Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

Chapter 8
Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
Learning Objectives
After reading Chapter 8, you should be able to:
1.

Describe similarities and differences between the personality theories of Erikson

and Freud.

2.

Write about the importance of the ego in Eriksons theory.

3.

Discuss ways in which social and cultural factors influence personality.

4.

Compare and contrast Erikson's first four stages of psychological development

with Freud's infantile and latency stages.

5. List Erikson's last four stages of psychosocial development, their crises, basic
strengths, and core pathologies.
6.

Explain Erikson's epigenetic principle.

7.

Explain how identity confusion can have positive effects on personality.

8.

Discuss Erikson's use of psychohistory as a research method.

9.

Describe Erikson's anthropological studies.

10.

Describe recent research on Erikson's concepts of identity and generativity.

Summary Outline
I.

II.

Overview of Erikson's Post-Freudian Theory

Erikson postulated eight stages of psychosocial development through which
people progress. Although he differed from Freud in his emphasis on the ego
and on social influences, his theory is an extension, not a repudiation of
Freudian psychoanalysis.
Biography of Erik Erikson
When Erik Erikson was born in Germany in 1902 his name was Erik
Salomonsen. After his mother married Theodor Homberger, Erik eventually
took his stepfather's name. At age 18 he left home to pursue the life of a
wandering artist and to search for self-identity. He gave up that life to teach
young children in Vienna where he met Anna Freud. Still searching for his
personal identity, he was psychoanalyzed by Ms. Freud, an experience that

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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

III.

IV.

allowed him to become a psychoanalyst. In mid-life, Erik Homberger moved

to the United States, changed his name to Erikson, and took a position at the
Harvard Medical School. Later, he taught at Yale, the University of California
at Berkeley, and several other universities. He died in 1994, a month short of
his 92nd birthday.
The Ego in Post-Freudian Psychology
One of Erikson's chief contributions to personality theory was his emphasis on
ego rather than id functions. According to Erikson, the ego is the center of
personality and is responsible for a unified sense of self. It consists of three
interrelated facets: the body ego, the ego ideal, and ego identity.
A. Society's Influence
The ego develops within a given society and is influenced by child-rearing
practices and other cultural customs. All cultures and nations develop a
pseudospecies, or a fictional notion that they are superior to other cultures.
B. Epigenetic Principle
The ego develops according to the epigenetic principle; that is, it grows
according to a genetically established rate and in a fixed sequence.
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Each of the eight stages of development is marked by a conflict between a
syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive) element, which
produces a basic strength or ego quality. Also, from adolescence on, each
stage is characterized by an identity crisis or turning point, which may
produce either adaptive or maladaptive adjustment.
A. Infancy
Erikson's view of infancy (the 1st year of life) was similar to Freud's concept of
the oral stage, except that Erikson expanded the notion of incorporation
beyond the mouth to include sense organs such as the eyes and ears. The
psychosexual mode of infancy is oral-sensory, which is characterized by both
receiving and accepting. The psycho-social crisis of infancy is basic trust
versus basic mistrust. From the crisis between basic trust and basic mistrust
emerges hope, the basic strength of infancy. Infants who do not develop hope
retreat from the world, and this withdrawal is the core pathology of infancy.
B. Early Childhood
The 2nd to 3rd year of life is early childhood, a period that compares to Freud's
anal stage, but it also includes mastery of other body functions such as
walking, urinating, and holding. The psychosexual mode of early childhood is
anal-urethral-muscular, and children of this age behave both impulsively and
compulsively. The psychosocial crisis of early childhood is autonomy versus
shame and doubt. The psychosocial crisis between autonomy on the one
hand and shame and doubt on the other produces will, the basic strength of
early childhood. The core pathology of early childhood is compulsion.
C. Play Age
From about the 3rd to the 5th year, children experience the play age, a period
that parallels Freud's phallic phase. Unlike Freud, however, Erikson saw the
Oedipus complex as an early model of lifelong playfulness and a drama played
out in children's minds as they attempt to understand the basic facts of life. The

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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

primary psychosexual mode of the play age is genital-locomotor, meaning that

children have both an interest in genital activity and an increasing ability to
move around. The psychosocial crisis of the play age is initiative versus guilt.
The conflict between initiative and guilt helps children to act with purpose and
to set goals. But if children have too little purpose, they develop inhibition,
the core pathology of the play age.
D. School Age
The period from about 6 to 12 or 13 years of age is called the school age, a
time of psychosexual latency, but it is also a time of psychosocial growth
beyond the family. Because sexual development is latent during the school age,
children can use their energies to learn the customs of their culture, including
both formal and informal education. The psychosocial crisis of this age is
industry versus inferiority. Children need to learn to work hard, but they
also must develop some sense of inferiority. From the conflict of industry and
inferiority emerges competence, the basic strength of school age. A lack of
industry leads to inertia, the core pathology of this stage.
E. Adolescence
Adolescence begins with puberty and is marked by a person's struggle to find
ego identity. It is a time of psychosexual growth, but it is also a period of
psychosocial latency. The psychosexual mode of adolescence is puberty or
genital maturation. The psychosocial crisis of adolescence is identity versus
identity confusion.
Psychologically healthy individuals emerge from
adolescence with a sense of who they are and what they believe; but some
identity confusion is normal. The conflict between identity and identity
confusion produces fidelity, or faith in some ideological view of the future.
Lack of belief in one's own selfhood results in role repudiation, or an inability
to bring together one's various self-images.
F. Young Adulthood
Young adulthood begins with the acquisition of intimacy at about age 18 and
ends with the development of generativity at about age 30. The psychosexual
mode of young adulthood is genitality, which is expressed as mutual trust
between partners in a stable sexual relationship. Its psychosocial crisis is
intimacy versus isolation. Intimacy is the ability to fuse one's identity with
that of another without fear of losing it; whereas isolation is the fear of losing
one's identity in an intimate relationship. The crisis between intimacy and
isolation results in the capacity to love. The core pathology of young
adulthood is exclusivity, or inability to love.
G. Adulthood
The period from about 31 to 60 years of age is adulthood, a time when people
make significant contributions to society. The psychosexual mode of adulthood
is procreativity, or the caring for one's children, the children of others, and the
material products of one's society. The psychosocial crisis of adulthood is
generativity versus stagnation, and the successful resolution of this crisis
results in care. Erikson saw care as taking care of the persons and products
that one has learned to care for. The core pathology of adulthood is
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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

V.

VI.

rejectivity, or the rejection of certain individuals or groups that one is

unwilling to take care of.
H. Old Age
The final stage of development is old age, from about age 60 until death. The
psychosexual mode of old age is generalized sensuality; that is, taking
pleasure in a variety of sensations and an appreciation of the traditional life
style of people of the other gender. The psychosocial crisis of old age is the
struggle between integrity (the maintenance of ego-identity) and despair (the
surrender of hope). The struggle between integrity and despair may produce
wisdom (the basic strength of old age), but it may also lead to disdain (a core
pathology marked by feelings of being finished or helpless).
Erikson's Methods of Investigation
Erikson relied mostly on anthropology and psychohistory to explain and
describe human personality.
A. Anthropological Studies
Erikson's two most important anthropological studies were of the Sioux of
South Dakota and the Yurok tribe of northern California. Both studies
demonstrated his notion that culture and history help shape personality.
B. Psychohistory
Erikson combined the methods of psychoanalysis and historical research to
study several personalities, most notably Gandhi and Luther. In both cases, the
central figure experienced an identity crisis that produced a basic strength
rather than a core pathology.
Related Research
Erikson's theory has generated a moderately large body of research, much of it
investigating the concepts of identity and generativity. In this section, the
authors focused on (1) generativity and parenting and (2) generativity vs.
stagnation.
A. Generativity and Parenting
Dan McAdams and colleagues have developed the Loyola Generativity Scale
(LGS) to measure generativity and to conduct research on this concept.
Researchers have used the LGS to investigate the impact of parental
generativity on the development of children. Bill Peterson (2006) tested his
prediction that parents with high generativity should produce happy, welladjusted offspring. His results were supportive of the general notion that
having a sense of generativity is important to effective parenting. Not only did
children of highly generative parents have more self-confidence, a stronger
sense of freedom, and more general happiness with life; they also had a
stronger future time orientation (Peterson, 2006).
B. Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson generally considered stagnation and generativity to be opposite ends of
the same continuum, so that an individual who is high on generativity tends to
be low on stagnation and vice versa. But recently researchers have been
exploring stagnation and generativity as somewhat independent constructs.
Van Hiel and colleagues, again using the LGS, found that generativity and

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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

stagnation can operate separately in adults. In addition, they found that when
measured separately, stagnation is related to problems in emotional regulation,
while generativity is not. Moreover, they discovered that some people measure
high on both generativity and stagnation, and that such a personality profile is
not mentally or emotionally healthy, as it includes difficulties both with
emotional regulation and with intimacy (van Hiel, Mervielde, De Fruyt, 2006).
In that this research preserves Eriksons two constructs of generativity and
stagnation, it is not a big departure from Erikson; however, it does show that
these two constructs can, and sometimes do, function independently in adult
development.
VII. Critique of Erikson
Although Erikson's work is a logical extension of Freud's psychoanalysis, it
offers a new way of looking at human development. As a useful theory, it rates
high on its ability to generate research, about average on its ability to be
falsified, to organize knowledge, and to guide the practitioner. It rates high on
internal consistency and about average on parsimony.
VIII. Concept of Humanity
Erikson saw humans as basically social animals who have limited free choice
and who are motivated by past experiences, which may be either conscious or
unconscious. In addition, Erikson is rated high on both optimism and
uniqueness of individuals.
Test Items
Fill-in-the-Blanks
1.

In searching for his own identity, Erik Erikson spent nearly a lifetime trying to
learn the name of his _________________________

2.

Erikson received a training analysis from ______________________.

3.

Basic trust is an example of a syntonic element, whereas basic mistrust is a

_______________________ tendency.

4.

The ego is a positive force that establishes ____________________, Erikson

believed.

5.

A basic ________________ emerges from the conflict between dystonic and

syntonic elements.

6.

The core pathology of infancy is _________________.

7.

The core pathology of early childhood is __________________.

8.

The basic strength of early childhood is ____________________.

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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

9.

The genital-___________________ is the psychosexual mode of the play age.

10.

Erikson's _______________________ covers about the same time as Freud's

phallic stageapproximately ages 3 to 5 years.

11.

The core pathology of the play age is ____________________.

12.

A child's ________________ begins to develop during the play age, and Erikson
calls this the "cornerstone of morality."

13.

Freud called this stage ____________________, but Erikson referred to it as the

school age.

14.

The psychosocial crisis of the school age is ______________________ versus

inferiority.

15.

Regression, or _____________________, is the core pathology of the school age.

16.

The main crisis of adolescence is between ______________ and identity

confusion.

17.

The core pathology of young adulthood is _______________.

18.

______________________ is the basic strength of adolescence.

19.

A person should learn ___________________ at the beginning of young

adulthood.

20.

The basic strength of young adulthood is _____________________.

21.

__________________ is the core pathology of adulthood.

22.

Erikson's final stage of development is ______________________.

23.

Erikson believed that anatomy, ____________________, and personality are our

combined destiny.

True-False
_____

1. During the last year of her life, Erik Erikson's mother revealed the name
of her son's biological father.

_____

2. Erikson began his professional career as an artist.

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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

_____3.

According to Erikson, people experience little personal growth after

adolescence.

_____4.

An identity crisis can emerge only after a person experiences a

catastrophe.

_____5.

Erikson saw the ego as being capable of adapting to changes throughout

the life cycle.

_____6.

Erikson believed that anatomy, rather than culture, has a strong influence
on how the ego will develop.

_____7.

Healthy psychological development depends on a conflict between

harmonious and disruptive elements, according to Erikson.

_____8.

Each of Erikson's stages has a psychosexual mode, a psychosocial crisis, a

basic strength, and a core pathology.

_____9.

Erikson's concept of the Oedipus complex is nearly identical to that of

Freud.

_____10.

A person's first serious identity crisis is likely to occur during adolescence.

_____11.

To Erikson, adolescence is a time of psychosocial latency.

_____12.

According to Erikson, puberty is less important to adolescents than is their

search for identity.

_____13.

An identity crisis may either increase or decrease ego strength.

_____14.

According to Erikson, love involves both intimacy and isolation.

_____15.

A drive common in all societies is the need to instruct others in the ways
of culture.

_____16.

Erikson believed that authors of psychohistory must remain objective

about their subjects.

_____17.

Despite his belief in core pathologies at each stage of development,

Erikson's viewpoint was basically optimistic.

_____18.

Erikson's theory is more biological than social.

_____19.

Research suggests that at midlife men are more likely than women to
perform housework.

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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

Multiple Choice
_____ 1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Throughout his adult life, Erik Erikson identified with ____, a nation
where he lived for only a few months of his life.
Germany
The United States
The United Kingdom
Norway
Denmark

_____ 2.
a.
b.
c.
d.

In contrast to Freud, Erikson

placed more emphasis on unconscious motivation.
placed more emphasis on the ego.
de-emphasized social and historical influences on personality.
all of these.

______3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Erikson built on Freud's theory by

elevating social factors over biological ones.
emphasizing the id as the key to personality development.
accepting Jung's idea of a collective unconscious.
none of these.
all of these.

______4.

According to Erikson, which of these is the most important aspect of the

ego?
self-conscious ego
perceived ego
ego identity
realistic ego

a.
b.
c.
d.
_____5.
a.
b.
c.
d.

During childhood, Erikson said, the ego

develops from the superego.
is weak and flexible.
is dormant.
does not exist.

______6.
a.
b.
c.
d.

To Erikson, the ego develops

within a social structure.
independent of historical factors.
most rapidly during adulthood.
only after the id stops developing.

______7.

Some societies hold that they are special and somehow more important
than other societies. Erikson referred to this belief as
an ethnocentric imperative.

a.

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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

b.
c.
d.

a Napoleonic complex.
a narcissistic illusion.
pseudospecies.

______8.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Erikson believed that healthy development rests on

a conflict between syntonic and dystonic tendencies.
a conflict between masculine and feminine elements.
an unresolved Oedipus complex.
a resolved Oedipus complex.
a strong superego.

______9.
a.
b.
c.

The epigenetic principle states that

some societies believe themselves to be special.
the ego develops from the dying id.
the ego develops in a sequence, with each stage emerging from and being
built on a previous stage.
central to individual development are those traits and tendencies inherited
from our ancestral past.

d.
_____10.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Erikson believed that ___ is the basic strength of infancy

hope
faith
will
love
industry

_____11.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

The psychosocial crisis of early childhood is

basic trust versus basic mistrust.
intimacy versus isolation.
industry versus inferiority.
autonomy versus shame and doubt.
compromise versus cooperation.

_____12.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Erikson's early childhood stage corresponds with which of Freud's stages?

oral
anal
phallic
genital
oedipal

_____13.

According to Erikson, ____ is a feeling of self-consciousness and of being

looked at or exposed.
shame
guilt
doubt
threat

a.
b.
c.
d.

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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

e.

exhibitionism

_____14.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

To Erikson, the original model for human playfulness is

the mother-child bond.
the Oedipus complex.
thumb-sucking.
basic mistrust.
basic trust.

_____15.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

The basic strength of the play age is _____.

fidelity
purpose
care
autonomy
playfulness

_____16.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Will is the basic strength of

infancy.
early childhood.
the play age.
adolescence.

_____17.

Heidi is beginning to make new friends of her age. For the first time in her
life, she has developed a relationship with adults who are not in her family.
Heidi is in which of Erikson's stages?
early childhood
adolescence
infancy
genital period
school age

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
_____18.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

The genital-locomotor psychosexual mode marks this stage.

infancy
play age
adolescence
young adulthood
early childhood

_____19.
a.
b.
c.
d.

The psychosocial crisis of the school age is

autonomy verses shame and doubt.
trust versus mistrust.
identity versus identity confusion.
industry versus inferiority.

_____20.
a.

Generalized sensuality characterizes the psychosexual stage of ______.

adolescence

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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

b.
c.
d.
e.

young adulthood
adulthood
old age
preadolescence

Short Answer
1. List three differences between the theories of Erikson and Freud.

2. List and explain three additions that Erikson made to Freudian theory.

3. Define and explain Erikson's epigenetic principle.

4. Explain the difference between psychohistory and a case history.

5. Briefly summarize Eriksonian research on generativity in adulthood.

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Chapter 8 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

Answers
Fill-in-the-Blanks
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20
21.
22.
23.

True-False

biological father
Anna Freud
dystonic
identity
strength
withdrawal
compulsion
will
infantile
play age
inhibition
conscience
latency
industry
inertia
identity
exclusivity
Fidelity
intimacy
love
Rejectivity
old age
history

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Multiple Choice
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

F
T
F
F
T
F
T
T
F
T
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
F

1.
2.
3.
4
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

e
b
a
c
b
a
d
a
c
a
d
b
a
b
b
b
b
b
b
d

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