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ME 411 MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Materials Engineering
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Based largely on the pure sciences of chemistry and physics hence materials
obey the laws of physics and chemistry in their formation, reactions and
combinations.

Atom
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The smallest part of an element that retains the properties of that element;
The building blocks for engineering materials by bonding together in different
patters and with different types of bonds
Composed of protons (positively charged particles), neutrons (neutral
particles) and electrons (negatively charged particles) which orbit the nucleus
(core) of an atom

(a)

(b)

Figure 1(a) and (b) shows the configuration of an atom and (c) of Carbon

Element
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Is a pure substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means to a

simpler substance

Atomic number
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The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

EX: The Carbon nucleus has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. Atomic Number (A) is
number of protons (6), Atomic Mass (Z) is number of protons+neutrons (plus a
little bit = 12.011), which form the nucleus.

Planet Earth
Matter
Elements

Organic
substances
Liquids
Fuels
Chemica
ls
Oils
Paints
Food

Solids
Living
organisms
Natural
resins
Soils
Foods

Inorganic
substances
Gases
CO2
CO

Liquids
Acids
Water
Bases
Chemicals

Solids
Metals
Ceramics
Composite
s
Glasses
Clays
Cements
Stone

Figure 2. Elements as the building blocks of all materials

Gases
Chlorin
e
Argon
Helium

Figure 3. Periodic Table of the Elements

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In the periodic tables shown above, the atomic number of the elements
increases horizontally in the table, and the vertical groupings are based on
similarities in valence electronic configurations and similarities in chemical and
physical properties of the elements.
Elements in the periodic table with an atomic number greater than 92 donot
exist in nature but are produced by nuclear reactions.
Significance of the periodic table in engineering materials
1. Dictionary for the names and chemical symbols for the elements that are the
building blocks for all engineering materials.
2. The family groupings indicate which elements behave similarly that aid in the
selection problems.
3. The atomic weight is an indication of the density of an element
4. The number at the bottom of the vertical column indicates the number of
electrons in a valence shell together with the element grouping provide
indicators of how a particular element might combine with other elements.
FORMING ENGINEERING MATERIALS FROM THE ELEMENTS
Alloys metals combined with one or more elements
Compounds chemically combined elements with definite proportions of the
component elements wherein the smallest component is the molecule
EX: H2O - water molecule formed by 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
H2 molecule of hydrogen gas composed of 2 hydrogen atoms

(a)

(b)

Figure 4. (a) water molecule and (b) hydrogen molecule configurations

Mixtures a physical blend of two or more substances

Quantum Number
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describes the amount of energy that is given off when an electron moves
from one orbit to a lower orbit
Quantum numbers and electron configuration of atoms are used in
engineering materials to determine the molecular bonding characteristics

EX: Carbon molecular bonding in polymers

Organic Chemistry electron configuration related to crystal structure
Electronics electron configurations and availability of energy levels

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Rules in Electron configuration
1. Electrons associated with an atom occupy orbitals and subshells within
orbitals.
2. The exact location of electrons in orbitals is defined by four quantum
numbers that refer to the energy of the electron (principal quantum number),
the shape of an orbital (angular momentum quantum number), the
orientation of an orbital (magnetic quantum number and the spin of an
electron (spin quantum number).
3. No two (2) electrons can have the same quantum numbers called the Pauli
Exclusion Principle.
4. When two electrons reside in the same orbitals, their spins must be paired.
5. The number of electrons in a given orbital is 2n2 where n is the principal
quantum number.
6. When atoms interact to form compounds, electrons go into unoccupied
orbitals rather than into a partially occupied orbitals.
7. The outermost or valence electrons largely determine the chemical behavior
of elements.
8. In chemical reactions, most elements attempt to attain an electron structure
of eight electronic in the outermost energy level the most stable
configuration.
EX: Electron Configuration Notations
A hydrogen atom has 1 electron. That electron will occupy the lowest principal
energy level, n = 1, and the only sublevel, s; denoting the electron configuration of
hydrogen as

Figure 5. electron configuration

Electron Configuration

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The electron configuration of an atom describes the specific dispersal of
electrons among available subshells. The capacity of an energy level can be found
in the following formula:
2n

where n is called the principal quantum number and indicates the energy level.
In the first energy level, n = 1; the second energy level n = 2; the third energy
level n = 3; and so on. On the figure shown below the electrons in these different
orbital subshell energy levels.

Electron subshells or orbitals are written with s, p, d, and f as terms for each
known energy level. To write the electron configuration of calcium (Ca) as shown
above, with an atomic number of 20, it would look like the following:
1s 2 2s 2 p 6 3s 2 p 6 4s 2 . It has 2 electrons in the 1s subshell, 8 electrons in the 2sp,
8 electrons in the 3sp, and 2 electrons in the 4s subshell. Another way of writing this
is that there are 2 electrons in the n = 1 level, 8 electrons in the n = 2 level, 8
electrons in the n = 3 level, and 2 electrons in the n = 4 level.

Orbitals of the s-type are always singular, p-types form orbital sets of 3, d-type
orbitals come in sets of 5, and f-type orbitals are written in sets of 7.
The 4s electrons of calcium are found in the outermost orbit to be filled and from
this position react with other elements. Valence electrons affect the reactivity of
atoms with other elements.
Molecules that share electrons are generally smaller, have lower melting and boiling
points, are insoluble in water, and do not conduct electricity. The s and p orbitals of
nearby atoms overlap to form a mixed orbital.

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ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Metals
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Is an element with a valence of 1, 2 or 3

Solids composed of atoms held together by a matrix of electrons

Figure 6. Electron matrix of an alkali metal

Ceramics
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A combination of one or more metals with a non-metallic element

Usually have very rigid covalent or ionic bonds between adjacent atoms

usually have a combination of stronger bonds called ionic (occurs between a

metal and nonmetal and involves the attraction of opposite charges when
electrons are transferred from the metal to the nonmetal); and covalent
(occurs between two nonmetals and involves sharing of atoms). The strength
of an ionic bond depends on the size of the charge on each ion and on the
radius of each ion. The greater the number of electrons being shared, is the
greater the force of attraction, or the stronger the covalent bond. An ion is an
atom that has lost or gained an electron.

Figure 7. Covalent bond

Figure 8. (a) ionic bond of ceramic material and (b) crystalline structure of Al 2O3

In ionic bonding, valence electrons from one atom are transferred to another
atom and the atoms involved are then held together by the electrostatic attraction
between the two oppositely charged ions.
Polymers
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Engineering material known as plastics

Are substances composed of long-chain repeating molecules called mers
with the element carbon forming the backbone of the chain

EX: Polysthylene

Mer
The repeating unit in a polymer
chain
Monomer
A single mer unit (n=1)
Polymer
Many mer-units along a chain
(n=103 or more)
Degree of Polymerization
The average number of merunits in a chain.
Figure 9. Physical structure of polyethylene

Composite
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Combination of two or more materials that has properties that the component
materials donot have.
As a class of engineering materials provide most unlimited potential for
higher strength, stiffness and corrosion resistance over the pure material
systems of metals, ceramics and polymers.

EX: WOOD is a composite of cellulose fibers held together with a glue or matrix of
soft lignin
a. Plywood

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b. Fiber composite comprise of a mixture of wood mass and cement material

Figure 10. Wood- from tree trunk with physical and microscopic structure to final product

COMPOSITION OF WOOD BY
ELEMENTS
ELEMENT
% BY WEIGHT
Carbon
49
Oxygen
44
Hydrogen
6
Others
1

COMPOSITION OF WOOD BY TYPES OF

POLYMERS
POLYMER
% BY DRY WEIGHT
Cellulose
40-50
Hemicellulose
20-35
Lignin
15-35

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Figure 11. Fiberglass process and fiberglass product