The Crisis

of 1780

The Crisis of 1780s

Economic Crisis
Origins in the Revolution:
shortage of goods resulting from the British Blockade
demand for supplies by the army and the militias
flood of paper currency resulting in inflation
U.S. dollar compared to the Spanish dollar. Most of the money ended
up in the hands of merchants. U.S. continued to be a supplier of raw
materials and an importer of manufactured products especially from
Great Britain. British merchants began a major trade with Americans.
Resulting in :
exportable goods reduced by fighting
trade deficit rose
Left the country with little sliver coin (currency) in circulation

Banks insisted on repayment of old loans

1784- country in deep economic depression. Country was already in
debt before depression

Creditors owed more than 50 million

Congress was not allowed to raise taxes

State taxed residents

Production of exportable goods had been drastically reduced by the

fighting and thus the trade deficit with Britain for the period rose
1784-86 to approximately 5 million pounds. The deficit acted like a
magnet drawing hard currency from American accounts, leaving the
country with little silver or gold coin in circulation. Commercial banks
insisted on the repayment of old loans and refused to issue new one.
By 1784 the country had fallen into the grip of economic depression
and prices had fallen 25% in two year

State radicals called fro regulation of the economy. The most

controversial remedies were those designed to relieve the burden of
the debtors and ordinary taxpayers. Farmers and debtors pressed
their state governments for legal tender laws, which required
creditors to accept a states paper currency at face value rather than
depreciated market value for all debs public and private. Despite
opposition of creditors seven states enacted such laws. For the most
part these were modest progams that worked rather well caused little
depreciation and did not result in the problems creditors feared.

Rhode Island rural political party had a slogan, To relieve the

Distressed captured the legislature in 1786 and enacted a radical
currency law. The supply of money issued in relation to the population
was much greater under this program. Than any other state.
If creditors refused to accept it debtors were allowed to satisfy their
obligations by depositing the currency with a county judge who would
then advertise the debt as paid. In the state of Rogue Island one
shocked merchant wrote fraud and injustice had been permitted by
solemn law Conservatives pointed Rhode island as an example of the
evils that could accompany unchecked democratic anti-federalism.

State Remedies
Radicals called for regulation of the economy. Farmers and debtors pressed
for legal tender laws
would impose a paper currency at face value
seven states enacted such laws
the programs worked pretty well without problems originally feared by
creditors
Rhode Island
"To relieve the distressed"
1786 enacted radical currency law. The law declared the paper currency
legal tender to all debts
If creditors refused to accept a debt then the currency that would be used
to pay the debt can be given to a judge who can then declare the debt paid
State elected high tariff barriers to curb imports and protect domestic
industries

Annapolis Convention

Annapolis Convention
1786 Virginian legislature invited all states to
appoint delegates to a convention
Twelve delegates from five states attended
Passed a resolution requesting Confederation
Congress call on all states to send delegates to a
national convention that they might "render the
constitution of the federal government adequate
to the exigencies of the union"
Congress endorsed a Philadelphia convention to
be held in May 1787 to revise the Articles of
Confederation
Conservatives wanted to strengthen national
government

New Constitution
of the United
States

New Constitution
May 1787
55 men from 12 states (Rhode Island didn't
attend) met at Pennsylvania state house in
Philadelphia
Several prominent men were missing
(Thomas Jefferson and John Adams)
There were land speculators and merchants
also present
No minorities or women were present
The Constitution was basically framed by
white men who represented America's social
and economic elite (Patriots and Republicans)

A New Constitution
The Limits of Democracy

http://youtu.be/QQtJNK5_8Uk

The Constitutional Convention

Washington chaired the meeting. Meeting were kept secret to ensure
debate. James Madison took notes which served as the transcript of
the meeting
Virginia Plan proposal called for national legislature in which the
states would be represented according to population
Was presented at the convention and set the agenda
proposed scrapping of the Confederation in favor of a
"Consolidated government" with the power of tax and enforcing of
laws
Would reduce states to nothing more than counties
Representation in the bicameral national legislature would be
based on population
House of Representatives would be elected by popular vote and
senators would be chosen by state legislators
The Senate would lead, control foreign affairs and appoint officials
With that, an executive (president) and national judiciary would
form a Council Revision with the power to veto state and federally
Main opposition to the Virginia Plan came from delegates of small
states

lead to New Jersey Plan

Virginia Plan proposed scrapping the Articles of Confederation in

favor of a consolidated government with the power to tax and to
enforce its laws directly rather than through the states. A spirit of
locality was destroying the aggregated interests of the community by
which was meant for the great community of the nation. The Virginia
Plan would reduced the states to little more than administrative
institution something like counties. The House of Representatives
would be elected by popular vote. The Senate would lead, controlling
foreign affairs and he appointment of official. An appointed a chief

New Jersey Plan

Proposed increase in the powers of the central government,
but retained a single-house Congress in which the states
were equally represented. The New Jersey Plan caused a
split in delegate votes which lead to the Great Compromise
which proposed representation proportional to population in
the House and equal representation in the Senate allowed
the creation of a strong government
Part of this agreement was a second fundamental
compromise that brought together the North and South
North (commerce clause) if the South agreed with the
clause they agreed to count five slaves as the equivalent of
three freemen (three-fifths rule)
Early September the rough draft of the constitution was
turned over to a committee of style
September 17, 1787 the document was approved

New
Constitution

Only a few had humble origins most had been born into
prosperity families. Lawyers merchants, planters and
large farms. Average age was 42. At a time when fewer
than one-tenth of 1% of Americans attended college
more than half the delegates had college educations. 22
served in the army during the revolution. To ensure free
and candid debate the deliberations took place in
private.

Of the 45 who stayed in Philadelphia to work on the Constitution

39 signed the Document. Ben Franklin urged the delegates to
put aside individual objections and approve the document
whatever its imperfection. The older I grow the more apt I am
to pay more respect to the judgment of others.

The House of Representatives was made up of 65

delegates. (Small since the state of Massachusetts had
200 for its state assembly. The Senate would be
composed of each states most distinguished citizens.

A New Constitution
The Final Document

Ratifying the New Constitution

Supporters of the new constitution were known as Federalists
(nationalists)
Anti-Federalists argued against their opponents that the Articles of
Confederation already provided for a federal government of balanced
power between the states and the Union and that the Constitution
would replace it with a national government
Believed that the constitution granted too much power to the central
government which weakened the autonomy of communities and
states
Many argued a republican government could only work for small
countries
Rhode Island argued that the basic rights of property would not be
protected
Pennsylvania, first state to convene a ratification convention on
November 1787
Convention in favor of the Constitution
supported by artisans and commercial farmers

linked the constitution to growth of a commercial society

 Massachusetts 1788 (most important of the

conventions)
Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, George and
Connecticut voted to ratify the constitution
Opponents of the ratification included supporters
of Shays' Rebellion (small majority)
Anti-Federalists (John Hancock and Samuel
Adams)
On February 16 the convention voted in favor of
the ratification
Rhode Island rejected the constitution in March
but several other states joined the Union with the
promise of a Bill of Rights included in the
ratification

Authors of
the
Constitution
and Deism

What is Deism?

Only a few had humble origins most had been born into prosperity
families. Lawyers merchants, planters and large farms. Average
age was 42. At a time when fewer than one-tenth of 1% of
Americans attended college more than half the delegates had
college educations. 22 served in the army during the revolution.
To ensure free and candid debate the deliberations took place in
private.

A New Constitution
The Division and Separation of
Powers

Pennsylvanias constitution no
longer required ownership of
property but it retained the
taxpaying qualification but left a
small number mainly paupers
barred from voting

The Ratification Debate and the

Origin of the Bill of Rights
The Federalist
Extend the Sphere

"We the People"

National Identity

The Bill of Rights

Considered by the Constitutional Convention
then rejected originally
Anti-Federalists proposed over 200 potential
amendments with the sole purpose of protecting
the rights of the people against the power of the
central government
1789 James Madison transformed these
proposed amendments into a series of proposals
Congress passed twelve of the amendments and
sent them to the states
Only ten of them became the Bill of Rights in
1791

Bill of
Rights

Article I Bill of Rights

Article I contains the entire original Virginia
Declaration of Rights from the 1776
Constitution. Several of the sections have
been expanded to incorporate concepts
from the United States Bill of Rights,
including the right to due process, the
prohibition against double jeopardy, and the
right to bear arms. Like the Federal
Constitution, the Virginia Bill of Rights, in
17, states that the listing of certain rights is
not to be construed to exclude other rights
held by the people.

The Constitution created a new framework for American

Development. By assigning Congress power over tariffs, interstate
commerce, coining of money, patents, rules for bankruptcy and
weights and measure and prohibiting states from interfering with
property rights, it made possible a national economic market. It
created national political institution reduced the powers of the state
and sought to place limits on popular democracy.

The Ratification Debate and the

Origin of the Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights

The 4,000 word of the American Constitution embodies two basic

principles all from natural law 1) federal (division of powers 2)

A New Constitution
The Debate over Slavery
Slavery in the Constitution

The lawyer in the Somerset case of 1772 for a West Indian

slave brought to Britain and obtained his clients freedom by
invoking the memorable words The air of England is too
pure for a slave to breathe. Yet, the new federal
Constitution required all the states North and South to
recognize and help police the institution of slavery

First Federal
Governmen
t

THE FIRST ADMINISTRATION

First federal elections for Congress and presidency
George Washington became the first president of
the U.S on April 30,1789 He was then re-elected
without opposition in 1792 and served until 1797
His nature was reserved and solemn yet he chose
to ride around in a lavish carriage
He wanted to adhere to the constitution
Appointed Thomas Jefferson (secretary of state)
Alexander Hamilton(Treasury), Henry Knox (War
Department) and Edmund Randolph(Attorney
General)
He consulted with his cabinet regularly

An Active federal Judiciary

Most important piece of legislation- Judiciary Act
of 1789 which established the Supreme Court and
other federal courts
Congress established a high court of six justices and
established three circuit and thirteen district courts
Localists successfully fought to retain the varies
bodies of law in the states
The act gave federal courts limited jurisdiction
Judicial Review actually gave federal courts the right
to review and determine whether or not acts passed
by Congress or state legislature was constitutional

Ware v. Hylton, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 199 (1796) is a United States Supreme Court case where a
divided court ruled that an article in the Treaty of Paris, which provided that creditors on both
sides should meet no lawful impediment when recovering bona fide debts, took precedence
and overruled a Virginia law passed during the American Revolution which had nullified such
debts. The full title of the case is Ware, administrator of Jones, Plaintiff in Error v. Hylton et al.
It is also known as the British Debt case.
"The treaty of peace concluded between the United States and Great Britain, in 1783,
enabled British creditors to recover debts previously owing to them by American citizens,
notwithstanding a payment into a state treasury, under a state law of sequestration. An
individual citizen of one state cannot set up the violation of a public treaty, by the other
contracting party, to avoid an obligation arising under such treaty; the power to declare a
treaty void, for such cause, rests solely with the government, which may, or may not,
exercise its option in the premises."[1] Justice Iredell delivered the controlling opinion of the
Court.
"Patrick Henry, John Marshall, Alexander Campbell, and James Innis appeared for the
American debtors, and Andrew Ronald, John Wickham 'the eloquent, the witty, and the
graceful,' and Starke, and Baker, for the English creditors."[2]
John Marshall's argument before the bar won him great admiration at the time of its delivery,
and enlarged the circle of his reputation.[3] Flanders also added the reader of Marshall's
argument "cannot fail to be impressed with the vigor, rigorous analysis, and close reasoning
that mark every sentence of it."
Oral argument in the case was reenacted at Mount Vernon in 2011, with U.S. Supreme Court
Associate Justice Samuel Alito presiding. Historic Mount Vernon and the U.S. Supreme Court
Historical Society cosponsored the event

Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 U.S. 419 (1793), is considered the first United

States Supreme Court case of significance and impact. Given its date,
there was little available legal precedent (particularly in American
law).[1] It was almost immediately superseded by the Eleventh
Amendment

Washington appointed and the Senate confirmed the six

Supreme Court Justice including John Jay the Chief Justice.
During the courts first decade it heard relatively few cases yet
managed to raise considerable political controversy. In
Chisholm v. Georgia the court ruled in favor of two South
Carolina residents suing the State of Georgia for the recovery
of confiscated property thus supporting the Constitutions
grant of federal jurisdiction of disputes between a state and
citizens of another state.

Mostly because of Chisholm v. Georgia, the Eleventh Amendment was

ratified in 1795 and all pending court actions from Chisholm were
dismissed. This removed federal jurisdiction in cases where citizens of
one state or of foreign countries attempt to sue another state. However,
citizens of one state or of foreign countries can still use the Federal
courts if the state consents to be sued, or if Congress, pursuant to a
valid exercise of Fourteenth Amendment remedial powers, abrogates
the states immunity from suit

The Eleventh Amendment, which was the first Constitutional

amendment after the adoption of the Bill of Rights, was adopted
following the Supreme Court's ruling in Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 U.S. 419
(1793). In Chisholm, the Court ruled that federal courts had the
authority to hear cases in law and equity brought by private citizens
against states and that states did not enjoy sovereign immunity from
suits made by citizens of other states in federal court. Thus, the
amendment clarified Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution, which
gave diversity jurisdiction to the judiciary to hear cases "between a
state and citizens of another state."
Proposal and ratification[edit]
The Eleventh Amendment was proposed by the 3rd Congress on March
4, 1794, when it was approved by the House of Representatives by vote
of 81 9,[2] having been previously passed by the Senate, 23 2, on
January 14.[3] The amendment was ratified by the state legislatures of
the following state

Hamiltons
Fiscal
Policies

Hamiltons Report on the Public Credit recommending the

federal redemption at full value of the national debt owed to
foreign domestic creditors as well as the assumption of the
obligations accumulated by the states during the previous
fifteen years. Congress readily agreed to settle the $11
million owed to foreign coeditors through a combination of tax
revenue and loans but balked at the redemption of the
domestic debt of $42 million and the assumption of the state
debts of another $25 million. Hamilton proposed issuing new
interest bearing government bonds that would be exchanged
for the full value of all the notes warrants and securities the
government had distributed during the Revolution.

While the current presidential cabinet includes sixteen members, George

Washingtons cabinet included just four original members: Secretary of
State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton,
Secretary of War Henry Knox, and Attorney General Edmund Randolph.
Washington set the precedents for how these roles would interact with
the presidency, establishing the cabinet as the chief executives private,
trusted advisors.

Politics in an Age of Passion

Hamiltons Program

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=notJu
FGXQ9w

Hamiltons five step

program:
1)Create credit worthiness
2) New national debt
3) Creation of a bank of the
United States modeled after
Britain
4) To raise revenue
proposed a tax on
producers of whiskey.
5) Report on Manufactured
imposition of a tariff

Secretary of the Treasury

President George Washington appointed Hamilton as the first United States Secretary o
the Treasury on September 11, 1789. He left office on the last day of January 1795.
Much of the structure of the government of the United States was worked out in those
five years, beginning with the structure and function of the cabinet itself. Forrest
McDonald argues that Hamilton saw his office, like that of the British First Lord of the
Treasury, as the equivalent of a Prime Minister; Hamilton would oversee his colleagues
under the elective reign of George Washington. Washington did request Hamilton's
advice and assistance on matters outside the purview of the Treasury Department.
In the next two years, Hamilton submitted five reports:

First Report on the Public Credit: Communicated to the House of Representatives,

January 14, 1790.
Operations of the Act Laying Duties on Imports: Communicated to the House of
Representatives, April 23, 1790.
Second Report on Public Credit Report on a National Bank. Communicated to the
House of Representatives, December 14, 1790.
Report on the Establishment of a Mint: Communicated to the House of
Representatives, January 28, 1791.
Report on Manufactures: Communicated to the House of Representatives, December
5, 1791.

Report on Public Credit

In the Report on Public Credit, the Secretary made a controversial proposal that would have the federal
government assume state debts incurred during the Revolution.[59] This would give the federal government
much more power by placing the country's most serious financial obligation in the hands of the federal
government rather than the state governments.
The primary criticism of the plan was from Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson[59] and Representative James
Madison. Some states, such as Jefferson's Virginia, had paid almost half of their debts, and felt that their
taxpayers should not be assessed again to bail out the less provident. They further argued that the plan passed
beyond the scope of the new Constitutional government.
Madison objected to Hamilton's proposal to lower the rate of interest and postpone payments on federal debt as
not being payment in full; he also objected to the speculative profits being made. Much of the national debt was in
the form of bonds issued to Continental veterans, in place of wages the Continental Congress did not have the
money to pay. As the bonds continued to go unpaid, many had been pawned for a small fraction of their value.
Madison proposed to pay in full, but to divide payment between the original recipient and the present possessor.
Others, such as Samuel Livermore of New Hampshire, wished to curb speculation, and reduce taxation, by
paying only part of the bond. The disagreements between Madison and Hamilton extended to other proposals
Hamilton made to Congress, and drew in Jefferson when he returned from serving as minister to France.
Hamilton's supporters became known as Federalists and Jefferson's as Republicans. As Madison put it:
"I deserted Colonel Hamilton, or rather Colonel H. deserted me; in a word, the divergence between us took
place from his wishing to administration, or rather to administer the Government into what he thought it ought to
be..."[60]
Hamilton eventually secured passage of his assumption plan by striking a deal with Jefferson and Madison.
Hamilton would use his influence to place the permanent national capital on the Potomac River, and Jefferson
and Madison would encourage their friends to back Hamilton's assumption plan. In the end, Hamilton's
assumption, together with his proposals for funding the debt, overcame legislative opposition and narrowly
passed the House on July 26, 1793

The Bank of
Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia was
designed by
Benjamin
Latrobe. .
Hamiltons
program was a
intended to give
the countrys
financial leaders a
stake in the
stability of the
federal government

Hamilton's Controversial Fiscal

Program
Fiscal and economic affairs pressed upon the new government
The government took power in a virtually bankrupted period
Tariff of 1789 was suppose to increase revenue and not protect
American manufacturers from foreign competition
Hamilton planned to address Revolutionary war debt
Proposed to charter a national bank (Bank of the United States)

bank would be a public corporation funded by the Treasury

Congress approve and the bank was established in 1791
Proposed increased tariff protection
His plan would restore the financial health of the U.S

Hamilton proposed a king and Senators

serving live time careers. This received no
support.

Alexander
Hamiltons home
which was moved
out of New York

Hamilton believed in a loose

interpretation of the
constitution. Article I section
8 of the constitution or the
elastic clause of the
constitution.

The Report on the Subject of Manufactures, generally referred to by its

shortened title Report on Manufactures, is the third report, and magnum
opus, of American Founding Father and 1st U.S. Treasury Secretary
Alexander Hamilton. It was presented to Congress on December 5, 1791
and recommended economic policies to stimulate the new republic's
economy and ensure the independence won with the conclusion of the
Revolutionary War in 1783.Hamilton's "Report on Manufactures" laid forth
economic principles rooted in both the Mercantilist System of Elizabeth I's
England and the practices of Jean-Baptiste Colbert of France. The principal
ideas of the "Report" would later be incorporated into the "American
System" program by Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky and his Whig Party.
Abraham Lincoln, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig" during his
early years, would later make the principles outlined in the "Report" and
furthered by Clay's "American System" program cornerstones, together
with opposition to the institution and expansion of slavery, of the
fledgling Republican Party. Hamilton's ideas formed the basis for the
American School of economics

George Washington talks

in terms of will of the
nation and the ability to
serve to organized
factions Political rhetoric
became inflamed
because the stakes
seemed so high nothing
less than the legacy of the
Revolution and serving
We the People

Maria Reynolds 23
had an affair with
the married
Alexander Hamilton
34. Although the
affair was kept
secret for awhile.
Thomas Jefferson
used this
information as
leverage on his
opponent Alexander
Hamilton

Affair
In 1791, 23-year-old Maria Reynolds approached the married 34year-old Alexander Hamilton in Philadelphia, requesting his help.
Claiming that James Reynolds had abandoned her and her
daughter, Maria asked him for enough money to transport them
back to New York City, where her family lived. Hamilton consented,
and delivered the money in person to Maria later that night. As
Hamilton himself later confessed, "I took the bill out of my pocket
and gave it to her Some conversation ensued from which it was
quickly apparent that other than pecuniary consolation would be
acceptable." The two began an illicit affair that would last at least
three years.
Over the course of 1791 and 1792 while the affair took place,
James Reynolds was well aware of his wife's unfaithfulness. He
continually supported the affair to regularly gain blackmail money
from Hamilton. The common practice in the day was for the
wronged husband to seek retribution in a pistol duel, but Reynolds,
realizing how much Hamilton had to lose if his activity came into
public view, again insisted on monetary compensation instead.

Scandal
Hamilton eventually paid Reynolds more than $1,000 in blackmail over several years to continue sleeping with
Maria without his interference. But when Reynolds, being a professional con man, became entangled in a
separate scheme involving speculation on unpaid back wages intended for Revolutionary War veterans, he used
his knowledge about Hamiltons sex affair to bargain his way out of his own troubles. Reynolds knew Hamilton
would have to choose between revealing his affair with Maria, or admitting complicity to the speculation charges.
Congressional investigators James Monroe and Frederick Muhlenberg were the first men to hear of this
incredible possible corruption within their new government system. Monroe and Muhlenberg had the option to go
straight to President Washington with this news, but as gentlemen they felt compelled to bring it to Hamilton first.
Hamilton chose the former course, admitting his sexual indiscretion to Monroe and Muhlenberg, and even turning
over his love letters from Maria to them.
The letters proved Hamilton's innocence in the speculation scandal. In addition, because his confession was
made in confidence, Hamilton's involvement with Maria Reynolds was not made public in the wake of the
speculation investigation. Monroe and his colleagues assured Hamilton that the matter was settled. However,
Monroe took the love letters and sent them to his close personal friend, Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson and
Hamilton were self-described nemeses, and five years after receiving the letters, Jefferson used the knowledge to
start rampant rumors about Hamilton's private life. The final straw came in 1797, when pamphlet publisher James
Callender obtained the secret letters and printed them in his newspaper. Callender also revived the corruption
charges against Hamilton. Hamilton responded by printing his own 95 page pamphlet called Observations on
Certain Documents in which he denied all charges of corruption. He did not, however, deny his relationship with
Maria Reynolds; instead, he openly admitted it and apologized for it.

Politics
in an Age of Passion
The Emergence of Opposition
The Jefferson-Hamilton Bargain

Jefferson opposed Hamilton:

1) Standing army held a threat to freedom.
2) The national bank and assumption of state debts they feared
would introduce American politics the same corruption that
undermined British liberty.
3) During the 1780 speculators had bought up at great discounts
bonds and paper notes that had been used to pay those who
fought in the Revolution to supply the army. A few cents was the
purchasing price.
Under Hamiltons plan speculators would reap a windfall by being
pain at face value while the original holders received nothing
4) Many back country farmer were used to distilling their grain
harvest into whiskey. Hamiltons whiskey tax single out only the
farmers

Jefferson brokered a deal with Hamilton.

In exchange for accepting the monetary
policies, the Anti-Federalist and the
Sothern's wanted to have the nations first
capital built in the south in Virginia.
Washington DC.

American
Foreign
Policy

The Beginnings of Foreign

Policy

Federalist political coalition strained by indifference over

fiscal policy (Southern agrarians and Northern capitalists)
French Revolution of 1789

Reign of Terror 1793 (hundreds of aristocrats were

executed)
The execution of King Louis XVI and war between Britain
and France divided American opinion
The issue of whether or not America would have to aid
France in war with Britain due to the Franco-American
alliance of 1778
Caused Washington and cabinet members to agree upon
neutrality (neutrality =windfall profit)
Highly unlikely France would need aid from America
during the war

Nationalists believed in a necessity of accommodation

with Great Britain

Democrats wanted more international independence

With French Revolution in

progress Americans brought
back button, liberty poles
and caps to the streets of
American towns and cities.
To Washington Hamilton
and their supporters
however the Revolution
raised the steps closer to
anarchy. America believed
that it had no choice but to
draw closer to Britain.

The Citizen Gent affair began in 1793 when he was dispatched to the United States to promote
American support for France's wars with Spain and Britain.
Gent arrived in Charleston, South Carolina on the warship Embuscade on April 8. Instead of
traveling to the then-capital of Philadelphia to present himself to U.S. President George Washington
for accreditation, Gent stayed in South Carolina. There he was greeted with enthusiasm by the
people of Charleston, who threw a string of parties in his honor.
Gent's goals in South Carolina were to recruit and arm American privateers who would join French
expeditions against the British. He commissioned four privateering ships in total, including the
Republicaine, the Anti-George, the Sans-Culotte, and the Citizen Gent. Working with French consul
Michel Ange Bernard Mangourit, Gent organized American volunteers to fight Britain's Spanish
allies in Florida. After raising a militia, Gent set sail toward Philadelphia, stopping along the way to
marshal support for the French cause and arriving on May 18. He encouraged DemocraticRepublican Societies, but President Washington denounced them and they quickly withered away.
His actions endangered American neutrality in the war between France and Britain, which
Washington had pointedly declared in his Neutrality Proclamation of April 22. When Gent met with
Washington, he asked for what amounted to a suspension of American neutrality. When turned
down by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and informed that his actions were unacceptable,
Gent protested. Meanwhile, Gent's privateers were capturing British ships, and his militia was
preparing to move against the Spanish.
Gent continued to defy the wishes of the United States government, capturing British ships and
rearming them as privateers. Washington sent Gent an 8,000-word letter of complaint on
Jefferson's and Hamilton's advice one of the few situations in which the Federalist Alexander
Hamilton and the Democratic-Republican Jefferson agreed. Gent replied obstinately.
The Jacobins, having taken power in France by January 1794, sent an arrest notice which asked
Gent to come back to France. Gent, knowing that he would likely be sent to the guillotine, asked
Washington for asylum. It was Hamilton Gent's fiercest opponent in the cabinet who convinced

Genets arrived in Charleston, South Carolina on the warship Embuscade on April 8. Instead of
traveling to the then-capital of Philadelphia to present himself to U.S. President George
Washington for accreditation, Gent stayed in South Carolina. There he was greeted with
enthusiasm by the people of Charleston, who threw a string of parties in his honor.
Gent's goals in South Carolina were to recruit and arm American privateers who would join
French expeditions against the British. He commissioned four privateering ships in total,
including the Republicaine, the Anti-George, the Sans-Culotte, and the Citizen Gent. Working
with French consul Michel Ange Bernard Mangourit, Gent organized American volunteers to
fight Britain's Spanish allies in Florida. After raising a militia, Gent set sail toward
Philadelphia, stopping along the way to marshal support for the French cause and arriving on
May 18. He encouraged Democratic-Republican Societies, but President Washington
denounced them and they quickly withered away.
His actions endangered American neutrality in the war between France and Britain, which
Washington had pointedly declared in his Neutrality Proclamation of April 22. When Gent
met with Washington, he asked for what amounted to a suspension of American neutrality.
When turned down by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and informed that his actions were
unacceptable, Gent protested. Meanwhile, Gent's privateers were capturing British ships,
and his militia was preparing to move against the Spanish.
Gent continued to defy the wishes of the United States government, capturing British ships
and rearming them as privateers. Washington sent Gent an 8,000-word letter of complaint
on Jefferson's and Hamilton's advice one of the few situations in which the Federalist
Alexander Hamilton and the Democratic-Republican Jefferson agreed. Gent replied
obstinately.
The Jacobins, having taken power in France by January 1794, sent an arrest notice which
asked Gent to come back to France. Gent, knowing that he would likely be sent to the
guillotine, asked Washington for asylum. It was Hamilton Gent's fiercest opponent in the

Jays Treaty
was
unpopular
with the
AntiFederalist
and
opposition
to Hamilton

Jay's and Pinckney's Treaties

American occupation of the West encouraged Britain
to compromise with the United States so that they
could concentrate on defeating the French
Chief Justice John Jay met in London to arrange a
settlement
Jay signed an agreement that forced the British to
withdraw from American territory
the treaty also limited American trade with the British
The treaty eventually made it to the public which
stirred heated debate
The treaty was a symbol of American neutrality during
war
The Jeffersonians were enraged over the treaty
Hamilton eventually ratified the agreement

The British seized hundreds of American

ships trading with the French West Indies and
resumed the hated practice of impressment.
In kidnapping sailors to serve the British
Navy. Chief Justice John Jay negotiated an
agreement in 1794 that produced a great
controversy. Jays Treaty contained no British
concession on impressment or the rights of
American shipping. Britain did agree to
abandon outposts o the western frontier,
which it was supposed to have don in 1783.
In return the United States guaranteed
favored treatment to British imported goods.
The treaty canceled the American French
alliance and recognize the British economic
and naval supremacy as fact of life

Domestic
Policy of
America

Politics in an Age of Passion

Political Parties
The Whiskey Rebellion

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8lxF0HAhs8

Joseph Gales was a

journalist who found
himself editing
Republican
newspaper that
condemned social
privilege on both sides
of the Atlantic charged
the Federalist with
attempting to
introduce European
tyranny in America

The United
States and
the Indian
People

The United States and the

Indian People

Americans tried to treat West Indian tribes as conquered

people after the Revolutionary war
The Constitution did not include an Indian policy
1790 Congress passed the Intercourse Act
through this act trade and intercourse could be regulated
with the Indians
declared public treaties between Indians and the U.S the
only legal means at which their land could be obtained
The government wanted Indian land in the West
They were unsuccessful in controlling settlers around the
Ohio river
Americans usually ended up fighting Indians for their land
(Shawnees and Delaware's)
Little turtle (Indian War chief of the Miamis)
badly mauled federal forces killing and wounding several

In 1791 Little Turtle leader of the Miami Confederacy inflicted a

humiliating defeat on American Territory with 630 Dead this
was the most losses ever suffered by the United States Army at
the hands of the Indians. In 1794 American Troops 3,000 under
Anthony Wayne defeated Little Turtles forces at the Battle of
Fallen Timbers

An engraving from The Farmers

Spanish
Florida
and
British
Canada

Spanish Florida and British

Canada
The position of the United States in the West
was complicated even more by the hostility of
Spain and Britain who controlled adjoining
territories
Spain introduced liberal reforms to revitalize
the rule-bound economy of its American empire
(causing the economy of New Spain to grow)
Spain acquired the French claim to Louisiana by
the end of the Seven Years' War (territory also
included California, the Gulf Coast and Florida)
Spain held an anti-American policy making it
impossible for trade to take place through the
port of New Orleans

Treaty of Greenville 1795

The
Crisis of
1794

Domestic and International

Crisis

The situations with Spain, the Indians and the British

involvement in the fur trade caused protest
Spain gave bribes to settlers who quit the Union and
moved to Canada or Florida
The British confiscated American cargo from ships
(causing ruin for merchants)
Rebellion in the summer of 1794

Farmers protested taxes put on whiskey (Whiskey

Rebellion)

Washington established a federal army of 13000 men

and ordered the occupation of Pennsylvania

The Treaty of Greenville was a result of the

American defeat of the Indian Confederacy

Twelve Indian nations ceded a large portion of

territory to the United States

Washington's Farwell Address

Last months of Washington's term
Washington gave a farewell address
to the nation

Washington Farewell

Federalist and
Anti-Federalist

The Rise
of
Political
Parties

FEDERALISTS AND
JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS
The Rise of Political Parties
The election of 1796 established two primary
political factions
Federalists (Federalism belief is a shared
government)
Republicans (belief in limited government)
The two political factions had an important role in
the presidential elections of 1796
Partisan organization was strongest in the Middle
states while political forces were weak in New
England and the South
There was no party discipline (the new
administration was divided)

FED #10=This essay, the first of Madison's contributions to the series, was a
rather long development of the theme that a well-constructed union would break
and control the violence of faction, a "dangerous vice" in popular governments.
As defined by Madison, a faction was a number of citizens, whether a majority
or minority, who were united and activated "by some common impulse of passion, or
of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and
aggregate interests of the community."
There were two ways of removing the causes of factions, or political parties. The
first was to destroy the liberty essential to their existence. This remedy would be
worse than the disease. The second was to give everyone the same opinions,
passions, and interests. This was impossible. Woven into the fabric of all societies,
deeply planted in the very nature of man, were conflicting ideas, interests, and
passions. The greatest source of factions had always been the various and unequal
distribution of property, said Madison:
Those who hold, and those who are without property, have ever formed distinct
interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, . . . a
landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a monied interest,
with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them
into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of
these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern
Legislation.

The inference to which we are brought, is, that the causes of faction
cannot be removed; and that relief is only to be sought in the means of
controlling its effects.
Such effects could be better controlled in a large society under a
representative form of government than in a small society under a popular
form of government. The proposed constitution would check the power of
factions by balancing one against the other. Factious leaders might "kindle a
flame" in one state, but would be unable to spread a general conflagration
throughout the states.
"A rage for paper money, for abolition of debts, for an equal division of
property, or for any other improper or wicked project, . . ." was not likely to
spread if those professing themselves republicans showed zeal in "supporting
the character of Federalists."
Analysis
Madison's definition of a "faction," or political party, is interesting and
most significant in view of the fact that Madison soon ceased to be one of the
Federalists who believed in a one-party system, and became Jefferson's most
active lieutenant in organizing in opposition the Democratic-Republican Party,
which was strongly Anti-Federalist and took power after 1800.

The purpose of No. 51 is, according to Madison, to "form a more correct

judgment of the principles and structure of the government planned by the
Constitutional Convention."[2] In the paper, this is done by informing the reader of
the safeguards created by the convention to maintain the separate branches of
government, and to protect the rights of the people.
Dependency and encroachment
Madison's key point is that the members of each department should be as little
dependent as possible from the members of the other departments, and to stay
independent, their own department must not encroach on the others. To secure these
ends, Madison suggests that "the great security against a gradual concentration of
the several powers in the same department"[3] is to enable each department (or the
leader of the department) to fend off attempts to encroach upon the government of
each other's departments'.
Legislature
In a republican form of government, Madison asserts, the legislative branch is
the strongest, and therefore must be divided into different branches, be as little
connected with each other as possible, and render them by different modes of
election. He deems the legislative branch to be the strongest since it is essentially
the true voice of the people.(Before the Seventeenth Amendment, the House of
Representatives were chosen directly by the people, the Senate was by state
legislatures.) He stresses the need for the checks and balances.
Usurpations and security

The government is guarded from usurpations because it is divided into

distinct and separate departments.

In 1788, power over people was divided both through federalism (between
the federal government and the state governments) and through branches
(legislative, executive, and judicial) within the national (or federal)
government. Because of the division of power, a "double security arises to
the rights of the people. The governments will control each other, at the
same time that each will be controlled by itself"[4].
Factions

Madison discusses at great length at the end the issue of political factions.
He recognizes that factions will always be present and that the only way to
counteract the effects of factions is to have numerous factions. In other
words, even if individuals mingle with other members of the same social
groups, ideals, and goals, no particular group should be able to become so
strong as to thwart the interest of all other groups.

Factions had been further discussed in Federalist No. 10.

Anti-Federalists:
The leading opponents from the major
states included Thomas Jefferson John
Hancock,
Patrick Henry, George Mason, and
Richard Henry Lee from
Virginia, George Clinton, Robert Yates,
and Melanesian Smith
from New York, John Winthrop' and El
bridge Gerry from
Massachusetts and Robert Whitehall,
William Findley, and John
Smilier from Pennsylvania.

Extend the Sphere; the multiplicity of religious denominations he

argued offered the best security for religious liberty. Extend the
spheres he wrote. The multiplicity of religious denominations he
argued offered the best security for religious liberty. Likewise in a
action as large as the United states, so many distinct interests
economic, regional and political would arise that no single one
would ever be able to take over the government and oppress the
rest. Every majority would be a coalition of minorities' and thus
the rights of the individuals would be secure

The Ratification Debate and the

Origin of the Bill of Rights
The Anti-Federalists

Federalist numbers 10 and 51 written by James Madison moved beyond

assurances to develop a strikingly new vision of the relations ship
between government and society. Madison identified the essential
dilemma government must be based on the will of the people, yet the
people had shown themselves to dangerous enthusiasms. Most
worrisome they had threatened property rights, whose protection was
the first object of government. What was to prevent them rom using
their political power is to secure a more equal distribution of wealth. Men
are no angels and the earth is not heaven. There is a need for many
various factions

Anti-Federalist repudiated
Madisons arguments in
Federalist number 10 and
51. anti-Federalist insisted
that a very extensive
territory cannot be governed
on the principles of freedom.
Popular self government
flourish best in small
communities where rulers
and ruled interacted daily.
Only men of wealth ignorant
of the sentiments of middling
and lower class of citizen
would have the resources to

Liberty was the

Anti-Federalist
watchword.
Americas
happiness they
insisted arises from
the freedom of out
institution and the
limited nature of
our government.

"We the People"

Blacks and the Republic

At first to be an America all one had to do was to commit

oneself to an ideology of liberty, equality and democracy. From
the onset, however American nationality combined both civic
and ethnic definitions for most of our history, American
citizenship has been defined by blood as well as by political
allegiance

1796 Election
Adams
Federalist
versus
Jefferson

The Adams Presidency

The Election of 1796

The
Adams
Presidenc
y

The Adams Presidency

Adams attempted to follow the examples of Washington
Retained most of Washington's appointees
benefited from the tensions between France and the United
States

French suspended relations with the U.S. after the Jay treaty

Adams sent an American delegation to France

The French demanded bribery before any negotiations could

take place

The XYZ Affair confirmed the incident and outraged

Americans
Adam's and the Federalists prepared the country for War
Fear of a French invasion soon declined after the British naval
victory in 1798
Quasi-War(undeclared naval war) between United States and
France continued

The Adams Presidency

The Reign of Witches
The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

XYZ Affair

XYZ Affair

The XYZ Affair was a political and diplomatic episode in 1797

and 1798, early in the administration of John Adams, involving
the United States and Republican France. Its name derives
from the substitution of the letters X, Y and Z for the names of
French diplomats in documents released by the Adams
administration.
An American diplomatic commission was sent to France in July
1797 to negotiate issues that were threatening to break out into
war.[clarification needed] The diplomats, Charles Cotesworth
Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry, were approached
through informal channels by agents of the French Foreign
Minister Talleyrand, who demanded bribes and a loan before
formal negotiations could begin. Although such demands were
not uncommon in mainland European diplomacy of the time, the
Americans were offended by them, and eventually left France
without ever engaging in formal negotiations. Gerry, seeking to
avoid all-out war, remained for several months after the other
two commissioners left. His exchanges with Talleyrand laid
groundwork for the eventual end to diplomatic and military
hostilities.
The failure of the commission led to an undeclared naval war
called the Quasi-War (1798 to 1800), and caused a political
firestorm in the United States when the commission's
dispatches were published. Federalists who controlled the
government took advantage of the national anger to build up the
nation's military. They also criticized the Democratic-Republican
Party for its pro-French stance, and Elbridge Gerry (a
nonpartisan at the time) for what they saw as his role in the
commission's failure.

Aliens and
Seditions Act

The Alien and Sedition Acts

Congress passed acts that severely limited freedom
of speech and press and threatened foreign liberty
in the U.S.
Naturalization Act extended period of residence
required for U.S. citizenship
Alien Act and Alien Enemies Act authorized the
imprisonment or deportation of suspected aliens
during wartime
Sedition Act provided heavy fines and
imprisonment for anyone speaking or writing
against the government
Federalists used these acts to defeat the
Republicans
Republicans opposed acts

Pennsylvanias constitution no
longer required ownership of
property but it retained the
taxpaying qualification but left a
small number mainly paupers
barred from voting

Lyon had the distinction of being the first member to have an ethics violation charge filed
against him when he was accused of "gross indecency" for spitting in Roger Griswold's face.
Griswold, a Congressman from Connecticut, had insulted Lyon, calling him a scoundrel, which
at the time was considered profanity. On January 30, 1798. Congress planned to have a
meeting to remove William Blount, of Tennessee, from office. Griswold was trying to attract
Lyon's attention, but Lyon was ignoring him on purpose, since they belonged to opposing
political parties (Lyon was a Democratic-Republican and Griswold a Federalist). Griswold
finally lost his temper and insulted Lyon. Their clash began when Lyon began a Congressional
discussion by declaring himself willing to fight for the interest of the common man. Mockingly,
Congressman Griswold asked if Lyon would be fighting with his wooden sword, a reference to
Lyon's dismissal from Gates' command during the Revolution. Furious, Lyon spat on the
Congressman, earning himself the nickname "The Spitting Lyon". On February 15, 1798,
Griswold retaliated by beating Lyon about the head with a wooden cane in view of other
representatives on the Senate floor. Lyon retreated to a fire pit and defended himself with the
tongs until other Congressmen broke up the fight.[6] Griswold had to be pulled by his legs to
urge him to let go of Lyon.[7] Although the Ethics Committee recommended censure, the
House as a whole rejected the motion to censure him.[8] Having married the daughter of
Governor Chittenden, it is possible Lyon had too much influence to have been removed;[9]
though others argue it was because any actions taken against Lyon would have to be pursued
against Griswold.[10]
Lyon also has the distinction of being the only person to be elected to Congress while in jail.
On October 10, 1798, Lyon was found guilty of sedition, in violation of the Alien and Sedition
Acts; which prohibited malicious writing of the American government as a whole, or of the
houses of Congress, or of the President. Lyon was the first person to be put to trial for violating
the acts on charges of criticizing Federalist president John Adams for his pretense of going to
war against France.

Liberty of the Press

1775 beginning of revolution there were 37
weekly or semi-weekly newspapers in 13
colonies
1789 the numbers grew to 92 including 8
dallies
There were more newspapers in the U.S. then
anywhere else in the World
90 percent of the population in New England
could read
Federalist Gazette of the U.S.
National Gazette
Essay on Liberty of Press (freedom of press)

Election of
1800

The Revolution of 1800

Alien and Sedition Acts overthrown by Jeffersonian
Republicans
Adam's presidential term coming to end
Federalists were divided
French wanted to settle dispute with United States
Adam's accepted the settlement but angered Federalists
With the Federalists divided the Jeff Republicans took over the
state governments of Pennsylvania and New York
The presidential campaign of 1800 was the first with two
parties
Jeff Republicans favored state rights and liberty
Federalists were divided between a strong central
government and public order
Jefferson and Burr candidacy was an attempt at sectional
balance

Democratic Political Culture

Custom of celebrating Independence Day first
took place in Philadelphia
1800 Fourth of July was the nation's most
important holiday
Increase in suffrage
Women, minorities and a portion of free men
were excluded from voting
Increased competition between the Federalists
and Republicans
promoted a universal white manhood suffrage
caused an increase in turn out at polls in all
states

Commerce
was much
apart of
the
freedoms
the New
country
presented

Fenno was born in Boston, the son of Ephraim Fenno, leather-dresser and alehouse keeper, and
Mary Chapman. He wed Mary Curtis, of Roxbury, Massachusetts, on May 8, 1777, and the couple
had thirteen children. Fenno spent some early years as a teacher, and was secretary to General
Artemas Ward during part of the American Revolution. Failure of an import business led to a
move to New York City, which at that time was the nation's capital. Having previously written for
the Massachusetts Centinel, Fenno on April 11, 1789 in New York City published the first issue of
the Gazette of the United States to support Federalist Party positions. Fenno moved it to
Philadelphia when the national capital moved there in 1790.
As opposing factions, centered around Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, developed
within President Washington's administration, political newspapers such as the Gazette became
increasingly important. Fenno's little three-column folio, printed on a sheet seventeen by twentyone inches, became the semi-official government newspaper, with a share of the government's
printing and with contributions from prominent Federalists such as John Adams. Hamilton was
especially active, writing articles under various pseudonyms and rescuing the editor from
bankruptcy in 1793 by raising $2,000 to pay off creditors.
Jefferson and his colleagues, angry at Fenno's attempt "to make way for a king, lords, and
Commons" set up rival newspapers, the Aurora edited by Benjamin F. Bache and the National
Gazette edited by Philip Freneau, to promote the newly formed Democratic-Republican Party. As
a highly visible Federalist spokesman, Fenno was engaged in verbal disputes that once led to
fisticuffs with Bache. The tone of the Gazette of the United States was somewhat above the
average of its contemporaries, and the Federalists were well served through its columns,
although the circulation never exceeded 1,400. Copies circulated to major cities where other
Federalist newspapers freely copied the news and editorials.
Fenno, along with his wife and a newborn daughter, died in Philadelphia during the yellow fever
epidemic of 1798. His son, John Ward Fenno, carried on with the paper until 1800, when he sold
it.

War of two newspaper Gazette of Hamilton and

National Gazette of Jefferson

Tebbel and Burns are primarily referring to The Gazette of

the United States and the National Gazette, which were the
18th century equivalent of MSNBC and FOX NEWS. The
Aurora General Advertiser, Porcupines Gazette and New York
Evening Post are three other titles often included in the dark
ages.
The Gazette of the United States, edited by John Fenno,
supported the Federalist party, which wanted a big, central
government and weak states. Alexander Hamilton was the
partys symbolic figurehead. National Gazette, edited by
Philip Freneau, represented the Republicans, who wanted
more state power and weak central government. James
Madison and Thomas Jefferson were the Republicans
symbolic figureheads.
According to Burns, Hamilton and Jefferson both used
government money funds from the State Department
to launch their respective Gazettes, which provided as much
competitive back-and-forth entertainment as an AgassiSampras tennis match. For examples of the barb exchanges
watch chapter 14 of Burns C-SPAN presentation (starts at
29:52).
As youll learn from Burns, Thomas Jefferson had a very
devious side to him. Jefferson would leave the door to the
state dept unlocked at night on occasion and he would leave
documents on the desk which, if taken out of context or
willfully misinterpreted, could make the Washington
administration look bad. Phillip Fernau was the editor of the

The Rising
Glory of
America

THE RISE AND GLORY OF

AMERICA
American Artists
First American artist Benjamin West
achieved prominence in Europe with his
paintings of his native Pennsylvania
John Singleton Copley (Loyalist) famous
for his portrait of Samuel Adams
Charles Wilson Peale famous for his
wartime propaganda and a portrait of

Books Books
Books

The Birth of American

Literature
During the era majority of the best
sellers were of political nature and
content
Book stores grew throughout the
country after the Revolution
Life of Washington introduced
anecdotes (Washington and the
Cherry tree)

There were 92
newspapers in the
United States in 1787
only 12 published a
significant number of
Ant-Federalist pieces.
Madison gained
support for the
constitution by
bargaining with
Thomas Jefferson with
agreeing to a Bill of
Rights at the end of
the Constitution

John Filson was born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, around 1747. He was the son of Davison
Filson, also of Chester County. He attended the West Nottingham Academy in Colora, Maryland,
and studied with the Reverend Samuel Finley, afterwards president of the College of New Jersey
(later Princeton). Heitman's Historical Register of Colonial Officers reports a John Filson served
as an Ensign in Montgomery's Pennsylvania Battalion of the Flying Camp and was taken
prisoner at Fort Washington on 16 November 1776, during the Battle of New York.
He worked as a schoolteacher and surveyor in Pennsylvania until 1782 or 1783, when he
acquired over 13,000 acres (53 km) of western lands and moved to Kentucky. He settled in
Lexington, taught school, surveyed land claims, and travelled the region interviewing the
settlers and leading citizens. He wrote The Discovery, Settlement and Present State of Kentucke
during this period, and travelled to Wilmington, Delaware, to have it published in the summer of
1784. He also had a "Map of Kentucke" engraved and printed in Philadelphia. The edition,
including both book and map, consisted of 1,500 copies and was priced at $1.50. The map was
reprinted several times before 1793. Filson's plan for a second edition, to be endorsed by
George Washington, fell through.
The book was almost immediately translated into French and re-published in Paris (1785) and
somewhat later a German edition appeared (Leipzig, 1790). The appendix relating the
adventures of Daniel Boone was extremely popular, and was reference.

Mason Locke Weems (October 11, 1759

May 23, 1825), generally known as
Parson Weems, was an American book
agent and author. He is best known as
the source of some of the apocryphal
stories about George Washington. The
famous tale of the cherry tree ("I
cannot tell a lie, I did it with my little
hatchet") is included in The Life of
Washington (1800), Weems' most
famous work. This nineteenth-century
bestseller depicted Washington's
virtues and provided an entertaining
and morally instructive tale for the
youth of the young nation

Women in
the
Intellectual
Scene

Mary Wollstonecraft (/wlstn.krft/; 27 April 1759 10 September 1797) was an

eighteenth-century English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her
brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French
Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. Wollstonecraft is best known for A
Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not
naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests
that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order
founded on reason.
Until the late 20th century, Wollstonecraft's life, which encompassed several
unconventional personal relationships, received more attention than her writing. After two
ill-fated affairs, with Henry Fuseli and Gilbert Imlay (by whom she had a daughter, Fanny
Imlay), Wollstonecraft married the philosopher William Godwin, one of the forefathers of the
anarchist movement. Wollstonecraft died at the age of thirty-eight, ten days after giving
birth to her second daughter, leaving behind several unfinished manuscripts. Her daughter
Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin would become an accomplished writer herself, as Mary Shelley,
the author of Frankenstein.
After Wollstonecraft's death, her widower published a Memoir (1798) of her life, revealing
her unorthodox lifestyle, which inadvertently destroyed her reputation for almost a century.
However, with the emergence of the feminist movement at the turn of the twentieth
century, Wollstonecraft's advocacy of women's equality and critiques of conventional
femininity became increasingly important. Today Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the
founding feminist philosophers, and feminists often cite both her life and work as important
influences.

Judith Sargent Murray one of the eras most

accomplished American women wrote essays for the
Massachusetts Magazine under the pen name the
Gleaner Judiths father an brother who went to Harvard
taught Judith how to think. This tutorial process help the
success for writing

Judith Sargent Murray (1751-1820) was born in Gloucester, Massachusetts,

and spent most of her life in New England, where her extraordinary
intellectual achievements gained recognition in literary and political
circles of the late eighteenth century. Author of "On the Equality of the
Sexes" (1790), Murray was one of America's earliest feminist writers and a
gifted satirist. She was one of the first women in America to have her own
literary column (in Massachusetts Magazine), and the first American to
have a play produced on the Boston stage. In addition to writing essays,
plays, poetry, and fiction, Murray was a prolific letter writer. Throughout
her long career, she focused on the themes of women's education, history,
and contributions to American culture. In 1798, one hundred of her essays
from Massachusetts Magazine were collected and published in a single
volume, The Gleaner. The Selected Writings features Murray's "On the
Equality of the Sexes" and other essays from The Gleaner; selected
correspondence; a play, The Traveller Returned; and Murray's only novel,
The Story of Margaretta. This latest addition to the Women Writers in
English series reintroduces an important early feminist voice, one that
should engage the intellect and imagination of readers both inside and
outside the academy.