ooze is almost insignificant as it shares
only 3 percent of total global deep sea deposits.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Authigenic deposits : The materials derived through biochemical precipita on and deposited on sea floors
in situ are called authigenic deposits.
Backwash : The breakers or swash or surfs a er reaching the sloping beach return towards the sea as
backwash or undertow currents and rip currents.
Biogenic sediments : The sediments formed through the deposi on of skeletal remains of marine organisms on sea floors are called biogenous sediments and deposits which have at least 30 percent by volume of
remains of marine organisms.
Breaker waves : The turbulent and unstable forward moving shorebound waves, which break at the
shoreline, are called breaker waves or simply breakers or surf, or uprush or swash.
Breakwaters: are protec ve structures errected oshore to save the coasts from the wave erosion. They
may be parallel, perpendicular or slan ng to the coasts.
Bulk emplacement : involves the enmass transport (slumping) of marine sediments down the undersea
slope by gravity currents or turbidity currents under the force of gravity.
Connental shelf : The broad, flat, shallow and gently sloping sea floor extending from the coasts to the
20

point of shelf break or upper part of con nental slope is called con nental shelf.
Connental slope : Steeply sloping submerged sea bo om extending from the outer marging of con nental
shelf or from the point of shelf break and ending into deep sea trenches is called con nental slope.
Cosmogenous sediments : The sediments of extraterrestrial origin, say from the meteorites in the space,
are called cosmogenous sediments.
Deep sea fans : Cone-shaped deposits of graded materials at the mouths of submarine canyons are called
deep sea fans.
Density current : The undersea gravity- driven current is called density current such as turbidity current.
Diatoms : are single celled microscopic phytoplanktons (marine plants) which are responsible for bulk
primary produc on in marine environment.
Evaporites: are deposits of dissolved subtances due to evapora on of water such as salts and gypsum.
Foraminifera: are marine protozoans having test composed of calcium carbonate, and linear or spiral or
concentric shells perforated by small holes or pores.
Glacial marine sediments: are those terrigenous sediments which are transported and deposited by glaciers in the oceans. These also include the sediments produced through ice ra ing.
Graded bedding: denotes ver cal grading of grain size in the layered structure of sedimentary deposits
where grain size becomes finer in ascending order.
Gravels : are coarse-grained terrigenous materials consis ng of boulders, cobbles, pebbles and granules.
Gravity waves : are marine undersea waves, such as turbidity waves or currents.
Groins : are protec ve structures of either concrete or woods which are errected perpendicular to the
coasts at regular intervals to protect harbours and beaches.
Hydrogenous sediments : The sediments derived from precipita on of dissolved substances due to chemical reac ons such as phosphorites, oolites (calcium carbonate), metal sulfides, gypsum, salts etc. are called
hydrogenous sediments.
Lithogenous sediments: The sediments derived from the weathering and erosion of rocks either on land
or in oceans are called lithogenous sediments.
Lioral zone : The zone of benthic province between high and low de waters is called li oral zone.
Macro-biogenic sediments: are those sediments which are derived from the shells, bones and teeths of
marine animals.
Micro-biogenic sediments: are small par cles of microscopic marine organisms, such as tests which connuously fall down on sea bo oms.
Marine snowfall: The con nuous fall of ny marine sediments on the ocean floors is called marine snowfall. It resembles the fall of snow flakes on the land.
Neric sediments : The marine sediments deposited on the floors of con nental shelves are called neri c
sediments.
Ocean deposits : The consolidated marine sediments in the form of sedimentary layers on sea floors are
called ocean deposits.
Pelagic maer : The sediments deposited on deep sea floors through slow sedimenta on are called pelagic ma er.
Phosphorites : The hydrogenic deposits having the nodules of phosphorous (P205) are called phospho21

rites.
Retail sedimentaon : involves deposi on of marine sediments par cle by par cle, known as con nuous
rain of ny par cles.
Radiolaria : are unicellular marine animals having siliceous tests and belong to planktonic and benthos
community.
Relict sediments: denote those sediments on the con nental shelves which are not of modern age as they
are not in equilibrium to present environmental condi on.
Seawall : is a protec ve structure of wood, boulders or concrete which are constructed along the coasts
to protect them from wave erosion.
Shelf break : is the outer edge of the con nental shelves from where starts the con nental slope.
Terrigenous sediments : are those marine sediments which are derived through the weathering and erosion of con nental rocks and brought to the oceans by rivers.
Tests : The ny shells of microscopic marine organisms are called tests which con nuously fall on sea
floors.
Turbidity currents : are driven by the high density of sediments. They are laden with slurry of sediments
and move downslope with high speed in the oceans.
Undertow currents : The breaker waves (surfs) a er reaching the sloping beach returns to the sea as a
backwash or undertow current.

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