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Charisma
and
Abdication:
the
Leadership of Bhagwan
Study
of
Shree
Rajneesh'
Susan J. Palmer
DawsonCollege,Montreal,PQ.
Thisstudy attemptsto apply Roy 6Wllis'model of a charismaticleader'sfour responses to
institutionalizationto the career of BhagwanShree Rajneesh,founder of a new religious
movement.Afteroutliningsevenphases of Rajneesh'scareer which can be interpretedas
differentstrategic responses to institutionalization,the conclusion is drawn that Wallis'
model oversimplifies the relationship between charisma and institutionalizationand is
inadequateas a tool to explain the behaviorof this particularleader. It is proposed that a
fifth category, that of Abdication,be added to Wallis'four, and that a distinctionbetween
two aspects of charisma, the Performerand the Pastor, be drawn in order to understand
this new category.
A study of the career of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, the 55-year-old guru from India,
revealsa leadershipwhich constantlyfluctuatesin its style and in its authoritativeclaims. The
history of his movement, the RajneeshFoundationInternational(RFI), is remarkablefor its
abruptchanges in policy, and the variedand contradictorydemandsmade upon its members.
Due to his considerable personal charm and a certain dramaticflair, Rajneesh was able to
render these divagations coherent and meaningful to his disciples for whom their leader's
inconsistences were an integralpart of his charisma. As one member explained:
When you are with Bhagwanyou never know what to expect. He takes you on a journey
thatis full of surprisesand mystery.He says whathe is experiencingat thatmoment, so he
might say the opposite the next day. If you are looking for a dogma, a creed, you are
wasting your time. He is a reflection of life itself which is a paradox and full of
contradictions.
In order to interpretthis patternof unpredictableand apparentlyarbitrarychange which
has characterizedRajneesh's leadership, I will refer to Roy Wallis' theory of relationships
between charismaand institutionalizationwhich is outlined in his paper, "Charisma, Commitment, and Control in a New Religious Movement" (1982).
Wallis attemptsto refine Max Weber's theory of charismaticauthority,which he finds
Birdforsuggesting
theResponsibility/Performance
1. Theauthorwishesto thankDr.Frederick
modelof
charismaandfor explainingWeber'svariousroutesto institutionalization.
119
120
ANALYSIS
SOCIOLOGICAL
CHARISMA
AND ABDICATION
121
(2) To describe seven phases of Rajneesh's career, which represent different strategic
responses to the problemof institutionalizationand exhibit his tendency to vacillate between
the two extremes of Resistance and Encouragement.
(3) To arguethata close examinationof Rajneesh'scareer revealsthathis incompatibility
with the process of institutionalizationarose not from his desire to exact total obedience from
his followers (as was the case with "Mo"), but rather from a reluctance to assume the
responsible, authorizingrole. By distinguishingbetween two aspects of charismaticauthority,
(i) Performance, and (ii) Responsibility, I will attempt to prove that Rajneesh's behavior
indicateda desire for the adulation, deference, and fame that come with performance, but a
dislike for the responsibility that leadership entails. I will then argue that Rajneesh was a
brilliant performer but a weak or recalcitrant pastor, and that he chose to delegate the
responsible role to various members of his core group. His final gesture of Abdication I
interpretas his solution to the problem of responsibility and of institutionalization,in that it
enabled him to get rid of his fully committed followers, or "flock," while retaining his
devoted (and rotating)audience.
METHODOLOGY
This study is based on my involvement with the Montreal Rajneesh center as a participant-observerfrom October 1984 to September 1986. During this period I interviewed ten
sannyasinsand attendedfive therapygroups and various ritual and social events at the center.
Initially my aim was to collect data for my Ph.D. dissertation on women in spiritual communes, but when Rajneeshpuramfell I became fascinatedby Rajneesh himself. Throughout
the exercise I managedto remainimpervious to his charisma, but not to his charm. I feel it is
importantto note that while Wallis' theory is a useful tool for interpretingthe history of the
RFI, it is inadequateas a means of fathomingthe inner workingsof the complex and creative
mind of a spiritualmaster. That is to say, this study is not meant to imply that Rajneesh is
acting out of secular motives ratherthan respondingto an inner religious drive.
122
ANALYSIS
SOCIOLOGICAL
One"who returns
His charismaticauthorityis basedon his claim to be the "Enlightened
themillenniato awakenspirituallyanelitegroupof seekers.Manyof hisdisciples
throughout
believetheyhaveresumedworkwithhimbegunina previouslife. Rajneesh
stressesthenotion
transcendseventhe limitationsof death.
thatthe master-disciple
relationship
Weberstates:
The . . . leader may be requiredperiodically to offer miraculoussigns as proof of his
(Weber,1947: 359).
powersin orderto maintain[his followers']commitment
A testimonial
to Rajneesh's
relationships
powerof maintaining
throughthereincarnation
whohaslivedwithhimsince 1971,
cycle is offeredby MaAnandVivek,an Englishwoman
whomhe describesas his "caretaker."
of his
Rajneeshclaimedshe was the reincarnation
before
shediedin 1947,madehimpromiseto waitforher
childhoodsweetheart,
Sashi,who,
return.Vivekstates:
Oneof the firstthingsBhagwansaidto me ... was, "Do yourememberme?"I went
click! "I rememberthat you're someone I loved very much" (Joshi, 1982: 107).
AND ABDICATION
CHARISMA
123
old man with long white hair and whiskers, his personality was that of a mischievous and
intellectuallyprecociouschild. He was surroundedby his core groupof attractivewomen who
played the role of the doting (but sexually liberatedand expressive) mother to the brilliant,
capricious prodigy.
Wallis notes:
Since the charismaticidentity is precarious, it must be protectedagainst subversion or
challenge by hiding the prophetawayfrom general contact, carefullyvettingall who may
come into his presence, and immediatelyexcluding those who do not display complete
surrender(Wallis, 1982: 5).
To this end the core group at the ashramin Indiacreateda distancebetweenBhagwanand the
large mass of his following. A bodyguardcontrolled access to the guru's presence. Sally
Belfrage describes the proceduregoverningadmission to the evening darshan at Poona:
At least half a dozen people are turned away from darshanevery night, it seems, for
failing to pass the sniff-at-the-gatetest, which has become more stringentlately because
one womanslipped throughwith a perceptibleodor of perfumeand it madeBhagwansick
the whole of the next day.Some people havebeen turnedaway. . .. I havewashedmy hair
eight times. . . . Shiva, a red-beardedScottish sannyasin who seems to be his chief
bodyguardintonesthe drill beforethe smelling starts. Personalquestionsabout Bhagwan
are not permitted. Do not go nearerto BhagwanShree Rajneeshthan a meter. Do not
touch him except his feet. If you are turnedaway,wash hardernext time (Belfrage, 1981:
137ff).
An importantfeatureof Bhagwan's special status (and regardedin the RFI as a sign of
enlightenment)is his reputedautonomyand self-sufficiency. Throughoutthe RFI literature
this notion is stressed. Stories of his childhoodpicturehim as an independent,anti-authoritarian being who was impossible to influenceor control. Even in infancyhe was supposedly not
dependenton his mother:
It is said thatthe child neithercried nor acceptedany milk for the firstthreedays (Sannyas
5, 1980: 8).
Bhagwanhas described himself as follows:
I have never been initiated into society. I entered as an individual, and I have remained
aloof and separatelike an island (Sannyas 5, 1980: 10).
In this respect he remained distant from his sannyasins, whose communal lifestyle and
encounter group experiences encourage gregarious behavior and physical and emotional
intimacy.
124
ANALYSIS
SOCIOLOGICAL
AND ABDICATION
CHARISMA
125
126
SOCIOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS
profoundsilence(Joshi,1982: 158).
CHARISMA
AND ABDICATION
127
The gacchammi ritual was incorporatedinto the satsang meetings at this time, which
involved bowing to Bhagwan'sempty chair or photo while chanting the buddhistcreed:
Buddhamsharanamgacchami
sangham sharanamgacchami
dharmamsharanamgacchami
This is translatedby sannyasinsas "I go to the feet of the EnlightenedOne. I go to the feet of
the communityof the EnlightenedOne. I go to the feet of the Ultimate Truthof the Enlightened One." This is clear indicationthat the institutionalcharismaof the sangha, or community, now equalledthe personalcharismaof the master,and thatdue to his physical inaccessibility Bhagwanwas in danger of being reduced to a symbol, or (in Durkheimianterms), a
totem of his community.
In 1981 Bhagwanleft the Shree RajneeshAshramin Poona and flew to the United States.
The move to America appearsto have been a unilateraldecision on the part of Sheela, who
claimed it was for medical reasons. She oversaw the buying of the 64,229 acre ranch in
Oregonand began to supervisethe buildingof what would soon be the city of Rajneeshpuram.
Phase IV--The Silence: Acquiescence
Bhagwan'ssilence began in the spring of 1981, and ended in October, 1984.
During the silence the institutionbuilders were active, and Bhagwan's response at this
time appearsto conform to Wallis' description of Acquiescence; ". . . in which the charismatic leader, finding himself trammelledand constrained, acquiesces to the situation with
more or less good grace" (Wallis, 1982: 117)."
As Bhagwan withdrew into self-imposed solitude and silence, and made Ma Anand
Sheela his representative,he became increasinglyunawareof the administrativedecisions, the
political struggles with local authorities,and even the innovationsin religious life takingplace
in his commune. In 1981 RajneeshgrantedSheela limited powerof attorney,and removedthe
limits in 1982. In 1983 Sheela announcedthat "He" would only speak with her. At this stage
it appears that his knowledge of goings on in the commune was exclusively derived from
Sheela. He claimed in a later press conference that she kept him in ignorance.
When I was in silence I was completely unaware ... for eight months I supported
Sheela. ... All things came to my knowledgeyesterday.... I was in isolation (September 16, 1985).
The rapiddevelopmentof institutionscan be observed duringthis phase. Sheela's book,
Rajneeshism(1983) is a striking example of the routinizationof charisma. It describes the
newly createdAcademyof Rajneeshismas an "ecclesiasticalorganization"in which there are
three categories of ministers: Acharyas, Arihantas, and Siddhas. A symptom of creeping
institutionalizationfor Wallis is the appointmentof officials "on the basis of their qualifications and experience rather than on their inspirationalvirtues" (Wallis, 1984: 116). Rajneeshism stipulates:
To be eligible for the ministry,a person must have the following experience and training:
a minimum of
-two years as a neo-sannyasin
-two years of participationand practice in meditation
128
SOCIOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS
-one year of worship-meditationor apprenticeshipin Rajneeshism
-specific orientationfor the ministerial duties (Rajneeshism,1983).
CHARISMA
AND ABDICATION
129
charisma.He said that he had travelledso deeply into the Absolute throughhis silence that he
was now virtually indistinguishablefrom It.
Bhagwanannounced on this occasion that there was no God, which had the effect of
elevating his own status to the next best thing. The convention of referringto Rajneesh as
"He" and "Him" in the RFI literaturecertainlyimplies this. Bhagwanproceededto denounce
great religious leaders to whom he had referredfavorablyin the past. He then claimed to have
founded "the first and the last religion," Rajneeshism,and explainedhow it was superior to
all previous attempts:
Rajneeshismis a kind of religion-ness, not a dogma, cult, or creed, but only a quality of
love, silence, meditation, and prayerfulness.Hence it can never end. . . . Jesus did not
know about Buddha, Buddhadid not know about Lao Tzu. ... I have travelledall the
paths ... WhatI am saying is going to last foreverbecause nothingmore could be added
to it.
This move can be interpretedas a strategyof Resistance. Rajneeshismwas contradicting
previousstatements.In Poona he had often referredto God and had declared in 1971 that all
religions were acceptable paths leading to the superconsciousness.
Wallisexplains how Mo of the Childrenof God constantlycontradictshimself in order to
resist institutionalization.
Thus the prophet'scharismais furtherheightenedthroughthe fact thatthe only certainty
left is himself. The arbitrarinessof his statementsentailed that one should not even be
committed to any particularthing he said but to Mo regardless of what he said.
Rajneeshalso attemptedto de-institutionalizeRajneeshismby explaining it as "the laughing
religion," a "religion-ness," "the religionless religion."
In March 1984 Rajneeshprophesiedthe death of two thirdsof humanityfrom AIDS, the
"spiritualdisease." As a result, sannyasinswere requiredto wear rubbergloves and condoms
while making love and to refrainfrom kissing. This developmentresembles Moses David's
millennarian prophecies which Wallis interpretsas examples of Resistance. Certainly the
newly institutedsexual taboos were a Resistancestrategyinsofaras they served to breakdown
exclusive ties between couples and emphasized the ritual function of sexual activity. I have
arguedelsewhere thatthe AIDS threatencouragedRenunciation,one of Kanter'ssix commitment mechanisms (Palmer, 1986).
Rajneesh undermined the claims to charisma among his core group in the following
manner: two sannyasinsintervieweddescribed his readingout a list of one hundredpeople in
the commune whom he pronouncedenlightened. This caused a sensation, and excited rivalry
and argumentuntil Bhagwanadmittedlater the whole thing had been a joke. One sannyasin
who described the incident to me saw it as a test:
It was to show what big egos people had, that they could ever imagine they were on the
same level as Bhagwan.
Rajneeshbegan to oppose Sheela's efforts to build a solid institutionto survive his death,
and to ensure her succession. Over the summerof 1984 she had announcedthat Rajneeshhad
createdthree sansads to offer spiritualguidance after his death. On August 19th of the same
year Rajneesh flatly contradictedher in a deposition filed in Multnomah County Circuit
Court:
130
SOCIOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS
I am not making anybody head of my religion because I don't want any books to be
followedby me exploitingpeople in my name. I am not going to be succeededby anybody.
The day I am dead I am dead. There is no question of any succession.
AND ABDICATION
CHARISMA
131
132
ANALYSIS
SOCIOLOGICAL
time he put an end to the terms "worship" and "temple" which were to become plain old
"work" and "department"again. He attackedthe large internationalcommunesby declaring
"I am absolutely against centralization"and invited his sannyasinsto start new communes.
On October 18 the Rajneesh Times announced "Friends of Rajneesh Internationalis
born" meaning the name of the movementwas no longer The RajneeshFoundationInternational. This move was inspired by Bhagwan's statement that he was not a guru to his
sannyasins, but merely a friend.
On October27 Rajneeshboardeda Learjeton what he claimed was to be a vacation, but
he was forced to land, was arrested,jailed, and charged with arranging"sham marriages"
among his disciples in order to bypass U.S. immigrationlaws. He entereda technicalplea of
guilty (while privately denying the charges) and on November 14 was deported from the
United States. Rajneeshpuramofficials decided to close down their utopian city, since
Sheela's alleged "financial abuse" had left them 55 million in debt, the Rajneeshwould no
longer be in residence to attractthousandsof visitors to the summer festivalswhich were the
city's main source of income. The internationalcommunes began to disband, the Montreal
commune following suit in April 1986.
CHARISMA
AND ABDICATION
133
Bhagwanis like a child, awakein the momentand filled with the wonderof life. . .. Even
when he found out he was going to jail his reaction was, "What fun! Will they put
handcuffs on me? I've never tried handcuffs before!"
Many disciples did not appearto expect concrete guidance from their leader:
Bhagwannever tells us what to do.
After you took sannyas, it was up to you. Whateveryou chose to do with Bhagwan's
energy, it was your affair.
This analysis of Rajneesh's leadershipexplains his tendency to vacillatebetween Resistance andEncouragement.His aversionto the pastorrole led him to delegatethe responsibility
of leadershipto Sheela and her core group of "supermoms"who were energetic and determined institutionbuilders. Rajneeshappearedto view his female leadersas receptaclesof his
own charisma. His writings stress the passive, receptivequalitiesof women, and his policy of
makinga woman-ruledcommune was a means of extendinghis charismainto the government
of his movementthroughthe channelsof women devotees who were filled with his "energy."
Free from the constraintsof responsibility,Rajneeshcould pursuean untrammelledcareer as
the performerwhose gesturesof Resistancewere often his most exciting acts. Thus his jokes,
tantrums,and shock tactics were a means of pruningthe institutionsto his own taste without
necessitatingan active involvement in decision-makingprocedures,and at the same time a
means of entertaininghis disciples, who interprethis more outrageousmomentsas "a device
to wake us up."
It could be argued, therefore, that Resistance and Encouragementare not necessarily
contradictorystrategies, and that Rajneesh'scase challenges the assumptionunderlyingWallis' theory;that the process of institutionalizationinevitablyconstitutesa threatto the leader's
charisma. Even in his example of Mary Baker Eddy as a successful case of Encouragement,
Wallis sees her institution-buildingas "a process of bureaucratization"in which "some
charismaticelements were retained"whereas "initially ChristianScience was emphatically
charismatic" (Wallis, 1982: 117). Weber,however,does distinguishbetween several typical
patterns.There can be institutionalizationthatamountsto an eclipse of the charismaticquality
of devotionto authority: this occurs with bureaucratizationand traditionalization.There are
also forms of institutionalizationthat attempt to (or are able to) preserve the charismatic
qualities. Weber discusses these in relation to the terms "routinizationof charisma" and
"hierocracy." Rajneesh's strategies of Encouragementand Acquiescence, therefore, could
perhaps be better described as the routinizationof charisma.
Throughoutthis study I was confrontedwith the difficulty of distinguishingbetween the
"pure" type of personal charisma and the slightly institutionalizedform which serves to
buttressit. In other words there is no clear boundarybetween charismaand institutionalization. The relationship between the two is a subtle one, for charisma cannot exist without
institutions,and the process of institutionalizationis fed by charisma.There were indications
that Rajneesh'scharismawas enhancedby some modes of institutionalizationbut threatened
by others. For example, one sannyasinclaimed "Bhagwanwas at his most powerfulduringHis
silence." AnothercomplainedaboutSheela's book Rajneeshismas "a MickeyMouse version
of Bhagwan's religion." When Rajneeshdestroyedthe institutionsin his movementby abdicating, he inevitably underminedhis own charismatic authority.A therapist, Amitabh, is
quotedin Rajneeshsaying Bhagwanhas "lost it." Manyformerdisciples interpretedhis act as
a loss of charisma, and some are writing books with titles like Bhagwan, TheGod WhoFailed
and Oranges and Lemmings. Certainly in terms of possessing a visible following with a
134
ANALYSIS
SOCIOLOGICAL
distinctive philosophy and life style, Rajneesh's authority is diminishing. These examples
suggest that the relationshipbetween charismaand institutionbuilding is more complex than
Wallis' model permits.
Abdication:. Rajneesh'sdecision to abdicateis in partto be understoodin relationto his
being a prophetof the exemplarytype. He lacked a world historicalmission and thus failed to
satisfy some Oregonians'expectationsof anotherJonestown.Insteadof urginghis followersto
defy state authoritiesunto death he remainedtrue to his claim as the "EnlightenedOne" to
being "aloof and separate as an island," and therefore simply negotiated for the lightest
sentence and skipped the country leaving his flock to fend for itself.
Rajneesh'sabdicationhas met with a widely variedresponse from his sannyasins.Some,
like the therapistAmitabh, feel "He" has "lost It" (Rajneesh,July 16). Othersexpressed in
interview the notion that Bhagwanhad proved himself to be an authenticspiritualmaster by
cutting his disciples off. This was explainedas the final stage of a spiritualpath in which the
disciple has to prove himself or herself by continuing alone, giving up dependence on the
guru. Some sannyasinsreferredto Krishnamurti,who establishedhis credentialsas a master
by in fact disclaiming the role of avatarwhich Annie Besant had preparedhim for. Others
referredto the Russian mystic, Gurdjieff, whose style of spiritual teaching often involved
shocking his students or sending them away.It is perhaps significant that recent editions of
Rajneesh have contained frequentreferencesto Krishnamurtiand Gurdjieff, who both abdicated from positions of responsible leadership. One article describes how Gurdjieffclosed
down his communityin Fontainebleuin 1924 andconcludes: "any resemblancebetweentheir
experiences and our life . .. may be coincidental.Be aware,however,thatthe Master's ways
are many" (Rajneesh 7imes, September8).
Rajneesh,KrishnamurtiandGurdjieffsharesimilarcharacteristics.They are all examples
of what R. S. Ellwood would term the "hermetic magus" type of leader, representativesin
their own way of the gnostic tradition(Ellwood, 1973: 49). The spiritualpaths they outlined
emphasize liberation from mechanical patternsof thought and behavior. The source of the
sacred is perceived to lie within the self and the function of the master is to awaken the
disciples from sleep, or to shock them out of theirpreconditionedpatterns.This is achievedby
puttingdisciples throughordeals or stoppingthe mind throughoutrageousbehavior(as in the
case of Gurdjeiff)or destroyingrationalthoughtprocesses throughparadox(as in the case of
Krishnamurtiand Rajneesh).In this sense their philosophiescould be describedas individualistic and antinomian.
These masters exhibited an aversionto institutionsand an impatience with routine patterns of economic and social life. The modus operandiof each leader could be interpretedas
an extreme example of Resistance.
Each master stressed the impermanenceof life and the importanceof learningto live in
the present moment. Rajneeshcalls it the "herenow," Krishnamurtithe "eternal present."
They possess a certain detachmentfrom or self-consciousness towardstheir role as spiritual
master, an elusiveness and a shamanicability to disappearor to change shape. For example
when Rajneesh adopted the name, "Bhagwan," he called it a "device" which he could
"drop" when the time came.
CONCLUSIONS
Thus far I have attemptedto establishthat Abdicationdoes representa new relationship
between charismaand institutionbuildingand that the meaningof this strategyin Rajneesh's
case can be understoodby distinguishingbetween two aspects of charisma: Performanceand
CHARISMA
AND ABDICATION
135
Responsibility.Having shown by my examples that Rajneeshis strong in the first aspect but
weak as regardsthe second, I will conclude by arguingthathis abdicationsolved the perennial
problem of institutionalizationin several ways:
First, it enabledhim to renouncethe responsible role of pastor,while retainingthe role of
performer.He relinquishedhis followers but kept his audience and devoted "Friends."
Second, it was undoubtedlya step to salvage his reputationand protect his personal
charismawhich Sheela's scandalousbehavior threatenedto discredit. Thus he disassociated
himself from the organizationand religion, Rajneeshism,which had sufferedan institutional
"loss of charisma."
Third, it servedas a sort of shaman'sordeal of initiation,a symbolicdeathwhich enabled
him to change shape. Rajneeshchose to become a disembodiedsymbol, a mythic figure, on
par with Gurdjieff and Krishnamurtiwho, even in death, resist attemptsto systemize or
institutionalize.Thus his Abdicationwas a means of transformationfromone type of charismatic leader to another: in Fred Bird's typology it would representa transition from a
Devotee-typeto an Apprentice-typeleader. Insteadof presidingover a utopiancity, Rajneesh
has become an itinerantperformer,and is producingphilosophicalliterature.(Krishnamurti
and Gurdjieffwrote or dictatedprolifically after they abdicated.)Recenteditionsof Rajneesh
havecomparedtheir leaderto "The UnknowableGurdjieff"(Bennett1973). Both mastersare
mysterious, unattached, and elusive, "teachers" who communicate their vision through
verbalperformancesand cryptic behavior ratherthan throughthe creationof coherentbelief
systems or the building and governing of utopian societies.
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