Fatigue

Analysis (Lectures 13, 14)

- Metal Fatigue: Phenomenon where a cyclically loaded specimen experiences the formation and
propagation of a crack.
- Usually forms at stresses significantly below the yield strength.
- 1,000s of load cycles are req. to cause failure
- Cracks tend to form at stress concentrations (both macro and micro)
- Wohler test: first organized fatigue tests

Ways to approach a fatigue analysis:
1. Stress based Expressed in terms of stress vs number of cycles to failure
a. Considers only elastic deformations
b. Modifications are applied to smooth S-N relation
c. Failure is complete fracture

2. Strain based Expressed in total strain (elastic + plastic) vs number of reversals to failure
a. Relates strain in the notch of a component to smooth specimen strains
b. Failure is crack initiation (0.1 inch)

3. Crack propagation Fracture mechanics based relates crack length to number of load cycles
a. Assumes an initial crack length and crack orientation

Threaded Fasteners (Lecture 15)

- Threaded members are sized according to their nominal major diameter. Eg. 1 bolt, d = 1.0 in (nom.)
- Tests have shown that a rod of diameter dt has the same tensile strength as a threaded rod with pitch
and minor diameters such that (dm + dr)/2 = dt

Power Screws

- Used to transmit axial loads
- Characterized by thick thread profiles
- If a positive torque is required to lower the load, the thread is self-locking (square threads)
- (acme threads) self-locking condition presumes static loading with any vibration contributing to
loss of self-locking capability.
- In addition to the screw thread friction, there may be additional friction due to the shaft collar
rotating against the load.

Screw threads (ANSI B1.1-1989 Unified inch screw) threads (UN and UNR thread form)

Screw thread series
- UNR series has root radius
- UNC course threads, lower strength materials, more resistant to internal thread stripping, used
in rapid assembly lines
- UNF fine threads, higher strength applications, less thread depth than UNC, longer nuts required
for internal thread stripping resistant
- UNEF extra fine threads, required for fine adjustments

- Tolerance classes (A external, B internal) 1A/1B liberal tolerances, 2A/2B most common in
use, 3A/3B used where closeness of fit and accuracy of thread elements is important.

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- Method of designing threads

- 20 UNC 2A
Nominal size, number of threads per in, thread form/series/tolerance symbol, thread class symbol

Bolt strength specified by a grade number
The strength of a bolt is designated by its proof strength related to yield strength.
Proof load = maximum force that a bolt can withstand without acquiring a permanent set
Ideal bolt length results in one or two threads protruding from nut
Use washers to protect bolt head from burrs around holes. Install the washer so the rounded side
of the hole faces the bolt.
When tightening a bolt & nut joint, turn the nut rather than the bolt. This method imparts no
torsional stress to the bolt.
Nut yields under load never reuse.
1st three threads of the nut carry the entire load.





BEARINGS


- Rolling element (also rolling contact antifriction, rolling)
- Load is transferred by elements in rolling contact rather than sliding contact
- Less frictional resistance than sliding contact bearings
- Load, speed & lubricant viscosity affect the frictional characteristics
- Design considerations:
o JB require a source of lube (usually liquid form)

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o Force feed lube system i.e. oil pump for an engine

o Splash feed for half bearings
o Self-lubricating coatings (typically used in lightly loaded, non-critical applications)
o Failure mode is loss of lubrication & seizure
Rolling element bearings come from the factory pre-lubed (usually in grease form) & need to be
repacked on a maintenance basis (not very frequently)
Require accurate shaft mounting & housing structures (& more radial space).
Inertial effects could be a problem at high speeds
Generate more noise than journal bearings
Failure mode is fatigue under ideal operating conditions

Shields: Close fitting but no rubbing contact
Seals: rubbing contact, max protection, frictional losses.

Bearing Life

- a well-maintained bearing will usually fail due to spalling (surface fatigue).
- Rating life (also minimum, L10, B10) = The number of revs, or hours at some given constant speed,
that 90% of a group of apparently identical bearings will complete or exceed before the failure
criterion develops.
- Timken Co. uses 90x10^6 revs as the basis for L10 life. Other manufacturers may use 1x10^6 revs

Bearing load-life relationship
- For two nominally identical bearings under different loads, the lives obey the relationship (L1/L2) =
(F2/F1)a. L = life, millions of revs or life, hours at a constant speed. a=3 for ball bearings 10/3 for roller


Basic Load rating C (AFBMA standard)
- The constant radial load, which a grip of apparently identical bearings can endure for a rating life
of 90x106 revolutions of the inner ring, w/ R=90% (L/90x10^6) = (C/Fr)^a 909 * Fr @ Fr = C,
L=90x106 = L10 life.
- The L10 (or B10) life is that where we expect 10% of the bearing population to have failed, i.e.
90% has survived, reliability = 90%.
- If we need a reliability greater than 90%, we introduce a factor Kr. (L/LR) = Kr (C/Fr)a where Lr =
100-r instead of L10. And Kr = 4.48 [ln (100/R(90)]2/3 (90<= R <= 99%).

Bearing Selection Ball and straight roller bearings
- In general, bearings will be loaded by a combination of radial and thrust (axial) loading.
- The AFBMA recommendation for equivalent radial load is the larger of two values
o = = +
o Where Fr = radial load, Fa = axial (thrust load), X = radial factor, Y = thrust factor
o v = rotation factor 1.0 for rotating inner ring, 1.2 for rotating outer ring
- X & Y are gven in Norton Fig 10-24 as a function of Co.

- Basic static load rating Co (AFBMA standard)
- The static load which produces a total permanent deformation of the rolling element & raceway of
approximately 0.0001 of rolling element diam.

- Load factors from table 14.3 are used to increase the equivalent radial load before computing the
required catalog rated load C.
- Reliability adjustment

If we want a specified reliability other than 90% (i.e L100-R instead of L10) we can proceed in 1 of 2 ways.
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o Use AFBMA correction !!"
= ! (!)! , ! = 4.48[ ! !" ]^(!)
!

!!!

o If the wetbull parameters X0, 0, & b are known computer L/L10 from = exp [ (!!"
)! ].
!!!

GEARS

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Rack and Pinion gearing converts rotational input into linear travel.
Spur gears are used to transmit rotary motion between parallel shafts.
Helical gears are used to transmit motion between parallel or non-parallel shafts.
Bevel gears are used to transmit motion between intersecting shafts.
Worm gears are used to transmit motion between nonparallel non-intersecting shafts.

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Backlash width of tooth spacing mating tooth width.

Conjugate action gears are designed to give a constant angular velocity ratio during meshing ( =
pure rolling motion = conjugate action).
The involute gear profile produces conjugate action & is the most widely used profile involute is
generated from the base circle
Pressure line (= line of action)
Conjugate action implies that the pitch line velocities on mating gears are equal
o V = |r1w1| = |r2w2| where r = pitch radius, w = angular velocity
o Which implies (fundamental law of gearing) |w1/w2| = r2/r1 = N2/N1 (diametral pitch is the
same for each gear).
o Diametral pitch P = N/d.
These relations are valid regardless of gear type (e.g. spur, helical, bevel or worm) pitch point
remains fixed on lines of centers.

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Contact ratio indicates the average number of gear teeth pairs in contact.
o Design so that mc > 1.2. Lower values increases the noise & impact damage to teeth.
Interference occurs when the tip of one tooth contacts the flank of another in a non-involute
portion. The teeth dig out flanks of each other.
o Interference can be alleviated by:
Undercutting removes flank material & weakens tooth
Use more teeth makes gears larger & noisier in some cases (not recommended)
Use larger pressure angle frictional & bearing loads increase.
Table 13.1 (S&M) gives minimum number of teeth to avoid interference.
When performing a stress analysis of gear teeth, we are concerned with two failure modes:
o Bending and contact stress.

Two different (but related) stress analysis : Lewis analysis and AGMA method (Lecture 21, pg 30).

Surface Durability
- 4 potential forms of surface failures of interest in gearing.
o (wear, pitting, scoring (lube failure), abrasion (wear due to a foreign material).
- Basic assumption of the surface durability model: gears are cylinders in line contact & hertz
contact stresses are valid.
- For gear teeth, most of the wear occurs near the pitch point. We use the tooth radii of curvature at
the pitch point as r1 and r2.

Brittle Material Failure
- Typically irons, cast Al, ceramics, cold steels [FAILURE CRITERION is FRACTURE].