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Theory
As with all transport phenomena, the rate of the transferred quantity is proportional to the driving force and inversely proportional to the resistance. For heat
transfer by conduction, the driving force is the temperature difference T and
the resistance R x=kA, where x is the wall thickness, k is the thermal
conductivity and A is the surface area perpendicular to the direction of transfer.
For a cylindrical wall, A is equal to the logarithmic mean surface area, while for
a spherical wall, A is equal to the geometric mean surface area. Thus:
Rate of heat transfer
For a single wall
T
R
T
qP
R
Surface area, A
Plane wall
Cylindrical wall
x=kA
r=kALM
Spherical wall
r=kAG
A
A1 A2
ALM
ln A1 =A2
p
AG A1 A2
Review Questions
Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
1. Heat is conducted in solids, liquids, and gases by the transfer of the energy of
motion from one more energetic molecule to an adjacent less energetic one.
S. Yanniotis, Solving Problems in Food Engineering.
Springer 2008
55
56
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Examples
Example 7.1
Calculate the rate of heat transfer through a glass window with 3 m2 surface
area and 5 mm thickness if the temperature on the two sides of the glass is 14 8C
and 15 8C respectively and the thermal conductivity of the glass is 0.7 W/m 8C.
The system is at steady state.
Solution
Examples
57
Step 1
Draw the process diagram:
T1
T2
Step 2
Calculate the resistance of the glass to heat transfer:
x
0:005 m
0:00238 8C=W
kA 0:7 W=m8C3 m2
Step 3
Calculate the rate of heat transferred:
T1 T2
15 14 8C
420 W
0:00238 8C=W
R
Example 7.2
Hot water is transferred through a stainless steel pipe of 0.04 m inside diameter
and 5 m length. The inside wall temperature is 90 8C, the outside surface
temperature is 88 8C, the thermal conductivity of stainless steel is 16 W/m 8C,
58
and the wall thickness is 2 mm. Calculate the heat losses if the system is at
steady state.
Solution
Step 1
Draw the process diagram:
T2
r1
r2
T1
A1
A2
Step 2
Calculate the logarithmic mean area of the wall:
i) A1 2p r1 L 2p0:02 m5 m 0:6283 m2
ii) A2 2p r2 L 2p0:022 m5 m 0:6912 m2
0:6283 0:6912
iii) ALM A1 A2
0:6592 m2
A
0:6283
ln 1
ln 0:6912
A2
Step 3
Calculate the resistance of the metal wall to heat transfer:
R
r2 r1
0:002 m
0:00019 8C=W
Step 4
Calculate the rate of heat transfer:
q
T T1 T2
90 88 8C
10526 W
R
R
0:00019 8C=W
Example 7.3
The wall of an oven consists of two metal sheets with insulation in between. The
temperature of the inner wall surface is 200 8C and that of the outer surface is
50 8C. The thickness of each metal sheet is 2 mm, the thickness of the insulation
Examples
59
is 5 cm, and the thermal conductivity is 16 W/m 8C and 0.055 W/m 8C respectively. Calculate the total resistance of the wall to heat transfer and the heat
transfer losses through the wall per m2 of wall area.
Solution
Step 1
Draw the process diagram:
T1
T2
T4
T3
x1
x2
x3
Step 2
State your assumptions.
The system is at steady state.
Step 3
Calculate the resistance to heat transfer:
i) Inner metal wall
R1
x1
0:002 m
0:00013 8C=W
k1 A 16 W=m8C1 m2
ii) Insulation:
R2
x2
0:05 m
0:90909 8C=W
k2 A 0:055 W=m8C1 m2
R3
x3
0:002 m
0:00013 8C=W
k3 A 16 W=m8C1 m2
60
0:90935 8C=W
R
R
Comments:
1) The main resistance to heat transfer (99.97%) is in the insulation layer.
2) The slope of the temperature gradient is steeper in the layer where the
resistance is higher.
Exercises
Exercise 7.1
If an insulation of 2 cm thickness with thermal conductivity equal to 0.02 W/
m 8C is wrapped around the pipe of Example 7.2 so that the outside surface
temperature of the insulation is 35 8C, while the inside wall temperature is still
90 8C, what would be the heat loss? What will be the outside surface metal wall
temperature T2?
Solution
Step 1
Draw the process diagram:
T3
T2
r1
r2
r3
T1
A1
A2
A3
Exercises
61
Step 2
Calculate the logarithmic mean area of the insulation:
i A3 ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: m2
ii ALMi :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: m2
Step 3
Calculate the resistance of the insulation layer to heat transfer:
R ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 8C=W
Step 4
Calculate the total resistance:
X
R :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Step 5
Calculate the rate of heat transfer:
T
q P :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: W
R
Step 6
Calculate temperature T2.
The temperature drop is proportional to the resistance:
T1 T2
Rw
P
R
T1 T3
where Rw is the metal wall resistance.
Therefore,
T2 ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::8C
Exercise 7.2
The wall of a refrigerator of 4 m2 surface area consists of two metal sheets with
insulation in between. The temperature of the inner wall surface is 5 8C and that
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of the outer surface is 20 8C. The thermal conductivity of the metal wall is 16 W/
m 8C and that of the insulation is 0.017 W/m 8C. If the thickness of each metal
sheet is 2 mm, calculate the thickness of the insulation that is required so that
the heat transferred to the refrigerator through the wall is 10 W/m2.
Solution
Step 1
Draw the process diagram:
T1
T2
T4
T3
x1
x2
x3
Step 2
State your assumptions
....................................................................................................................
Step 3
Calculate the resistance to heat transfer:
i) Inner metal wall:
R1 ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 8C=W
ii) Insulation:
R2 :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 8C=W
iii) Outer metal wall:
R3 ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 8C=W
iv) Total resistance:
X
R :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::8C=W
Exercises
63
Step 4
Calculate the thickness of insulation:Since
X
T ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
8C=W
q
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
T
R
64
Solution
Step 1
State your assumptions:
......................................................................................................................
Step 2
From Fouriers law:
dT
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
dx
Therefore,
dT
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::8C=m
dx A
and
dT
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::8C=m
dx B
Exercise 7.5
Find an analytical expression to calculate the heat flux in a plane wall if the
thermal conductivity varies with temperature according to the equation
k=koaT.
Solution
Step 1
Use the expression for k in Fouriers law:
q
dT
dT
k
ko aT
A
dx
dx
Step 2
Separate the variables and integrate from x1 to x2 and T1 to T2:
Exercise 7.6
Develop a spreadsheet program to plot the temperature distribution in a plane
wall, a cylindrical wall, and a spherical wall of 4 cm thickness if the outer surface
of the wall is at 20 8C and the inner surface is at 200 8C. The inner wall radius for
the cylinder and the sphere is 0.1 m, the outer wall radius is 0.14 m, and the
thermal conductivity of the wall is 0.02 W/m 8C. Assume steady state.
Exercises
65
Hint:
The relationships that give the temperature variation as a function of distance in
a wall are:
i) Plane wall:
T T1
x x1
x
q T1
T
x2 x1
kA
lnr=r1
lnr=r1
q T1
T
2pkL
lnr2 =r1
Exercise 7.7
Develop a spreadsheet program to plot the temperature distribution in a plane
wall of 4 cm thickness and inner wall surface temperature of 200 8C, at steady
state, when a) the thermal conductivity of the wall in W/m 8C varies according
to the equation k = 0.03250.0004T and 250 W/m2 of heat are transferred
through the wall; and b) the thermal conductivity is constant and equal to the
average value for the temperature range of the wall calculated in case a.
Calculate the heat transfer rate in case b and compare it to the heat transfer
rate of case a.
Hint:
Calculate the temperature as a function of distance in the wall using the
expression developed in Exercise 7.5.