Metering Fluids

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
College of Engineering and Technology

Chemical Engineering Department
METERING FLUIDS
SUBMITTED BY:
ANCHETA, Jeric P.
HARO, April joy
ILAGAN, Elaine Jane P.
SARSOZA, Andriane C.
SUPREMO, Journel Ann
SUBMITTED TO:
Engr. Denvert Pangayao
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August 22, 2014
FLOWMETER
A flowmeter is a device for measurement of the quantity of fluid flowing per unit
time, as in cubic feet per minute or pounds per second, or of the velocity of flow, as in
feet per second.
Whatever the construction, a flowmeter if often calibrated by diverting the
entire stream of fluid from its usual channel into a receiver arranged to permit
accurate measurement of flow by weight or volume during a measured interval of
time. A liquid may flow into a weigh tank mounted on scales or into a tank
calibrated to indicate volume as a function of liquid depth. A gas may flow into a gas
holder, an inverted tank floating in water or oil inside a larger tank. In a sense, all
flowmeters are always calibrated in this way, for even a standard calibration meter
must be checked by this method.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLOWMETER
1. MANOMETER
Definition and Uses of a Manometer

A manometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure acting on a column
of fluid, especially one with a U-shaped tube of liquid in which a difference in the
pressures acting in the two arms of the tube causes the liquid to reach different
heights in the two arms. The word was derived from the French word manomtre
equivalent to mano (Greek mans which means loose, rare, sparse) and mtre
meaning meter. By the simplest, most basic definition, a manometer is a pressuremeasuring instrument. However, there are different types of pressure that are
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commonly measured. Most pressure-measuring instruments are either designed to
measure pressure as it relates to atmospheric pressure or pressure in a vacuum.
Manometers fall under the category of measuring atmospheric pressure. A more
precise definition of what is a manometer can be summed up as a liquid hydrostatic
instrument.
Physical Appearance of a Manometer

Manometers were the original pressure-measuring instruments because
pressure was once measured by its ability to displace a column of liquid. A
manometer in its simplest form is just a piezometer tube that holds the measuring
liquid. Nowadays, the most common form of a manometer is a U-shaped design.
Manometers, as stated, measure pressure by displacing liquid, though not just any
liquid. A manometer's gauge can either be analog or digital. Manometers are made of
plastic
or
glass.
Among manometer manufacturers, the preferred fluid is mercury because its density
allows for the manufacturing of shorter and smaller manometers. Water is another
popular option to use as fluid in a manometer. Even though water manometers are
bigger in size than their mercury counterparts, the advantage of a water manometer
is that water is non-toxic and easy to acquire. Often, you'll be able to spot waterbased manometers because of the initials "W.C." that stands for "water column."
Simpler, single tube manometers can only measure the pressure of a liquid, while Ushaped manometers are also able to measure gas pressure.
How does a Manometer Works
Manometers work by measuring the difference between the liquid or gas being
measured against atmospheric pressure. First, liquid is placed inside the manometer,
either mercury or water. When measuring gas pressure, gas will be pumped in
through one end of the U-shaped manometer, then that end is sealed to keep the gas
inside. The other end of the manometer is left open to allow atmospheric pressure
level to do its function on the manometer's liquid. Both gas pressure and atmospheric
pressure will push down on the liquid sitting at the bottom of the U-shape. If the
liquid remains level across both ends, then the pressure the gas exerts is the same as
that of the atmosphere. If the gas is heavier than the atmosphere, it will exert more
pressure on the liquid and make it rise on the open end, past the equal point. If the
liquid rises higher on the sealed end, it means atmospheric pressure is heavier than
the gas.
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Measuring with a Manometer
Manometers used to be the standard method for measuring pressure. This
became problematic once it became apparent that things like atmospheric pressure
and fluid density can change the measurement of fluid displacement in a manometer.
Also, temperature and even gravity tended to influence how high a column of fluid
would be displaced inside a manometer. This is the reason why atmospheric pressure
differences must be accounted for when doing studies that require precise
measurements. Even though these small inaccuracies gave rise to vacuum systems,
manometer measurements, also called manometric units, are still in use today. For
example, blood pressure is still measured in millimeters of mercury, lung pressure in
inches of water, and also natural gas pipeline pressures, which are noted as "inches
W.C."
Disadvantages of Manometers
A manometer's main advantage is its low cost. However, there are a few
disadvantages that come with a manometer that often limits their usefulness. For
one, manometers tend to be bulky and rather large. This translates into a lack of
portability, as they can't be disassembled into a more manageable size. Also, one
must find an appropriate surface in which to place the manometer, as it needs to be
level in order to provide accurate readings. Because of its fluid content, sometimes
condensation may present inside the instrument, affecting readings. Also,
manometers offer no over-range protection; should the pressure being tested far
exceed that of the atmospheric pressure, which will cause fluid to spill out of the
instrument.
Manometers are very useful instruments for measuring pressure. They work by
comparing pressure exerted by gas and liquids and comparing them to atmospheric
pressure. Because of variation in atmospheric pressure, it is often necessary to
measure atmospheric pressure versus standard atmospheric pressure to account for
difference in pressure variances. While manometers are easy to use and affordable,
their main disadvantages are lack of portability and bulky size.
Manometer types
1. Simple U-tube manometer
Measures the pressure of the liquids or gases. Bottom of the U-tube filled with
manometric liquid which is of greater density and immiscible with the fluid to be
measured.
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2. Inverted U-tube manometer

Used for measuring pressure differences in liquids. The space abovethe liquid in the
manometer is filled with air which can be admitted or expelled through the tap on the
top, in order to adjust the level of the liquid in the manometer. For inverted U - tube
manometer the manometric fluid is usually air.
3. U- tube with one leg enlarged

By making the diameter of one leg very large compared to other, movement in the
large leg become very small. So it is only necessary to read the movement of liquid in
the narrow leg.
4. Two fluid-U- tube manometer

Small differences in pressure in gases are often measured with this manometer in
which two fluids were used.
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5. Inclined U-tube manometer

In this type, one leg of a manometer is inclined in such manner that, for a small
magnitude of Rm, the meniscus in the inclined tube must move a considerable
distance along the tube.
DERIVATION OF THE EQUATION FOR MANOMETER

Assume the shaded that the shaded portion of the U-tube is filled with liquid A
having a density of a and that the arms of the U tube above the liquid are filled
with liquid B having a density of b. Fluid B is immiscible with liquid A and less
dense than A; it is often a gas such as air or nitrogen. (refer to the figure below)
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A pressure a is exerted in one arm of the U tube and a pressure b in the other.
As a result of the difference in the pressure a- b, the meniscus in one branch of
the U tube is higher than the other, and the vertical distance between the two
meniscus Rm, may be used to measure the difference in pressure. To derive a
relationship between a- b, and Rm, start at point 1 where the pressure is a. The
pressure at point 2 is a + g (Zm+Rm)b. By the principles of hydrostatics, this is
also the pressure at point 3. The pressure at point 4 is less than that at point 3
by the amount of gRma, and the pressure at point 5, which is b , is still less the
amount of gZmb. These statement can be summarized by the equation:
a +g [((Zm+Rm)B - Rm A- ZmB]
Simplification of this statement gives,
a- b = gRm (A- B)
Note that this relationship is independent of the distance Zm and of the
dimensions of the tube, provided that pressures a and b are measured in the
same horizontal plane. If the fluid B is a gas, B is usually negligible compared to
A and may be omitted from the above equation.

Sample Problem:
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1. A manometer of U tube type is used to measure the pressure drop across an
orifice. Liquid A is mercury (density = 13, 590 kg/m 3) and fluid B, flowing
through an orifice and filling the manometer leads is brine, (density = 1,260
kg/m3). When the pressure at the taps are equal, the level of the mercury in
the manometer is 0.9m below the orifice taps. Under operating conditions, the
gauge pressure at the upstream tap is 0.14 bar; the pressure at the
downstream tap is 250mmHg below atmospheric. What is the reading of the
manometer in mm?
Solution: call the atmospheric pressure zero:
1.01325
a = 0.14bar 101325 Pa = 14,000 Pa
b = gZbA
250
= 9.80665*(- 1000 )*13,590
b = 33,318.09338 Pa
Substituting to the formula:
a- b = gRm (A- B)
14,000 Pa + 33,318.09338 Pa = Rm * 9.80665 (13,590 1260)

Rm = 391.33mm
2. Pitot Tube
Introduction
The Pitot tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in 1732 and was
modified to its modern form in the mid-19 th century by French scientist Henry Darcy.
It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft, water speed of a boat, and
to measure liquid, air and gas velocities in industrial applications. The pitot tube is
used to measure the local velocity at a given point in the flow stream and not the
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average velocity in the pipe or conduit. Pitot tubes detect the flowing velocity at a
single point (standard), at several points that lead into an averaging probe
(multiported), or at many points across the section of a pipe or duct( area-averaging).
Theory of operation
In Fig. 1, a sketch of this simple device is shown. One tube, the impact tube, has its
opening normal to the direction of the flow, while the static tube has its opening
parallel to the direction of flow.
The fluid flows into the opening at point 2; pressure builds up and then
remains stationary at this point, called the stagnation point. The difference in the
stagnation pressure ( also known as total pressure or the pitot pressure) at point 2
and the static pressure measured by the static tube represents the pressure rise
associated with deceleration of the fluid. The manometer measures this small
pressure rise.
The conversion from potential to kinetic energy takes place at the stagnation
point, located at the Pitot tube entrance (see the schematic below. A pressure higher
than the free-stream (i.e. dynamic) pressure results from the kinematic to potential
conversion. This "static" pressure is measured by comparing it to the flow's dynamic
pressure with a differential manometer.
If the fluid is incompressible, we can write the Bernoulli equation between
point A, where the velocity v1 is undisturbed before the liquid decelerates, and point
B, where the velocity V2 is zero:
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v 1 2 v 2 2 ( P1 - P2 )
+
=0
2
2
P
Setting
v =Cp
(1)
=0 and solving for
2(P2P1)
(2)
Where:
v =velocity v 1t h e tubeat point A m/s
P2=stagnation pressure
=density of t h e flowing fluid at t h e static pressure P1
C p =a dimensionless coefficient take into account deviations Eq . ( 1 ) t h at generally
varies between about 0.981.0
NOTE: The above equation applies only to fluids that can be treated as
incompressible. Liquids are treated as incompressible under almost all conditions.
Gases under certain conditions can be approximated as incompressible.
The value of the pressure drop P1 P2 or P is related to h, the reading on the
manometer, as follows:
P=h (A- B )g
Since the pitot tube measures velocity at only one point in the flow, several
methods can be used to obtain the average velocity in the pipe. In the first method
the velocity is measured at the exact center of the tube to obtain v max . Then by using
the graph for the ratio vave/vmax as a function of Reynolds number for pipes (Fig. 2.102 in Geankoplis), the vave can be obtained. Care should be taken to have the pilot tube
at least 100 diameters downstream from any pipe obstruction.
Static Pressure Measurement
In process fluids flowing through pipes or ducts, the static pressure is
commonly measured in one of the three ways: (1) through taps in the wall,(2) by
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static probes inserted into the fluid stream, or (3) by small apertures located on an
aerodynamic body immersed in the flowing fluid.
Static pressure errors also depend on fluid viscosity, fluid velocity, and whether
the fluid is compressible.
The total pressure develops at a point where the flow is isentropically
stagnated, which is assumed to occur at the tip of a pitot tube or at a specific point
on a bluff body immersed in the stream. Fig.2 illustrates a typical pitot tube, also
showing the taps for sensing static pressure. Another variation is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2. Typical pitot tube

Calculating Error
When selecting a Pitot Static tube to be used in conjunction with any
manometer, it is necessary to select a tube with a constant close to unity, if errors in
velocity are to be avoided. If data for a particular Pitot tube is not available, the
constant C may be estimated. This constant is dependent on the spacing of the Pitot
tubes' static pressure ports (see Fig. 4) from the base of the Pitot tube's tip and the
stem's center line. Prandtl type Pitot tubes typically have constants C close to 1.
Advantageous of pitot tube
(a) It is easy to remove pitot tube from pipe line.
(b) Low permanent pressure loss in the pitot tube.
(c) It is easy to install
(d) Low cost
Disadvantages of the Pitot Tube
1. Most designs do not give the average velocity directly
2. With gases, the differential is very small at low velocities;
e.g., at 4.6 m/s (15.1 ft/s) the differential is only about 1.30 mm (0.051 in) of
water (20C) for air at 1 atm (20C), which represents a lower limit for 1 percent error
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even when one uses a micromanometer with a precision of 0.0254 mm (0.001 in) of
water.
Fig. 3. Schematic of an industrial device for sensing static and dynamic pressures in
a flowing fluid
.
Fig. 4. Cross-section of a Typical Static Tube
Sample problem:
1. Air at 200f is forced through a long, circular flue 36 in. in diameter. A pitot-tube
reading is taken at the center of the flue at a sufficient distance from flow
disturbances to ensure normal velocity distribution. The pitot reading is 0.54 in.
H2O, and the static pressure at the point of measurement is 15.25 in. H2O. The
coefficient of the pitot tube is 0.98.
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Calculate the fow of air, in cubic feet per minute, measured at 60F and a
barometric pressure of 29.92 in Hg.
Solution:
The velocity at the center of the flue, which is that measured by the
instrument,is calculated by Eq. (2), using the coefficient 0.98 to correct for
imperfections in the flow pattern caused by the presence of the tube. The necessary
quantities are as follows. The absolute pressure at the instrument is
15.25
p=29.92+
=31.04. Hg
12.6
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3. Venturi Meter
A Venturi meter is a full-bore meter (fluid flow meter that operates on all fluid
in the pipe or channel) that is usually inserted directly into a pipeline. If the fluid to
be measured is flowing inside a closed conduit, a constriction in the channel will
serve as the primary element of a flow meter. A short conical inlet section leads to a
throat section, then to along discharge cone. Pressure taps at the start of the inlet
section and at the throat are connected to a manometer or differentia; pressure
transmitter.
In the upstream cone, the fluid velocity is increased and its pressure
decreased. The pressure drop in this cone is used to measure the flow rate. In the
discharge cone the velocity is decreased and the original pressure largely recovered.
The angle of the discharge cone is made small between 5 and 15, to prevent
boundary layer separation and to minimize friction. Since there is no separation in a
contracting cross section, the upstream cone can be made shorter than the
downstream cone. Typically 90% of the pressure loss in the upstream cone is
recovered.
Venturi Tube
Although venturi meters can be applied to the measurement of gas flow rates,
they are most commonly used with liquids, especially large flows of water where,
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because of the large pressure recovery, a Venturi requires less power than other types
of meters.
The basic equation for Venturi meters is obtained by writing the Bernoulli
equation for incompressible fluids across the upstream cone. If V a and Vb are the
average upstream and downstream velocities respectively, and is the density of the
fluid, the equation becomes:
P
2( aP b)
( Equation1)
b V b2 a V a2=
where:
= kinetic energy correction factor
P = pressure
= density
V =average fluid velocity
The continuity equation can be written, since the density is constant, as:
2
Db
V a=( ) V b = 2 V b (Equation 2)
Da
where:
Da = diameter of pipe
Db = meter throat diameter
= diameter ratio, Db/Da
Substituting the continuity expression to the Bernoulli statement for Venturi
meters eliminates Va, hence, the equation becomes:
P
2( aP b)
( Equation3)
V b=
4
b
a
Equation 3 applies strictly to the frictionless flow of incompressible fluids. To
account for the small friction loss between locations a and b, the equation above is
corrected by introducing an empirical factor Cv and writing
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P
2( aP b)
( Equation 4)
Cv
V b=
1 4
The small effects of the kinetic energy factors a and b are also taken into
account in the definition of Cv. The coefficient Cv is determined experimentally. It is
called the Venturi coefficient of which the effects of the approach velocity are not
included. The effect of the approach velocity Va is accounted for by the term 1/
1 4 . When Db is less than 0.25Da, the approach velocity and the term can be
neglected, since the resulting error is less than 0.2%.
For a well-designed Venturi, the constant Cv is about 0.98 for pipe diameter of
2 8 in. and 0.99 for larger sizes.
The velocity through the Venturi throat Vb is not the quantity usually desired.
The flow rates of practical interest are the volumetric and mass flow rates through
the meter. The volumetric flow rate can be calculated as follows:
P
2( aP b)
( Equation5)
C A
Q=V b Ab = v b 4
1
where:
Q =volumetric flow rate
Ab = area of throat
The mass flow rate is obtained by multiplying the volumetric flow rate by the
density:
P
2 ( aPb)(Equation 6)
C A
m=Q= v b4
1
where:
m = fluid mass flow rate
Energy Balances on Venturi Meter
Applying the overall energy balance equation to Venturi meters if the tube is
mounted horizontally in a pipeline (no difference in elevation, no work done and the
operation is adiabatic) gives:
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U + ( PV ) =
mV 2
(Equation 7)
2
( )
Equation 7 may be written for 1-kg mass:

m2
1
1
U + ( P V ) =
2 2 (Equation 8)
2
2
2 a A a b A b
where:
U
= specific internal energy
V = specific volume
Rearranging equation 8 to compute for the mass flow rate gives:
)
2( H
2( U + ( P V ))
( Equation 9)
m=
=
1
1
1
1
a2 A a2 b 2 A b 2
a 2 A a 2 b2 A b2
If the flowing fluid is incompressible or the pressure difference is so small that

the density is almost constant, then:
m=
( )
)
2 2 A b2 ( H
A b2
1
A a2
( Equation10)
If the enthalpies cannot be evaluated, the mechanical energy balance for

Venturi meters gives:
2
P v
^ ( Equation11)
+
= F
2
Computing for the mass flow rate using equation 11:
^
F
P v2
+
=
v2
^
P+
= F
2
m 2
(
)
A
P+
= ^
F
2
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2
1
1
m
^
2 = P F
2
2 ( Ab Aa
m 2=
2 ( P ^
F)
A b2 [
m=
The irreversibilities
difference
1
1
2 ]
2
Ab Aa
2 ( P ^
F)
F^
A b2
( )
(Equation 12)
A a2
can be expressed as a fraction of the pressure
or
2
P ^
F=C v ( P ) ( Equation13)
Therefore, mass flow rate can be alternatively computed by:

m=C v A b
()
2 ( P)
1
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Ab
A a2
Page18
( Equation14)

4. Orifice Meter
Orifice Meter is an instrument that measures fluid flow by recording differential
pressure across a restriction placed in the flow stream and the static or actual
pressure acting on the system.
Parts of Orifice Meter
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1. Orifice Plate is a stainless steel thin (1/16 to in thichness) plate with a
circular hole in the middle which is held between flanges of a pipe carrying the fluid
whose flow rate is being measured.
Types of Orifice Plates
a. Concentric Orifice Plate
The orifice is equidistant to the inside diameter of the pipe. It is used for ideal liquid
and gas and steam services. This orifice plate is best for beta ratio that fall between
0.15 to 0.75 for liquids and 0.2 to 0.7 for gases.
b. Eccentric Orifice Plate

It has a hole eccentric to
the inside diameter. It shifts the edge of
the orifice to the inside of
the pipe wall. It is use for measuring
containing
solids,
oil
containing water and wet steam. It has a
bore offset from the center to minimize problems in services of solid-containing
materials.
c. Segmental Orifice Plate

The circular section of the segmental orifice is concentric with the pipe. The
segmental portion of the orifice eliminates damming of foreign materials on the
upstream side of the orifice when mounted in a horizontal pipe. Depending on the
type of fluid, the segmental section is placed on either the top or bottom of the
horizontal pipe to increase the accuracy of the measurement.
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2. Gasket a material that is used to make a tight seal between the two flanges to
make a joint fluid-tight connected.
3. Flanges the ribs where the gasket are connected for strong connection.
4. Differential Pressure Sensor openings are provided at two places near the
orifice plate to measure the change in pressure (U-tube manometer, differential
pressure gauge, etc.)
Operation of Orifice Meter
1. The fluid having uniform cross section of flow converges into the orifice plates
opening in its upstream. When the fluid comes out of the orifice plates opening, its
cross section is minimum and uniform for a particular distance and then the cross
section of the fluid starts diverging in the downstream.
2. At the upstream of the orifice, before the converging of the fluid takes place, the
pressure of the fluid is maximum. As the fluid starts converging as it enter the orifice
opening its pressure drops. When the fluid comes out of the orifice opening, its
pressure is minimum and this minimum pressure remains constant in the minimum
cross section area of fluid flow at the downstream.
3. This minimum cross-sectional area of the fluid obtained at downstream from the
orifice edge is called VENE CONTRACTA.
4. The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the
pressure difference (p1-p2) between these two points which becomes an indication of
the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
Mechanism of Measurement
Orifice plate is usually placed in a pipe in which fluid flows. When the fluid reaches
the orifice plate, the fluid is forced to converge to go through the small hole; the point
of maximum convergence actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical orifice
at the so-called vena contracta point. As it does so, the velocity and the pressure
change. Beyond the vena contracta, the fluid expands and the velocity and pressure
change back to the original value. By measuring the difference in fluid pressure
across tappings upstream and downstream of the plate, the volumetric and mass flow
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rates can be obtained from Bernoullis equation. Orifice plates are commonly used to
measure flow rates in pipes, when the fluid is single-phase, well-mixed, having a
continuous flow and occupies the entire pipe (precluding silt or trapped gas). The flow
profile is even and well-developed
Calculation for Orifice Plate carrying liquid

A quantity called beta, , that shows the relationship of the diameter of the
orifice, DO, and the diameter of the pipe, D.
D
= O
D
The velocity at the point in the orifice, VO, can be computed using the overall
mechanical energy balance and continuity equation to get the final equation below.
1
2 P
V O=
4
Since the velocity computed above is the theoretical velocity a coefficient of

discharge, CD is multiplied in the equation to get the true velocity.
CD
2 P
V O=
4
From the computation of true velocity, we can compute for the mass flow rate.
C A
QM = D O4 2 P
1
Calculation for Orifice Plate carrying gas
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The gamma, and pressure ratio, r is used to compute for the correction factor,
Y for the measurement of compressible flow of gases in an orifice.
P
Cp
=
r= 2
Cv
P1
( )
P1
( 1r )( 0.41+ 0.35 ) =M ZR T
4
Y =1
QM =
CD AOY
1 4
2 P
Permanent pressure loss

The permanent pressure loss is much higher than for a venturi because of the
eddies formed when the jet expands below the vena contracta. This loss depends on
and is as follows:
P1P4 =( 1 2 ) ( P1P 2)
Advantages of Orifice Meter
1. It is very cheap and easy method to measure flow rate.
2. It has predictable characteristics and occupies less space.
3. Can be used to measure flow rates in large variation of pipes.
Limitations of Orifice Meter
1. The vena contracta length depends on the roughness of the inner wall of the pipe
and the sharpness of the orifice plate. In certain cases it becomes difficult to tap the
minimum pressure due to the above factor.
2. Pressure recovery at downstream is poor, that is, overall loss varies from 40%-90%
of the differential pressure.
3. In the upstream straightening vanes are a must to obtain laminar flow conditions.
4. Gets clogged when the suspended fluids flow. It is limited only to single phase
fluids with continuous flow and must occupy the whole pipe.
5. The orifice plate gets corroded and due to this after sometime, inaccuracy occurs.
Moreover, the orifice plate has low physical strength. The materials used for
maintaining orifice plate are stainless steel, phosper bronze and nickel.
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5. Area meter
A variable area meter is a meter that measures fluid flow by allowing the cross
sectional area of the device to vary in response to the flow, causing some measurable
effect that indicates the rate.
In the orifice, nozzle, or venturi, the variation of flow rate through a constant
area generates a variable pressure drop, which is related to the flow rate. Area meters
consist of devices in which pressure drop is constant, or nearly so, and the area
through which the fluid flows varies with flow rate. The area is related, through
proper calibration, to the flow rate.
Rotameters
The most important area meter is the rotameter.
is an industrial flow meter used to measure the flow
rate of liquids and gases. The rotameter is popular
because it has a linear scale, a relatively long
measurement range, and low pressure drop. It is
simple to install and maintain.
The rotameter consists essentially of a gradually
tapered glass tube mounted vertically in a frame with
the large end up. The fluid flows upward through the
tapered tube and suspends freely a float (which
actually does not float but is completely submerged in
the fluid). The float is the indicating element, and the
greater the flow rate, the higher the float rides in the
tube. The float response to flow rate changes is linear,
and a 10-to-1 flow range or turndown is standard.
It
Principle of Operation
The rotameters operation is based on the variable area principle: fluid flow
raises a float in a tapered tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid. The
greater the flow, the higher the float is raised. The height of the float is directly
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proportional to the flow rate. With liquids, the float is
raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid
and the velocity head of the fluid. With gases, buoyancy
is negligible, and the float responds to the velocity head
alone. The entire fluid stream must flow through the
annular space between the float and the tube wall. The
float moves up or down in the tube in proportion to the
fluid flow rate and the annular area between the float
and the tube wall. The float reaches a stable position in
the tube when the upward force exerted by the flowing
fluid equals the downward gravitational force exerted by
the weight of the float. A change in flow rate upsets this
balance of the forces. The float then moves up and down, changing the annular area
until it again reaches a position where the forces are in equilibrium. To satisfy the
force equation, the rotameter float assumes a distinct position for every constant flow
rate. The tube is marked in divisions, and the reading of the meter is obtained from
the scale reading at the reading edge of the float, which is taken at the largest cross
section of the float. A calibration curve must be available to convert the observed
scale reading to flow rate. However, it is important to note that float position is gravity
dependent; rotameters must be vertically oriented and mounted. Rotameters can be
used for either liquid- or gas-flow measurement.
The bore of a glass rotameter tube is either an accurately formed plain conical
taper or a taper with three beads, or flutes, parallel with the axis of the tube. In the
first rotameters, angled notches in the top of the float made it rotate, but the float
does not rotate in the most current designs. For opaque liquids, for high
temperatures or pressures, or for other conditions where glass is impracticable, metal
tubes are used. Metal tubes are plain tapered. Since in a metal tube the float is
invisible, means must be provided for either indicating or transmitting the meter
reading. This is accomplished by attaching a rod, called an extension, to the top or
bottom of the float and using the extension as an armature. The extension is
enclosed in a fluid-tight tube mounted on one of the fittings. Since the inside of this
tube communicates directly with the interior of the rotameter, no stuffing box for the
extension is needed. The tube is surrounded by external induction coils. The length
of the extension exposed to the coils varies with the position of the float. This in turn
changes the inductance of the coil, and the variation of the inductance is measured
electrically to operate a control valve or to give a reading on a recorder. Also, a
magnetic follower, mounted outside the extension tube and adjacent to a vertical
scale, can be used as a visual indicator for the top edge of the extension. By such
Metering fluids
Page25

modifications the rotameter has developed from a simple visual indicating instrument
using only glass tubes into a versatile recording and controlling device.
Floats may be constructed of metals of various densities from lead to
aluminum or from glass or plastic. Stainless steel floats are common. Float shapes
and proportions are also varied for different application.
Rotameters tend to have a nearly linear relationship between flow and position
of the float, compared with a calibration curve for an orifice meter, for which the flow
rate is proportional to the square root of the reading. The calibration of a rotameter,
unlike that of an orifice meter, is not sensitive to the velocity distribution in the
approaching stream, and neither long, straight, approaches nor straightening vanes
are necessary.
Types of Rotameter
Glass Tube Rotameters
The basic rotameter is the glass tube indicating-type.
tube is precision formed of borosilicate glass, and
float is precisely machined from metal, glass, or
plastic. The metal float is usually made of stainless
steel to provide corrosion resistance. The float has a
sharp metering edge where the reading is observed
means of a scale mounted alongside the tube. The
practical temperature limit for glass rotameters is
204C (400F), although operation at such high
temperatures substantially reduces the operating
pressure of the meter. There is a linear relationship
between the operating temperature and pressure.
The
the
by
Metal Tube Flow meters

For higher pressures and temperatures beyond the practical range of
glass tubes, metal tubes are used. These are usually manufactured in
aluminum, brass, or stainless steel. The position of the piston
determined by magnetic or mechanical followers that can be read from
the outside of the metal metering tube. Similar to glass tube rotameters,
Metering fluids
Page26

the spring-and-piston combination determines the
flow rate, and the fittings and materials of
construction must be chosen as to satisfy the
demands of the applications. These meters are used
services
where
high
operating
pressure
or
temperature, water hammer, or other forces would
damage glass metering tubes.
for
Plastic Tube Rotameters

Plastic tubes are also used in some rotameter
designs due to their lower cost and high impact
strength. They are typically constructed of
polycarbonate, with either metal or plastic end
fittings. With plastic end fittings, care must be taken
installation, to not distort the threads. Rotameters
with all plastic construction are available for
applications where metal wetted parts cannot be
tolerated, such as with deionized water or
corrosives.
in
Theory and Calibration of Rotameters

For a given flow rate, the equilibrium position of the float in a rotameter is
established by a balance of three forces: (1) the weight of the float, (2) the buoyant
force of the fluid on the float, and (3) the drag force on the float. Force 1 acts
downward, and forces 2 and 3 act upward. For equilibrium
F D gc =v f f gv f g
Where
F D =
drag force
g=
acceleration of gravity
gc =
Newtons law proportionality factor
v f =
volume of float
f =
density of float
density of fluid
Metering fluids
Page27

The equation for flow of fluid through an orifice can be applied to flow through
Ao
a rotameter. The area of the orifice
is now the area of the annular opening
between the largest cross section of the float and the wall of the tube at any point.
A1
The area of the pipe
is now the cross-sectional area of the rotameter tube just
below the float. The pressure difference (
) can be expressed from a force
balance across the float. The downward force exerted by the float, the weight of the
float less the buoyant thrust upward, is balanced by the pressure difference across
the float times the cross-sectional area of the float:
g
V f ( f ) = Af ( P )
gc
Where
V f =
f =
A f =
volume of the float

density of the float
maximum cross-sectional area of the float
Then
( P )=
V f ( f ) g
A f gc
And substituting in equation 100:
W =C R A o
W =Co A o
2 gc ( P )
2
1( A o / A1 )
2 g ( f ) V f
A 2o
A f 1 2
A1
( )
Normally the ratio
( A 2o / A 21 )
is quite small and the term
value of 1.0 and is not included in the equation, leaving

2 g ( f ) V f
W =C R A o
Af
Metering fluids
Page28
A2o
( )
1
A21
approaches a

The coefficient of discharge
CR
is similar to its counterpart for orifices
it is sensitive to viscosity and to the flow lines through the constriction.

function of Reynolds number through the annular space
equivalent diameter of the annular opening
Metering fluids
Page29
Do v o /
Co
in that
CR
, where
is a
Do
( D1D f ) for circular tube and float.
is

Reference
Brown, G. et.al. (1971). Unit Operations: Modern Asia Edition. Manila City: Cardinal
Book Store
McCabe, W. et.al. (2001). Unit Operations for Chemical Engineering. New York City:
McGraw-Hill
Geankoplis, C. J. (2003). Principles of Transport Processes and Separation Processes.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Metering fluids
Page30

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

College of Engineering and Technology

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

August 22, 2014

Definition and Uses of a Manometer

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Physical Appearance of a Manometer

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

2. Inverted U-tube manometer

3. U- tube with one leg enlarged

4. Two fluid-U- tube manometer

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

5. Inclined U-tube manometer

DERIVATION OF THE EQUATION FOR MANOMETER

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Simplification of this statement gives,

A and may be omitted from the above equation.

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

14,000 Pa + 33,318.09338 Pa = Rm * 9.80665 (13,590 1260)

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

=0 and solving for

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Fig. 2. Typical pitot tube

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Equation 7 may be written for 1-kg mass:

If the flowing fluid is incompressible or the pressure difference is so small that

If the enthalpies cannot be evaluated, the mechanical energy balance for

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

can be expressed as a fraction of the pressure

Therefore, mass flow rate can be alternatively computed by:

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

b. Eccentric Orifice Plate

c. Segmental Orifice Plate

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Calculation for Orifice Plate carrying liquid

Since the velocity computed above is the theoretical velocity a coefficient of

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Permanent pressure loss

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Metal Tube Flow meters

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Plastic Tube Rotameters

Theory and Calibration of Rotameters

Newtons law proportionality factor

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

) can be expressed from a force

volume of the float

And substituting in equation 100:

Normally the ratio

is quite small and the term

value of 1.0 and is not included in the equation, leaving

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA