Coordinates and Complex Numbers PDF

Coordinates and complex numbers
Joachim Vogt
Fall 2015
Applied Mathematics
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
Applied Mathematics, Fall 15
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Coordinates and complex numbers Contents

1
Vector operations
Addition, dot product, cross product
Parallel and perpendicular components
Coordinate systems
Cartesian coordinates
Polar and cylindrical coordinates
Spherical coordinates
Distances and angles
Complex numbers
Addition and complex multiplication
Complex exponential function
Homework assignments
Vector representation of data sets
Properties of the complex exponential function
Appendix
Solutions of the sample problems, references
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Coordinates and complex numbers Section 1
Vector operations
3 / 35
What are vectors ?

Vectors are objects in a linear space: one can add (and subtract) vectors
in a meaningful way, and also multiply them with scalar values.
Important example: n-tuples (ordered lists) of real numbers.
~, V.
Notation: V , V
In three dimensions (n = 3):
V1
V = V2 = (V1 , V2 , V3 )T ,
V3
w
v
v+w
W1
W = W2 = (W1 , W2 , W3 )T .
W3
Addition of two vectors:
V1
W1
V1 + W1
V2 + W2 = V2 + W2 .
V3
W3
V3 + W3
4 / 35
Scalar multiplication, dot product, length, angle
V1
aV1
Multiplication with a scalar value a R: a V2 = aV2 .
V3
aV3
Dot (scalar, inner) product of two vectors: V W = V T W
V1
W1
W1
V2 W2 = (V1 , V2 , V3 ) W2 = V1 W1 + V2 W2 + V3 W3 .
V3
W3
W3
p
Length of a vector : kV k = V V =
(V1 )2 + (V2 )2 + (V3 )2 .
Also: magnitude, (euclidean) norm, |V |, V .
Angle between two vectors:
v
cos = cos (V , W ) =
V W
VW
w
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Examples
4
2
2
Addition of two vectors: 2 + 1 = 3 .
4
3
1
4
2
Multiplication with a scalar: 2 1 = 2 .
6
3
2
3
0 = 6+01 = 5 .
Dot (scalar) product between two vectors: 0
1
1

2
3

0
Lengths: 0 = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5 ,
= 9 + 0 + 1 = 10 .

1
1
For the angle between the two vectors we obtain
5
5
1
cos =
= = ,
5 10
5 2
2
thus = 45 .
6 / 35
Cross product
Vector sum, multiplication with a scalar, and dot product can be formed in
linear spaces with arbitrary dimensions.
Cross product and triple product: three-dimensional space only.
Cross (vector, outer) product of two vectors:
V 2 W3 V 3 W2
W1
V1
V W = V2 W2 = V3 W1 V1 W3 .
V 1 W2 V 2 W1
W3
V3
The vector V W is directed perpendicular to both vectors V and W .
Length: kV W k = V W sin = V W sin (V , W ) .
0
3
8
Cross product example: 2 0 = 0 .
0
4
6
7 / 35
Triple product and further remarks

The triple product U (V W ) gives the volume of the parallelepiped
formed by the three vectors U , V , and W . The triple product vanishes
when the three vectors are co-planar.
Note that the
dot product produces a scalar,
cross product produces a vector,
dot product vanishes if the two vectors are perpendicular,
cross product vanishes if the two vectors are aligned.
sin
0/2 = 0
cos
4/2 = 1
30
1/2 = 1/2
3/2
45
60
90
2/2 = 1/ 2
3/2
4/2 = 1
2/2 = 1/ 2
1/2 = 1/2
0/2 = 0
8 / 35
Parallel and perpendicular components of a vector

One often needs to find the components of vectors parallel and
(unit vector: kDk
= 1).
perpendicular to a given direction D
is given by
For a vector V , its component Vk parallel to D
D
.
Vk = (V D)
is given by
For a vector V , its component V perpendicular to D
V = V Vk .
For three-dimensional vectors, we can write
(V D)
.
V = D
The latter identity can be shown by means of the so-called bac-cab rule
A (B C) = B(A C) C(A B)
that allows to convert double cross products.
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Sample problems
Dot products and cross products
Compute the angles = (V , W ) between the vectors V and W .
(a) V = (2, 0, 2)T , W = (2, 2, 0)T .
(b) V = (1, 2, 2)T , W = (2, 1, 2)T .
(c) V = (1, 1, 2)T , W = (2, 2, 4)T .
Compute also the cross products V W .
Vector identities
Use the bac-cab rule A (B C) = B(A C) C(A B) to compute the result of
a (b c) + b (c a) + c (a b) .
(1)
Furthermore, show that

(a b) (c d)
c [(a b) d] d [(a b) c] ,
(2)
(a b) (c d)
(a c)(b d) (a d)(b c) .
(3)
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Coordinate systems
11 / 35
What are coordinates ?

Coordinates are sets of numbers to specify positions. Examples:
Local planar (2D) cartesian coordinates (e.g.: east, north).
Local (planar, 2D) polar coordinates (distance, angle).
Local three-dim. (3D) cartesian coordinates (e.g.: east, north, up).
Geographic coordinates: latitude, longitude, elevation.
Celestial coordinates: declination, right ascension, distance.
[Wikipedia Commons / Djexplo (1)]

[Wikipedia Commons / Tfr000 (2)]

12 / 35
Cartesian coordinates
Cartesian coordinates are rectilinear

(rectangular) coordinates denoting
the distances from coordinate lines
(2D) or coordinate planes (3D).
7
6
y
x
In 2D: x, y.
In 3D: x, y, z.
x
y
x
Position vector: r = y .
z
x
y
7
2
To compute the distance between two points,

form position vectors r1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 )T and r2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 )T ,
compute the differencepvector r2 r1 , and then
its norm kr2 r1 k = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 )2 .
Freitag, 2. August 13
13 / 35
Polar and cylindrical coordinates

Polar coordinates r, give the
position in a plane using
the radial distance r from a
reference point (origin), and
the angle (azimuth) between
the radial vector and a reference
direction (polar axis).
Cylindrical coordinates in 3D: r, , z
where z is the cartesian coordinate
perpendicular to the polar plane.
Transformation formulas:

x = r cos
y = r sin
Freitag, 2. August 13
p

r =
x2 + y 2
= arctan(y/x)
14 / 35
Spherical coordinates
Spherical coordinates r, , give the 3D
position as follows:
radial distance r from a reference
point (origin),
angle (polar angle, co-latitude) of
the radial vector with the z-axis,
angle (azimuth, longitude) of the
projected radial vector with the x-axis.
[Wikipedia Commons / Andeggs (3)]
The latitude = 90 may replace .
Transformation formulas:
x = r sin cos = r cos cos ,
y = r sin sin = r cos sin ,
z = r cos
= r sin .
p
In spherical coordinates, r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
15 / 35
Angles
The most popular units to express angles are degrees and radians.
One degree ( ) is 1/360 of a full circle.
One radian is the angle that corresponds to an arc of unit length on a
circle of unit radius. The full circle gives an angle of 2.
One radian is 180/ degrees (' 57.2958 ).
Celestial coordinates
Declination (DE, , celestial latitude) is
usually given in degrees ( ), arcminutes (0 )
and arcseconds (00 ). Conversion to decimal
degree representation: 1 = 600 , 10 = 6000 .
Right ascension (RA, , celestial
longitude) is usually given in hours (h),
minutes (m), and seconds (s). Here
24 hours correspond to 360 degrees of an
arc: 1h = 15 , 1m = 150 , 1s = 1500 .
[Wikipedia Commons / Tfr000 (4)]
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Distances
On a spherical surface, the shortest connection between two points (r1 and
r2 ) is through a great circle, and its length is called great-circle distance.
If = (r1 , r2 ) denotes the angle between the two points expressed in
radian, then their great-circle distance is simply R where R is the radius
of the sphere:
R = R arccos [cos 1 cos 2 cos(1 2 ) + sin 1 sin 2 ] .
To compute the (usual) straight-line distance between two points given in
spherical coordinates, convert first to cartesian coordinates, then proceed
as described above. E.g., for the distance between two stars,

r2 cos 2 cos 2

r
cos
cos
1
1
1

r2 cos 2 sin 2 r1 cos 1 sin 1 =
kr2 r1 k =

r2 sin 2
r1 sin 1
17 / 35
Sample problems
Great-circle distance
On a sphere of radius R, the shortest connection between two points is through a great
circle. Let denote the angle between the two points.
(a) Derive the formula for the great-circle distance:
R = R arccos [cos 1 cos 2 cos(1 2 ) + sin 1 sin 2 ] .
(b) The earthquake observatory Bensberg is located at 1 = 50.96 and 1 = 7.18 .
On 27 February 2008 the station registered an earthquake of Richter magnitude
5.1. The epicenter was located in Lincolnshire (GB) at 2 = 53.166 and
2 = 0.287 . Give the epicentral distance in degrees and also in km. Note that
the radius of the Earth is RE = 6371 km.
(c) According to the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) model, in the
year 2005 the geomagnetic pole on the Northern hemisphere was located at about
1 = 79 440 and 1 = 71 470 . Compute the geomagnetic latitude (i.e.,
angular distance to the geomagnetic equator) of Jacobs University Bremen using
the geographical coordinates 2 = 53 100 and 2 = 8 390 .
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Complex numbers
19 / 35
What are complex numbers ?

Complex numbers (C) are pairs of real numbers (R2 ) that can be
multiplied in the usual sense (as in R).
Notation:
R2
C

x
1
0
: r =
= x
+ y
y
0
1
: z = x + iy = x 1 + y i
where
z is a complex variable (do not confuse with cartesian coordinate),
x is the real part of z,
y is
the imaginary part of z,
i = 1 is the imaginary unit (i2 = 1).
Addition:
R2 : r1 + r2
C
: z1 + z2

1
0
= (x1 + x2 )
+ (y1 + y2 )
0
1
= (x1 + x2 ) 1 + (y1 + y2 ) i
20 / 35
Complex exponential function

Define the complex exponential function
exp() = exp( + i) = e (cos + i sin )
where e denotes the real-valued exponential function. Here R and
R denote the real part and the imaginary part of the complex variable
= + i, respectively. The right-hand side is thus entirely determined
through real-valued functions.
Using e1 +2 = e1 e2 and addition theorems for trigonometric (cos, sin)
functions one can show that
exp(1 + 2 ) = exp(1 ) exp(2 )
also for complex variables 1 , 2 C.
Furthermore, differentiating the complex exp() yields the same function,
analogous to the real-valued case.
21 / 35
Multiplication of complex variables

Polar representation:
R2
C

r cos
cos
: r =
=
r
r sin
sin
: z = r cos + i r sin = r (cos + i sin ) = r ei
Multiplication
In R2 , there is no proper multiplication of the type
R2 R2 R2

(r1 , r2 ) 7 r1 r2 =
In C, we define
z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) (x2 + iy2 ) = x1 x2 + ix1 y2 + iy1 x2 + i2 y1 y2
= (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i (x1 y2 + y1 x2 )
z1 z2 = r1 ei1 r2 ei2 = r1 r2 ei1 +i2 = r1 r2 ei(1 +2 )

22 / 35
Complex conjugation and inversion

The product z1 z2 in polar form gives r1 r2 ei(1 +2 ) which shows that
multiplication in the complex plane is a combination of stretching (r1 r2 )
and rotation (ei(1 +2 ) ).
Complex conjugate: z = x + iy = x iy = r ei .
p
Modulus: |z| = r = zz =
x2 + y 2 .
Argument (phase): arg(z) = .
Reciprocal (inverse): z 1 =
Useful identities:
1
z
z
z
=
=
=
.
z
zz
|z|2
r2
cos( + ) + i sin( + ) = (cos + i sin ) (cos + i sin ) ,

(cos n + i sin n) = (cos + i sin )n .
23 / 35
Sample problems
Representations of complex numbers
Here you are supposed to convert between the two representations of complex
numbers, namely, the cartesian representation z = x + iy and the polar
representation z = r ei .
Complete the following table.
Real part x
z1
z1
1/z1
z2
z2
1/z2
z1 + z2
z1 z2
3/2
Imag. part y
3/2
Modulus r
Phase
2/3
24 / 35
25 / 35
Vector representation of data sets (8 points)
Consider two data sets u = {u1 , u2 , . . . , uN } and v = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vN } resulting
from N measurements of two variables. The data uj and vj can be understood
as components of two vectors u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , uN )T and v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vN )T
in N -dimensional (Euclidean) space.
Construct vectors e, u , and v such that
P
(a) the arithmetic mean u
= N1 j uj is u
= e u,
P
(b) the covariance cov(u, v) = N1 j (uj u
) (vj v) is cov(u, v) = u v ,
q P
2
(c) the standard deviation u = N1 j (uj u
) is u = |u |,
(d) Pearsons correlation coefficient r(u, v) =
cov(u,v)
uv
is r(u, v) = u
v
.
Show the given identities explicitly, and explain why the correlation coefficient r
assumes values between 1 and 1.
26 / 35
Homework assignments (continued)

Properties of the complex exponential function (8 points)
Using e1 +2 = e1 e2 and addition theorems for cos and sin, show that
(a) exp(1 + 2 ) = exp(1 ) exp(2 )
also for complex variables 1 = 1 + i1 and 2 = 2 + i2 .
Using the definition of ei for real , show that

(b) cos = 21 ei + ei , and

1
(c) sin = 2i
ei ei .
Using the identity ein = ei
n
(for real ), express
(d) cos3 in terms of cos and cos 3, and

(e) sin3 in terms of sin and sin 3.
27 / 35
Appendix
28 / 35
Solutions of the sample problems

Dot products and cross products
The angle between the vectors V and W is given by

V W
V W
= arccos
= (V , W ) = arccos
VW
|V | |W |
hence we have to compute the norms of the vectors as well as the dot product.
For the vectors in (a), V W = 2 2 + 0 2 + (2) 0 = 4, and
p
|V | =
22 + 02 + (2)2 = 8 = 2 2 ,
p
|W | =
22 + 2 2 + 0 2 = 8 = 2 2 .
4
1
= , and thus = = 60 .
8
2
3
For the vectors in (b), V W = 1 2 + 2 1 + 2 (2) = 4 4 = 0, and
p
|V | =
12 + 22 + 22 = 9 = 3 ,
p
|W | =
22 + 12 + (2)2 = 9 = 3 .
This gives cos =
This gives cos =
= 0, and thus = = 90 .
9
2
29 / 35
Solutions of the sample problems (continued)

Dot products and cross products (continued)
For the vectors in (c), V W = 1 (2) + 1 (2) + (2) 4 = 12, and
p
12 + 12 + (2)2 = 6 ,
|V | =
p
|W | =
(2)2 + (2)2 + 42 = 24 = 2 6 .
12
This gives cos =
= 1, and thus = = 180 .
12
The cross products are as follows.
2
2
4
0 2 = 4 .
(a) V W =
2
0
4
1
2
6
1 =
6 .
(b) V W = 2
2
2
3
1
2
0
1 2 = 0 .
(c) V W =
2
4
0
30 / 35

Vector identities
For the three terms in (1), the bac-cab rule yields
a (b c)
b (c a)
c (a b)
= b(a c) c(a b) ,
= c(b a) a(b c) ,
= a(c b) b(c a) .
When we compute the sum of the three contributions, we find that pairs of terms
cancel, and the final result is zero.
The identity (2) follows for A = a b, B = c, and C = d.
To derive identity (3), we first rearrange the triple product of the vectors a b,
c, and d to yield
(a b) (c d) = [(a b) c] d = [c (a b)] d .
The term in square brackets can be rearranged by means of the bac-cab rule to
obtain
c (a b) = a(c b) b(c a)
which finally leads to identity (3).

31 / 35

Great-circle distance
If a point on a sphere of radius R has the spherical coordinates (longitude, azimuthal
angle) and (latitude, angular distance to the equator), its cartesian coordinates are
given by x = R cos cos , y = R cos sin , and z = R sin .
(a) The angular distance between two position vectors r1 and r2 is given by

r1 r2
= (r1 , r2 ) = arccos
.
|r1 | |r2 |
Since for two points on the sphere, the lengths of the vectors are |r1 | = |r2 | = R,
we are left with the dot product
R cos 1 cos 1
R cos 2 cos 2
r1 r2 = R cos 1 sin 1 R cos 2 sin 2
R sin 1
R sin 2
=
R2 [cos 1 cos 2 (cos 1 cos 2 + sin 1 sin 2 ) + sin 1 sin 2 ] .
Using the trigonometric identity cos 1 cos 2 + sin 1 sin 2 = cos(1 2 ), we

finally arrive at
cos = cos (r1 , r2 ) = cos 1 cos 2 cos(1 2 ) + sin 1 sin 2 .
32 / 35

Great-circle distance (continued)
(b) Inserting 1 = 50.96 , 1 = 7.18 and 2 = 53.166 , 2 = 0.287 into the
formula derived in part (a) yields
cos = 0.99653
= 4.775 = 0.0833 (radian) .
The epicentral distance in km is thus

RE 0.0833 = 531 km .
(c) With 1 = 79 440 = 79.73 , 1 = 71 470 = 71.78 and
2 = 53 100 = 53.17 , 2 = 8 390 = 8.65 the formula from part (a) yields
cos = 0.80536
= 36.35 = 0.6345 (radian) .
(c) Here denotes the geomagnetic colatitude (i.e., the angular distance of a location
to the geomagnetic pole). The geomagnetic latitude (i.e., angular distance to the
geomagnetic equator) is = 90 , hence = 53.65 .
33 / 35

Representations of complex numbers
The completed table is as follows.
Real part x
z1
z1
1/z1
3/2
3/2
1/2
z2
z2
1/z2
3/2
3/2
1/6
z1 + z2
z1 z2
0
9/2
Imag. part y
3/2

3/2
1/ 12
27/2
27/2
3/6
12
27/2
Modulus r
3
3
1/ 3
Phase
3
3
1/3
12
27
2/3
2/3
2/3
/6
/6
/6
/2
5/6
34 / 35
Figure references
(1) Image credit: Wikipedia Commons, author Djexplo, date 30 May 2011, file
Latitude and Longitude of the Earth.svg. Illustration of geographic latitude
and longitude of the earth. Download from http://en.wikipedia.org on
31 July 2013.
(2) Image credit: Wikipedia Commons, author Tfr000, date 14 March 2012, file
Earths orbit and ecliptic.png. Diagram of Earths orbit, showing ecliptic
plane and celestial equator on the celestial sphere. Download from
http://en.wikipedia.org on 31 July 2013.
(3) Image credit: Wikipedia Commons, author Andeggs, file 3D Spherical.svg.
3D spherical coordinates. Download from http://en.wikipedia.org on
2 August 2013.
(4) Image credit: Wikipedia Commons, author Tfr000, date 15 June 2012, file
Ra and dec on celestial sphere.png. Diagram of a stars right ascension
and declination as seen from outside the celestial sphere. Depicted are the
star, the Earth, lines of RA and dec, the vernal equinox, the ecliptic, the
celestial equator, and the celestial poles. Download from
http://en.wikipedia.org on 31 July 2013.
35 / 35

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Coordinates and complex numbers

Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)