Table of Contents

Introduction...
PLCs...
Number Systems. ..
Terminology Used in
PLC..
PLC Languages
Discrete Inputs/Outputs..
Analog Inputs and Outputs
Timers..
DOL STARTE
R

PLC elements and advantages

PLC :
A programmable logic controller (PLC), also referred to as
programmable controller, is a type of computer commonly used in commercial
and industrial control applications.
PLCs differ from office computers in the types of tasks that they perform and
the hardware and software they require to perform these tasks. While the
specific applications vary widely, all PLCs monitor inputs and other variable
values, make decisions based on a stored program, and control outputs to
automate a process or machine.

Basic elements of PLC :

The basic elements of a PLC include input modules or points, a
central processing unit (CPU), output modules or points, and a programming
device. The type of input modules or points used by a PLC depend upon the
types of input devices used. Some input modules or points respond to digital
inputs, also called discrete inputs, which are either on or off. Other modules or
inputs respond to analog signals. These analog signals represent machine or
process conditions as a range of voltage or current values. The primary function
of a PLC's input circuitry is to convert the signals provided by these various
switches and sensors into logic signals that can be used by the CPU.

The CPU evaluates the status of inputs, outputs, and other

variables as it executes a stored program. The CPU then sends signals to update
the status of outputs.
Output modules convert control signals from the CPU into digital or
analog values that can be used to control various output devices.
The programming device is used to enter or change the PLC's
program or to monitor or change stored values. Once entered, the program and
associated variables are stored in the CPU.
In addition to these basic elements, a PLC system may also
incorporate an operator interface device of some sort to simplify monitoring of
the machine or process.

----------------------------------------

Here you can find a Simple Example of previous studied elements

Prior to PLCs, control tasks were often performed by contactors,

control relays, and other electromechanical devices with intricate
interconnecting wires. This approach is often referred to as hard-wired control.
Although hard-wired control solutions are capable of performing many of the
same tasks as software-based solutions, they are generally more difficult to
design, install, and maintain. In addition, the process of making even simple
modifications to a hard-wired control solution can be difficult because the logic
of the control system is determined by the interconnection of control wires and
components.

Advantages of PLCs :
PLCs not only are capable of performing the same tasks as
hard-wired control, but are also capable of many more complex applications. In
addition, the PLC program and electronic communication lines replace much of
the interconnecting wires required by hard-wired control. Therefore, hard-wiring,
though still required to connect field devices, is less intensive. This also makes
correcting errors and modifying the application easier.
Some of the additional advantages of PLCs are as follows:
Smaller physical size than hard-wire solutions.
Easier and faster to make changes.
PLCs have integrated diagnostics and override functions.
Diagnostics are centrally available.
Applications can be quickly documented.
Applications can be duplicated faster and less expensively .

An example of conveyer control using Programmable Logic Controllers:

Number Systems
Because a PLC is a computer, it stores information in the form
of on or off conditions (or0), referred to as bits. Sometimes bits are
used individually and sometimes they are used to represent
numerical values. Understanding how these bits can be used to
represent numerical values requires an understanding of the binary
number system.

Decimal System:
In order to understand the binary number system, it is
first useful to recall some of the basics of the decimal number
system. All number systems have the same three characteristics :
digits, base, weight for example, the decimal system has the
following characteristics:
Ten digits
Base

0, ,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
0

Weights

Powers of base 0( , 0, 00, 000,)

Binary System:

The binary system has the following characteristics:

Two digits:
Base
Weights

0,
2
Powers of base2( ,2,4,8, 6,)

The binary system has a base of 2 and uses only two characters, and
0. Each bit is associated with a power of 2 based on its position in the
number. The further to the left, the higher the power of 2. The number
in the far left-hand column is referred to as the most significant bit
or MSB and the number in the far right-hand column is referred to as
the least significant bit or LSB A is placed in a position if that power
of 2 is used in the number Otherwise, a0 is placed in a position.

The process of converting a binary number to an equal decimal

value is as simple as adding the equivalent decimal value for each
position in the binary number where a is shown Positions with a0 do not
add to the number value.

Bits, Bytes, and Words:

Each position in a binary number is called a bit. The
number of bits used to represent numbers varies with the device
However, instructions and data are usually grouped in bytes and eight
bits make upon a byte. Two bytes, or 6bits,make up one word.

Logic 0, Logic 1:
While PLCs are capable of sensing and generating
analog values, programmable controllers internally use signals that
are on or off. These on and off conditions correspond to the binary
values and 0F or example, a binary0, also called logic0, can be used to
indicate that a switch is off, and a binary (logic) can be used to indicate
that a switch is on.

BCD:
While it is necessary for PLCs to use binary values, humans
often need to see values represented in decimal. As a result, some
input and output devices provide a decimal display where each
decimal digit corresponds to four PLC binary inputs or outputs. The
most common system used by input and output devices of this type
is referred to as binary-coded decimal (BCD).
One example of a BCD device is a type of four-digit thumb
wheels witch. Each thumb wheel digit controls four PLC inputs. This
means that for a four-digit thumbwheel, 6 inputs are required.
Because each thumb wheel digit only need store present decimal
values from 0 through 9, only ten corresponding binary values are
required for each digit.

Terminology in PLC

Developing an understanding of PLCs requires learning

some basic terminology. This section provides an overview of
commonly used PLC terms, beginning with the terms sensor and
actuator.

Sensors:
Sensors are devices that convert a physical condition
into an electrical signal for use by a controller, such as a PLC. Sensors
are connected to the input of a PLC. A pushbutton is one example of a
sensor that is often connected to a PLC input. An electrical signal
indicating the condition(open or closed) of the pushbutton contacts is
sent from the pushbutton to the PLC.

Actuators:
Actuators are devices that convert an electrical signal from
a controller, such as a PLC, into a physical condition. Actuators are
connected to the PLC output. A motor starter is one example of an
actuator that is often connected to a PLC output. Depending on the
status of the PLC output, the motor starter either provides power to
them or prevents power from fowing to the motor.

Discrete Inputs and Outputs:

Discrete inputs and outputs, also referred to as digital
inputs and outputs, are either on or off. Pushbuttons, toggle
switches, limit switches, proximity switches, and relay contacts are
examples of devices often connected to PLC discrete inputs.
Solenoids, relay and contact or coils, and indicator lamps are examples
of devices often connected to PLC discrete outputs.
In the on condition, a discrete input or output is represented
internal to the PLC as a logic. In the off condition, a discrete input or
output is represented as a logic 0.

Motor Starter Example:

While the lamp application previously
discussed is useful to explain basic PLC operation, a more practical,
and only slightly more complex, application is start-stop control of an AC
motor. Before examining the PLC application, first consider a hard- wired
approach.
The following line diagram illustrates how a normally open and a
normally closed push button might be connected to control a threephase AC motor. In this example, a motor starter coil (M) is wired in
series with a normally open, momentary Start pushbutton, a normally
closed, momentary Stop pushbutton, and normally closed over load
relay (OL) contacts.

Analog Inputs and Outputs:

Many PLCs also work with analog I/O devices. Analog devices use
signals that are continuously variable within a specified range such as 0 to 10
VDC or 4 to 20 mA.
Analog signals are used to represent variable values such as speed, rate
of fow, temperature, weight, level, etc. In order to process an input of this type,
a PLC must convert the analog signal into a digital representation.
Expansion modules are available with 4 or 8 analog inputs, 2 or 4
analog outputs, or 4 analog inputs and 1 analog output. In addition, expansion
modules are available for use with thermocouples or RTD type sensors which
sense the temperature at a specific point in a machine or process.

Analog Input Example:

Analog inputs can be used for a variety of purposes. In this example, a scale is
connected to a load cell. A load cell is a device that generates an electrical
output proportional to the force applied.
The load cell in this example converts a value of weight from 0 to 50 pounds
into a 0 - 10 VDC analog value. The 0 - 10 VDC load cell signal is connected to
an PLC's analog input.
The analog value applied to the PLC can be used in various ways. For instance,
the actual weight can be compared to a desired weight for a package. Then, as
the package is moved on a conveyor, the PLC can control a gate to direct
packages of varying weight.
A package that weighs at or greater than a specified value is routed along one
conveyor path to finished goods inventory. A package that weighs less than a
specified value is routed along another conveyor path to an inspection station,
where it will be checked for missing contents.

Analog Output Example :

Analog outputs from a PLC are often supplied directly or through

signal converters or transmitters to control valves, instruments, electronic
drives or other control devices which respond to analog signals.
For example, analog outputs from the PLC could be used to
control the fow of fuid in a process by controlling AC drives. Rather than simply
turning the AC drives on or off, which could be accomplished by discrete
outputs, analog signals can be used to control the output of the AC drives. This
would allow the speed of the pumps to be varied dynamically in response to
changes in process requirements.

CPU:
The central processor unit (CPU) is a micro processor system
that contains the system memory and is the PLCs decision- making
unit. The CPU monitors inputs, outputs, and other variables and makes
decisions based on instructions held in its program memory.

PLC LANGUAGES

Ladder Logic Programming:

A program consists of instructions that accomplish specific
tasks. The degree of complexity of a PLC program depends upon the
complexity of the application, the number and type of input and output

devices, and the types of instructions used.

Ladder logic (LAD) is one programming language used
with PLCs Ladder logic incorporates programming functions that are
graphically displayed to resemble symbols used in hard-wired control
diagrams.
The left vertical line of a ladder logic diagram represents the power or
energized conductor. The output coil instruction represents the neutral
or return path of the circuit. The right vertical line, which represents
the return path on a hard-wired control line diagram, is omitted Ladder
logic diagrams are read from left-to-right and top-to-bottom Rungs are
sometimes referred to as networks. A network may have several
control elements, but only one output coil.

Statement List and Function Block Diagrams:

While ladder logics program are still common there are many other
ways to program PLCs. Two other common examples are statement
list and function block diagrams.
Statement list (STL) instructions include an operation and
an operand. The operation to be performed is shown on the left. The
operand, the item to be operated on, is shown on the right.

Function block diagrams (FBD) include rectangular

functions with inputs shown on the left side of the rectangle and
outputs shown on the right side.
In the following example, the program segments perform the same
function.

In addition to LAD, STL, and FBD, multiple other types of programming

languages are used for PLCs. Each type of programming has its
advantages and disadvantages. Factors such as application
complexity, types of programming available for a specific PLC model,
and user standards and preferences determine which type of
programming is used for an application.

PLC Scan:
The PLC program is executed as part of a repetitive
process referred to as a scan. A PLC scan starts with the CPU
reading the status of inputs. Next, the application program is
executed. Then, the CPU performs internal diagnostics and
communication tasks. Finally, the CPU updates the status of outputs.
This process repeats as long as the CPU in the run mode. The time
required to complete as can depends on the size of the program,
the number of I/O s, and the amount of communication required.

Cycle of activities in PLC Scan:

MEMORY TYPES AND SIZES

Kilo, abbreviated k, normally refers to 000 units. When

talking about computer or PLC memory, however,
means 024. This is
0
because of the binary number system(2 = 024) can refer to 024 bits,
bytes, or words, depending the context.
Random Access Memory (RAM) is memory that allows data
to written to and read from any address(location) RAM is used as a
temporary storage area. RAM is volatile, meaning that the data stored
in RAM will be lost if power is lost. A battery backup is required to avoid
losing data in the event of a power loss.
Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of memory used were it
is necessary to protect data or programs from accidental erasure. The
original data stored in ROM can be read, but not changed. In addition,
ROM memory is nonvolatile. This means that information will not be
lost as the result of a loss of electrical power. ROM is normally used to
store the programs that define the capabilities of the PLC.

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

provides a level of security against unauthorized or unwanted changes
in a program. EPROMs are designed so that data stored in them can
be read, but not easily altered. Changing EPROM data requires a
special effort UVEPROMs(ultraviolet erasable programmable read only
memory)can only be erased with an ultraviolet light.
EEPROM(electronically erasable programmable read only memory), can
only be erased electronically.

Basic Ladder Logic Symbols

PLC ladder logic consists of a commonly used
set of symbols that represent instructions. Understanding these basic
symbols is essential to understanding PLC operation.

Contacts:
One of the most confusing aspects of PLC
programming for first-time users is the relationship between the
device that controls a status bit and the programming function that
uses a status bit. Two of the most common programming functions
are the normally open (NO) contact and the normally
closed (NC) contact. Symbolically, power fows through these
contacts when they are closed. The normally open contact (NO) is
closed when the input or output status bit controlling the contact is
The normally closed contact (NC) is closed when the input or output
status bit controlling the contact is 0.

Coils:
Coils represent relays that are energized when power fows
to them. When a coil is energized, it causes a corresponding output to
turn on by changing the state of the status bit controlling that output
to That same output status bit maybe used to control normally open
and normally closed contacts else where in the program.

Timers

In a PLC, timers are programming functions that keep track of time

and allow PLC programs to provide varied responses depending on
the elapsed time.

Hard-wired Timing Circuit:

Timers in a PLC program can be compared to hardwired timing circuits, such as the one represented in the accompanying
control line diagram. In this example, normally open(NO)switch (S ) is
used with timer(TR ). When S closes, TR begins timing. When the timers
preset time elapses, TR close sits associated normally open TR contact
and pilot light PL turns on When S opens, TR de-energizes immediately,
the TR contact opens, and PL turns off.

This type of timer is referred to as an on-delay timer. The term

on-delay indicates that the timing begins when the timer receives a
signal to turn on. In this example, that happens when S closes.

DOL STARTER
Motor Starter in a Control Circuit:
The following diagram shows the electrical relationship of

a
contactor and an overload relay in a typical motor control circuit.
The contactor (highlighted with the darker grey) includes an
electromagnetic coil (M) and auxiliary contacts (Ma) in the control circuit
and three main contacts (M) in the power circuit. The overload relay,
highlighted by the lighter grey, includes three heaters contacts (OL) in
the power circuit and auxillary contacts (OL) in the control circuit.

In this circuit, when the Start pushbutton is pressed,

power is provided to the coil, and the M contacts close. This provides
power to the motor through the OL heater contacts. At the same time,
Ma contacts close so that, when the Start pusbutton is released,
power is still provided to the coil.
The motor will continue to run until the Stop
pushbutton is pressed, unless an overload occurs. If an overload
occurs, the OL heater contacts open, removing power from the
motor,and OL auxiliary contacts open, removing power from the coil.
Removing power from the coil is necessary to prevent the motor from
automatically restarting when the overload relay cools.
This is an example of a full-voltage starter, also called an

across-the-line starter. This type of circuit starts the motor by

providing the full line voltage to the motor.

COMPONENTS OF DOL STARTER

Magnetic Contactors and Starters:
Most motor applications require the use of remote
control devices to start and stop the motor. Magnetic contactors
(similar to the ones shown below) are commonly used to provide this
function. Magnetic contactors are also used to control distribution of
power in lighting and heating circuits.

Basic Contactor Operation:

Magnetic contactors operate by utilizing electromagnetic
principles. A simple electromagnet can be fashioned by winding a
wire around a soft iron core. When a DC voltage is applied to the wire,
the iron becomes magnetic. When the DC voltage is removed from
the wire, the iron returns to its nonmagnetic state.

The following illustration shows the interior of a basic

contactor. There are two circuits involved in the operation of a contactor,
the control circuit and the power circuit. The control circuit is connected
to the coil of an electromagnet, and the power circuit is connected to the
stationary contacts.
The operation of this electromagnet is similar to the
operation of the electromagnet we made by wrapping wire around a
soft iron core. When power is supplied to the coil from the control
circuit, a magnetic field is produced, magnetizing the electromagnet.
The magnetic field attracts the armature to the magnet, which in turn
closes the contacts. With the contacts closed, current fows through
the power circuit from the line to the load. When current no longer
fows through the control circuit, the electromagnets coil is deenergized, the magnetic field collapses, and the movable contacts
open under spring pressure.

Line

Load

Line

Contro
l
Signal

Lo
ad

Control
Signal

The following line diagram shows a contactor that

provides on- off control for a three-phase motor. Note that the power to
the electromagnetic coil of this contactor is controlled by SW1.
When SW1 closes, the electromagnetic coil energizes, closing the M
contacts and applying power to the motor. When SW1 opens, the coil
de-energizes, opening the M contacts and removing power from the

motor.

Contactor De-energized
Energized

Contactor

Motor Starter:
Contactors provide on-off control in a variety of circuits. When
used for motor control, overload protection is usually also required.
When a contactor is combined with an overload relay, it is called a motor
starter.

THERMAL OVERLAOD RELAYS

Bimetallic Overload Relays:
Some overload relays use a bimetallic strip to sense
an overload condition. A bimetallic overload relay incorporates a small
heater element wired in series with the motor and a bimetallic strip
that functions as a trip lever. The bimetallic strip is made of two
dissimilar metals bonded together. These metals have different
thermal expansion characteristics, causing the bimetallic strip to bend
when heated.
Under normal operating conditions, the heat generated by
the heater element causes the bimetallic strip to bend only slightly, not
enough to trip the overload relay.

If an overload condition occurs and persists long enough, the bimetallic

strip bends until the overload relays trip mechanism is tripped. This
causes the overload relays contacts to open, removing power from the
motor.

Some bimetallic overload relays are designed to reset automatically

after the bimetallic strip has cooled. Depending on the circuit, the
motor may then restart automatically. In some applications, this is
desirable. However, if the cause of the overload still exists, the
overload relay will trip and reset repeatedly. Proper circuit design can
prevent this condition, which can damage the motor.

TERMINAL BLOCKS
Figure shows the simple terminal block. Individual terminals
are designed to clip onto a mounting rails. They are manufactured in a variety
of sizes to accommodate any cable CSA. Green / Yellow earth are designed to
make a good contact with mounting rails on tightening of the centre screw.
Other colours are available but are not essential.

The terminals must be installed in the correct way round as each one is
generally insulated on one on side only. An end insulator must be installed to

insulate the last terminal. An end clamp must be used to prevent the terminals
from spreading apart. An Earth terminal doubles as an end clamp. Terminals
with solid links or Fuse holders are also available.

PUSH BUTTONS, SWITCHES AND INDICATORS

Push buttons, switches and indicating units are manufactured in
various styles. While they may differ in appearance but operate in the same
way. They are available in different IP ratings to suit different environmental
conditions in which they are installed. Push buttons with build in indicator
lamps are also available.
All these units are generally known as control and
signaling units. The more commonly used units are 22 mm in diameter. They
are manufactured in metals for mounting on metallic doors of control panels.
These doors must be earthed. Plastic version are also available and are
generally used to provide double insulating controlling stations etc;
Push Buttons are colour coded as follows:
Start button : Green
Stop button: Red
Inch button : Black ( Optional excercise for faster apprentice)

Indicator units may be colour coded as follows:

Run indicator : Green
Fault indicator: Red
Power ON

: White

Start Buttons:
A start button consists of a green coloured actuators which when pressed
operates as a normally open contact. On pressing the green actuator the
normally opened contact will be closed. These are fitted on panel door via a
mounting collar. The actuator is fitted through a suitable hole in the panel door.
A rubber washer is provided on the outside to provide ingress protection. The
actuator is locked into the collar. The collar is secured to the panel board by a
screw. This action compresses the rubber seal on the actuator. Finally the
contact block is simply slipped onto the collar.

Stop button:
A stop button consists of a red coloured actuator, which when
pressed operates a normally closed contact. On pressing the red actuator the
normally closed contact will be open.

Signal lamp units:

A signal lamp unit consists of an appropriately closed lens, lamp
holder and mounting arrangement similar to push button units. A 230 volts
small centered contact SCC lamp is used in the holder. An incandescent
lamp or neon lamp may be used. The phase conductor should be connected
to the terminal marked X1.

CONTACTORS
Contactors are very similar to that of relays. They are
specifically designed for switching load currents. They are used to supply
electric motors, heaters, lamps etc. contactors are designed for high switching
frequencies and long life and short switching times. The making / breaking
capacity of the main contacts are matched to the possible motor starting
current. High value overload currents and short circuit currents can damage the
main contacts, therefore protection must be provided by fuses or MCBs.
Generally the contactor has three main contacts and one auxillary contact.
The current ratings of the main contacts depends on the load to be switched
and my as low as 10amps and as high as 2000 amps. The current rating of
auxillary contact is generally around 10amps.
The following figure shows a model contactor. The 3 phase supply is
connected to three main contacts as shown in figure. The load is connected
form the three main terminals in the bottom.

The following figure shows the main parts of an contactor:

Contactor coils:

The coils of most modern contactors can be quickly changed

without the use of any special tools. These contactor coils may be AC or DC
operated.
AC coil standard voltages are : 24,110,230,400 volts 50Hz.
DC coil standard voltages are : 12,24,48,230 volts.
It is most important that coil voltage and current should match the supply
parameters. A 230 volts supply will not energise the 400 volts contacts. But, a
400volts contact can energise a 230 volt coil but however the coil will overheat
and burnout.

Auxillary contacts: