WOLFGANG KUNZE

TECHNOLOGY
Brewing & Malting
Chapter 11 co-written by
Dr H J Manger

4th completely updated edition

Published by

Versuchs- und Lehranstalt

fr Brauerei in Berlin

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek

Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at dnb.ddb.de
Wolfgang Kunze
Technology Brewing and Malting
Translated by Sue Pratt, Berlin
4th updated edition, 2010
Up to now have appeared

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2. Chinese edition
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ISBN 978-3-921690-64-2
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7
Contents
Beer the oldest drink . . . . . . . . . . .21
1
1.1
1.1.1

1.1.2
1.1.3

1.1.4

1.1.5

1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2

1.2.3
1.2.4

1.2.5

1.2.6
1.2.7

Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Barley types and varieties . . . . . . . . .39
- Types of barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
- Barley varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Barley cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Structure of the barley kernel . . . . . .42
- External structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
- Internal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Composition and properties . . . . . . .44
- Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
- Nitrogen compounds (proteins) . . .48
- Fats (Lipids) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
- Inorganic material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
- Other substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Barley evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
- Hand evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
- Physical and chemical
examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
- Physiological examinations . . . . . . .58
Hops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Growing regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Harvesting, drying and
stabilising hops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
- Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
- Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
- Stabilising the hops . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Hop cone structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Composition and properties . . . . . . .63
- Bitter substances or hop resins . . . .64
- Hop oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
- Tannins or polyphenols . . . . . . . . . .67
- Nitrogen compounds . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Hop evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
- Hand evaluation of hop cones . . . .68
- Bitter substance content . . . . . . . . . .69
Hop varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Hop products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

- Hop pellets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

- Hop extracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3

1.3.4

1.3.5

1.3.6
1.4
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4

1.5
1.5.1
1.5.2

Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Water cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Fresh water use in the brewery . . . . .80
Obtaining water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
- Extracting ground water . . . . . . . . .81
- Extraction of spring water . . . . . . . .82
- Extraction of surface water . . . . . . .82
- Importance of a
private water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Water requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
- Drinking water requirements . . . . .84
- Brewing water requirements . . . . . .85
- Significance of individual ions . . . .88
Water improvement procedures . . . .89
- Procedure to remove
suspended matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
- Removal of dissolved materials . . .90
- Improvement of the residual
alkalinity of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
- Water sterilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
- Degassing of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Possibilities of saving water . . . . . . . .95
Yeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Structure and composition
of the yeast cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Metabolism of the yeast cell . . . . . . .100
Yeast reproduction and growth . . . .101
Characteristics of brewing yeasts . .103
- Morphological characteristics . . . .103
- Physiological differences . . . . . . . .104
- Fermentation technological
differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
- Systematic classification . . . . . . . . .104
Adjuncts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

8
1.5.3
1.5.4
1.5.5
1.5.6
1.5.7
1.5.8

Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Sorghum / millet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Glucose syrup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Colouring sugar (also couleur) . . . .110

2.4
2.4.1

2
2.1
2.1.1

Malt Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114

Intake, cleaning, grading, transfer 114
Barley intake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
- Intake of barley from lorries
or rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
- Intake of barley from ships . . . . . .115
Cleaning and grading the barley . .116
- Barley pre-cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
- Magnetic devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
- Dry destoner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
- Deawner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
- Grain cleaner (trieur) . . . . . . . . . . .121
- Barley grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Transfer of barley and malt . . . . . . .125
- Mechanical conveyors . . . . . . . . . .127
- Pneumatic conveyors . . . . . . . . . . .130
Equipment for dust removal . . . . . .133
- Cyclones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
- Dust filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134

2.4.2

2.1.2

2.1.3

2.1.4

2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4

Drying and storage of barley . . . . . .137

Barley respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Barley drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
Barley cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Barley storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
- Storage in silos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
- Storage in bins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
- Pest infestations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142

2.3
2.3.1

Barley steeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143

Processes during steeping . . . . . . . .143
- Water uptake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
- Provision of oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . .146
- Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Steep vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
The steeping process . . . . . . . . . . . . .152

2.3.2
2.3.3

2.5
2.5.1

2.5.2

2.5.3

Barley germination . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154

Processes occurring during
germination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
- Growth processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
- Enzyme formation . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
- Changes to storage materials . . . .157
- Conclusions about how to perform 165
Germination methods . . . . . . . . . . . .165
- Floor maltings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
- Carrying out germination . . . . . . .177
- Control of germination . . . . . . . . . .178
Malt kilning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Changes during kilning . . . . . . . . . .178
- Lowering of the water content . . .178
- Termination of germination and
modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
- Formation of colour and flavour . .179
- Formation of DMS . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
- Effect of kilning temperature . . . .181
- Formation of nitrosamines . . . . . . .182
- Enzyme inactivation . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Kiln structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
- Heating and ventilation
of the kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
- Older type two floor kilns . . . . . . .186
- Kilns with dumping floors . . . . . .186
- Flat kilns with a loader
and unloader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
- Vertical kilning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Management of kilning . . . . . . . . . .189
- Production of Pilsner malt . . . . . . .191
- Production of Munich malt . . . . . .192
- Unloading the kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
- Control of kilning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193

2.6
2.6.1
2.6.2
2.6.3
2.6.4

Treatment of malt after kilning . . . .193

Cooling of the kilned malt . . . . . . . .193
Malt cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Malt storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Malt polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

2.7

Yield during malting . . . . . . . . . . . . .195

9
2.8
2.8.1
2.8.2

2.8.3

2.8.4
2.9

Malt evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195

Hand evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Mechanical examinations . . . . . . . . .196
- Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
- Thousand corn weight . . . . . . . . . .196
- Hectolitre weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
- Sinker test (floaters) . . . . . . . . . . . .196
- Steelyness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
- Friability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
- Acrospire length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
- Germinating capacity . . . . . . . . . . .196
- Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
- Calcofluor-Carlsberg method . . . .197
Chemical technological methods . .197
- Water content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
- Congress mashing method . . . . . .197
Malt supply contract . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

2.9.1
2.9.2
2.9.3
2.9.4
2.9.5
2.9.6
2.9.7
2.9.8
2.9.9
2.9.10
2.9.11
2.9.12
2.9.13
2.9.14
2.9.15
2.9.16

Special malts and malt

from other cereals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
Pilsner malt (pale malt) . . . . . . . . . .202
Dark malt (Munich type) . . . . . . . . .202
Vienna malt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
Brumalt/melanoidin malt . . . . . . . . .203
Caramel malt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Acid malt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
Short grown and chit malts . . . . . . .204
Smoked malt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Diastase malt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Roasted malt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Roasted malt beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Wheat malt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Malt extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
Malt from other bread cereals . . . . .208
Sorghum malt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
Usage of different types . . . . . . . . .210

2.10

Safety precautions in maltings . . . .212

3
3.1
3.1.1

Wort Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224

Malt milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224
Pretreatment of the malt . . . . . . . . . .224
- Removal of dust and stones . . . . .224

3.1.2
3.1.3

3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.1.7
3.2
3.2.1

- Weighing the malt charge . . . . . . .225

Basic aspects of milling . . . . . . . . . . .228
Dry milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
- Six roller mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
- Five roller mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
- Four roller mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
- Two roller mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
- Rollers of malt mills . . . . . . . . . . . .232
- Conditioned dry milling . . . . . . . .235
- Grist case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
- Hammer mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
Wet milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
Steep conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
Fine comminution with water . . . . .242
Evaluation of the grist . . . . . . . . . . . .244

3.2.5
3.2.6
3.2.7

Mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
Transformations during mashing . .245
- Purpose of mashing . . . . . . . . . . . .245
- Properties of enzymes . . . . . . . . . .245
- Starch degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
- b-glucan degradation . . . . . . . . . . .252
- Conversion of fatty matter (lipids) .258
- Other degradation and
dissolving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
- Biological acidification . . . . . . . . . .261
- Composition of the extract . . . . . .267
Vessels for mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
- Mash vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
Mashing in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
- Addition of the brewing water . . .273
- Mashing-in temperature . . . . . . . .273
- Mixing of the water and grist . . . .275
Mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277
- Parameters to consider when
mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277
- Infusion mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
- Decoction processes . . . . . . . . . . . .281
Mashing duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295
Control of mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
Mashing intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296

3.3

Lautering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296

3.2.2
3.2.3

3.2.4

10
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3

3.3.4

3.3.5

3.4
3.4.1

3.4.2

3.4.3

First wort and second wort . . . . . . .296

Last runnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
Mash separation with a lauter tun .299
- Design of an older lauter tun . . . .300
- Design of newer lauter tuns . . . .303
- Operating sequence . . . . . . . . . . . .307
Wort separation with a mash filter .310
- Traditional mash filters . . . . . . . . .310
- New generation mash filters . . . . .311
Spent grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
- Transfer of spent grains . . . . . . . . .321
- Spent grain analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .321
Wort boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
Wort boiling operations . . . . . . . . . .323
- Extraction and transformation . . .324
- Precipitation of protein . . . . . . . . .325
- Evaporation of water . . . . . . . . . . .326
- Wort sterilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
- Destruction of all enzymes . . . . . .327
- Thermal exposure of the wort . . . .327
- Lowering the pH of the wort . . . . .328
- Formation of reducing substances 328
- Evaporation of undesirable
aroma substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
- Zinc content of the wort . . . . . . . . .330
- Unboiled wort cast wort . . . . . . .330
- Unboiled wort cast wor . . . . . . . .330
Design and heating
of the wort kettle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
- Directly heated wort kettles . . . . .331
- Steam heated wort kettles . . . . . . .331
- Wort kettle
with low pressure boiling . . . . . . .336
- High temperature wort boiling . . .345
- Energy saving
wort boiling systems . . . . . . . . . . . .346
- Other modern
wort boiling systems . . . . . . . . . . . .352
- Vapour condensate . . . . . . . . . . . . .366
- Underback (wort buffer vessel) . . .367
Performing wort boiling . . . . . . . . . .367
- Boiling the wort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368

3.4.4

Monitoring the cast wort . . . . . . . . .372

3.5
3.5.1

Brewhouse yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373

Calculating the brewhouse yield . .373
- Determination of the
mass percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .374
- Determination of the mass . . . . . . .375
- Conversion of the volume . . . . . . .379
- Calculation of the amount . . . . . . .379
- Determination of the
brewhouse yield (Ybh) . . . . . . . . . .380
Factors affecting the yield . . . . . . . .380
Calculation of a brewhouse yield . .381

3.5.2
3.5.3
3.6
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.6.4
3.6.5

Brewhouse equipment . . . . . . . . . . .381

Number and arrangement of the . .381
Vessel size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Vessel material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
Brewhouse capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
Special types of brewhouse . . . . . . .384
- Pub brewery brewhouses . . . . . . .384
- Integral brewhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
- Research and training
brewhouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385

3.7

Casting the wort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386

3.8
3.8.1
3.8.2

Removal of the coarse break . . . . . .386

Coolship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
Settling tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
- Operating principle
of the whirlpool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388
- Whirlpool design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
- Performing wort clarification
in a whirlpool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
- The principle used
in centrifugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
- Types of centrifugal separators . .394
- Design/operation of
self-cleaning separators . . . . . . . . .395
- Evaluation of
hot wort separation . . . . . . . . . . . . .397

3.8.4

11
3.8.5

3.9
3.9.1

Recovery of wort
from cloudy wort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398

3.9.5

Cooling and clarifying the wort . . .398

Procedures during cooling . . . . . . . .398
- Wort cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
- Formation and optimal
removal of cold break . . . . . . . . . . .399
- Wort aeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
- Changes in wort concentration . . .399
Equipment for wort cooling . . . . . . .400
- Structure of
plate heat exchangers . . . . . . . . . . .400
- Method of operation . . . . . . . . . . .402
- Advantages of the
plate heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Basic principles and . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
- Methods of wort aeration . . . . . . .405
- Time of yeast aeration . . . . . . . . . .406
Equipment for cold break removal .406
- Kieselguhr filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
- Flotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
Wort cooling lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408

3.10

Control and monitoring . . . . . . . . . .408

3.11

Safety at work during . . . . . . . . . . .411

- Accident prevention
milling area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
- Accident prevention
brewing vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
- Accident prevention
separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412

3.9.2

3.9.3

3.9.4

4
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2

Beer Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415

Changes during fermentation . . . .415
Yeast: the brewer's most important
partner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
Metabolism of the yeast . . . . . . . . . .418
- Fermentation of the sugar . . . . . . .418
- Protein metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
- Fat metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
- Carbohydrate metabolism . . . . . . .425

4.1.3

4.1.4

4.1.5
4.1.6
4.1.7
4.1.8
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4

4.3
4.3.1

- Mineral metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . .427

Formation and removal of
fermentation by-products . . . . . . . .428
- Diacetyl (vicinal diketones) . . . . . .429
- Aldehydes (carbonyl compounds) 432
- Higher alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
- Esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
- Sulphur compounds . . . . . . . . . . . .434
- Organic acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
- Evaluation of aroma compounds
(according to Miedaner) . . . . . . . . .436
Other reactions and changes . . . . . .437
- Changes of nitrogen compounds .437
- Lowering of the pH value . . . . . . .438
- Changes in the redox properties
of beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .438
- Changes in the beer colour . . . . . .439
- Precipitation of bitter substances
and polyphenols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
- Clarification and colloidal
stability of beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
Effects of different factors on yeast .440
Flocculation of the yeast
(break formation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442
Degeneration of the yeast . . . . . . . . .442
Physiological condition of yeast . . .443
Pure yeast culture propagation . . . .443
Basics of yeast propagation . . . . . . .444
Isolation of suitable yeast cells . . . .445
Propagation in the laboratory . . . . .445
Yeast propagation in the brewery . .447
- Yeast propagation plants . . . . . . . .447
- Assimilation procedure . . . . . . . . .451
- Single vessel pure yeast
culture procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
- Open yeast propagation . . . . . . . . .454
Conventional fermentation and . . .455
Fermentation tanks
equipment of the
fermentation cellar . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
- Fermentation tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
- Layout of the open

12

4.3.2
4.3.3

4.3.4
4.3.5

4.3.6

4.3.7

4.3.8

4.3.9

4.4
4.4.1

fermentation cellar . . . . . . . . . . . . .456

Fermentation cellar yield . . . . . . . . .459
Management of open primary
fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
- Pitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
- Fermentation management
in the fermentation tank . . . . . . . . .462
- Degree of attenuation . . . . . . . . . . .464
- Beer transfer from the tank . . . . . .468
Yeast collection in the tank . . . . . . . .470
Processes during beer maturation
in conventional tanks . . . . . . . . . . . .470
- Saturation of beer with
carbon dioxide under pressure . . .470
- Beer clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
Equipment in conventional
lager cellars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
- Lager cellar installations . . . . . . . .472
- Lagering tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
Performance of lagering in
conv. tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
- Beer transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
- Pressure regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
Storage vessel tapping . . . . . . . . . . .475
- Establishment of the connection . .475
- Pressure during tapping
and emptying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
Drawing off from
conventional tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
- Blending unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
- Pressure regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
- Recovery of tank bottom beer . . . .477
- Deep cooling of the beer . . . . . . . .477
- Fore-run and post-run . . . . . . . . . .477
Fermentation and maturation
in cylindroconical vessels . . . . . . . . .478
Construction and installation of
cylindroconical vessels . . . . . . . . . . .478
- Design, shape and construction
material of cylindroconical vessels .478
- Size of CCVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
- Location and arrangement

4.4.2

4.4.3

4.4.4

4.4.5
4.4.6

of the CCVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481

Cylindroconical tank fittings . . . . . .482
- Control and operating elements
and safety fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
- Control and operating eleme . . . . .482
- Cooling of the CCV . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
- Methods for controlling and
automating cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
Managing the fermentation
and maturation in CCVs . . . . . . . . .498
- Special points to consider
when fermenting and maturing
in CCVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
- Cold fermentation
cold maturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
- Cold fermentation with a
ccelerated maturation in a CCV . .504
- Warm fermentation
without pressure
cold maturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
- Pressure fermentation . . . . . . . . . .504
- Cold fermentation
warm maturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
- Cold primary fermentation
with programmed maturation . . . .505
- Warm primary fermentation
with normal or forced maturation .506
Yeast cropping from the CCV . . . . .506
- Time of yeast cropping . . . . . . . . . .507
- Methods of collecting yeast . . . . . .508
- Treatment and storage of
the yeast crop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
- Monitoring the yeast crop . . . . . . .510
Beer quality before filtration . . . . . .511
Beer recovery from surplus yeast . .511
- Separation by means of
sedimentation or filtration . . . . . . .512
- Yeast separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .512
- Beer recovery using a decanter . . .512
- Membrane filtration of the yeast . .513
- Vibration micro-filtration (VMF) .514
- Treatment of tank bottom beer
(yeast beer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .514

13
4.4.7
4.4.8

CO2 recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515

Immobilised yeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517

4.5
4.5.1

Beer filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518

Various filtration methods . . . . . . . .519
- Separation mechanisms . . . . . . . . .519
- Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
- Filter aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
Structural forms of filters . . . . . . . . .524
- Mass filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524
- Powder filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
- Sheet filters (frame-type filters) . .539
- Membrane filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
- Multi Micro-System-Filter . . . . . . .542
- Areas of filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
- Kieselguhr-free beer filtration . . . .543

4.5.2

4.6
4.6.1

4.6.2

4.6.3
4.6.4

Beer stabilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554

Microbiological stabilisation . . . . . .555
- Pasteurisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
- Flash pasteurisation . . . . . . . . . . . .556
- Hot filling of beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
- Pasteurisation in a
tunnel pasteuriser . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
- Cold sterile filling of beer . . . . . . .559
Colloidal stabilisation of beer . . . . .560
- Nature of colloidal hazes . . . . . . . .561
- Improving the colloidal
stability of beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
- Technological measures for
improving colloidal stability . . . . .562
- Addition of stabilising agents . . . .563
- Dosing with downstream
hop products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
Filtration plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
Flavour stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
- Ageing process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
- Factors encouraging
flavour stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
- Measures for the avoidance of
oxygen addition during filtration
and bottling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
- Measures to prevent negative

influences on the flavour stability

after bottling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
4.7

Carbonisation of the beer . . . . . . . . .579

4.8
4.8.1
4.8.2
4.8.3

Special methods for production . . .581

High gravity brewing . . . . . . . . . . . .581
Ice beer production . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
Processes for removing alcohol . . . .585
- Membrane separation process . . .585
- Heat treatment processes /
distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
- Suppression of alcohol formation .593

4.9
4.9.1
4.9.2
4.9.3
4.9.4

Accident prevention in the . . . . . . .595

Danger of accidents due to . . . . . .595
Work in pressure vessels . . . . . . . . .596
Working with kieselguhr . . . . . . . . .597
General advice regarding
accident prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598

5
5.1
5.1.1

Filling the beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609

Filling in returnable glass bottles . .609
Returnable glass bottles . . . . . . . . . .609
- Advantages and disadvantages
of glass bottles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
- Glass bottle production . . . . . . . . .609
- Bottle shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
- Bottle colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
- Surface coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
- Scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
- Bottle aftercoating . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
- Plastic coated light
glass returnable bottles . . . . . . . . . .612
- Procedural steps in the filling of
returnable glass bottles . . . . . . . . . .613
Cleaning of returnable glass bottles .613
-Factors which influence
bottle washing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
- Bottle washing machines . . . . . . . .614
- Caustic solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
- Cleaning and maintenance work
on the bottle cleaning machine . . .634

5.1.2

14
- Clearing away new glass bottles
and cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
5.1.3 Control of the
cleaned recyclable glas bottles . . . . .635
5.1.4 Bottle filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
- Principles of filling . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
- Principles of bottle filling
machine design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644
- Component elements of the
bottle filling machines . . . . . . . . . . .645
- Construction and mode of operation
of the bottle filling organs . . . . . . .648
- High pressure jetting . . . . . . . . . . .665
5.1.5 Closing the bottles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
- Closing with crown corks . . . . . . .666
- Closure with a swing stopper . . . .671
5.1.6 Cleaning the filler and the closer . .672
5.1.7 Control of the filled and
closed bottles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .676
- Filling level control . . . . . . . . . . . . .676
- Oxygen in the bottle neck . . . . . . .677
5.1.8 Pasteurising in bottles . . . . . . . . . . . .679
- Principles of pasteurisation
in bottles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
- Important components of the
tunnel pasteuriser . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
- PU fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .683
5.1.9 Labelling and foiling the bottles . . .684
- Labels and foils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
- Label adhesive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
- Basic principle of labelling . . . . . . .688
- Head folding with foils . . . . . . . . .691
5.1.10 Dating the labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
5.1.11 Controlling the labels . . . . . . . . . . . .692
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2

Special features when filling

into non-returnable glass bottles . . .692
Clearing of new glass bottles . . . . . .692
Rinsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .692

5.3.2

5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5

5.3.6
5.4
5.4.1
5.4.2

Filling of plastic returnable bottles .720

PEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
Cleaning of returnable
plastic bottles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .721
5.4.3 Inspection of foreign substances . . .721
5.5
Filling of cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .725
5.5.1 Cans and can closures . . . . . . . . . . . .725
5.5.2 Storing, depalletising and removal
of empty cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
5.5.3 Inspection of the empty cans . . . . . .730
5.5.4 Rinsing of the cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . .731
5.5.5 Filling of the cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .731
- Mechanical can fillers . . . . . . . . . . .733
- Can filler with volumetric filling .737
5.5.6 Closing the cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .746
5.5.7 Cleaning of the can filler and closer 748
5.5.8 Widgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .748
5.5.9 Inspection of the filled cans . . . . . . .750
5.5.10 Pasteurisation of cans . . . . . . . . . . . .751
5.5.11 Wraparound labelling of cans . . . . .751
5.5.12 Dating of the cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
5.6

5.3
5.3.1

Filling into PET bottles . . . . . . . . . . .693

PET bottles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694
- Structural properties of PET . . . . .694

- Barrier properties of PET . . . . . . . .694

- Barrier technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
- The importance of Scavengers . . .697
Production of PET bottles . . . . . . . .698
- Production of the preforms . . . . . .698
- Stretching and blow-moulding
of PET bottles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .699
- Monitoring of the manufactured
PET bottles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
- Rinsing of the new bottles . . . . . . .701
Transportation of the PET bottles . .702
Filling of PET bottles . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
Closing of PET bottles . . . . . . . . . . . .714
- Plastic screw cap closures . . . . . . .714
- Aluminium rolled-on closure . . . .716
Labelling of PET bottles . . . . . . . . . .718

5.6.1
5.6.2

Filling of casks, kegs, party casks,

and large cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .753
Filling of wooden barrels and casks .753
Kegs and fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .756

15

5.6.3

5.6.4
5.6.5
5.6.6
5.7
5.7.1
5.7.2

5.7.3

5.7.4

5.7.5

5.8
5.9
5.9.1
5.9.2

- Material, shape and size of kegs . . .756

- Keg fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .757
Cleaning and filling the keg . . . . . . .759
- Cleaning of the keg . . . . . . . . . . . . .760
- Filling the keg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .760
Keg plants as a whole . . . . . . . . . . . .762
Filling of small and party kegs . . . .762
Filling of large cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Transport and packaging . . . . . . . . .763
Transport containers . . . . . . . . . . . . .764
Treatment of plastic crates . . . . . . . .766
Elimination of foreign and
damaged crates and bottles . . . . . . .766
- Washing of the crates . . . . . . . . . . .767
- Crate magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
Transport technology . . . . . . . . . . . .768
- Bottle and can transport . . . . . . . . .768
- Container transport . . . . . . . . . . . .773
Packaging technology . . . . . . . . . . . .773
- Packing head and packing tulips .773
- Types of packer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
Palletiser and depalletiser
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .782
- Robot technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . .782
- Design and function of the
palletisers and depalletisers . . . . . . .783
- Stacking plants for full
pack pallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
- Transport plants for pallets . . . . . .786
- Pallet set positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .786
- Infeed and output equipment . . . .786
- Pallet magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .786
- Pallet control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .786
- Securing the pallets . . . . . . . . . . . . .787
- Palletising in keg filling
The filling plant as a whole . . . . . . .791
Beer losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
Calculation of the amount of sales
beer produced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .794
Stocktaking and calculation of
beer for sale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .794

5.9.3
5.9.4
5.9.5

Calculation of the volume loss . . . .796

Calculation of malt usage . . . . . . . . .796
Importance of the loss and
possible ways of reducing it . . . . . .797

6
6.1

6.1.3

Cleaning and disinfection . . . . . . .801

Materials and their behaviour
towards cleaning agents . . . . . . . . . .801
Aluminium vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Vessels, pipes and fittings made
of chrome-nickel steel . . . . . . . . . . . .802
Hoses and seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .804

6.2

Cleaning agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805

6.3

Disinfecting agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . .806

6.4

Cleaning and disinfecting using

a CIP system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .807

6.5

Cleaning procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .814

6.6

Mechanical cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .817

6.7

Monitoring of cleaning and

disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817

6.8

Protection at work when cleaning

and disinfecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817

7
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.2

Finished beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .819

Beer composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .819
Components of beer . . . . . . . . . . . . .819
Beer and health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .822

7.2
7.2.1

Taste and foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .824

Beer flavour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .824
- Beer aroma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .824
- Palatefulness (body) . . . . . . . . . . . .827
- Tingle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .828
- Beer bitterness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .828
Beer foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .829

6.1.1
6.1.2

7.2.2

16
7.3
7.3.1

7.3.2

7.3.3

7.4
7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3

Beer types and their

special features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
Beers produced by
top fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
- Special features of top
fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
- Wheat beers (Weizenbiere) . . . . . .836
- Berliner Weie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
- Altbier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .841
- Klsch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .841
- Ale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .842
- Stout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .842
- Porter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .843
- Belgian beer types . . . . . . . . . . . . . .843
Bottom fermentation beer types . . .844
- Pilsner type beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .844
- Lager beer (Vollbier) . . . . . . . . . .845
- Export beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .846
- Black beers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .846
- Festival beers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .847
- Ice beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .847
- Mrzen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .847
- Bock beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .847
- Double Bock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
- Alcohol-free beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
- Dietetic beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
- Light beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .850
- Malt drink (beer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .850
- Beer types with a very
low distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .851
Trends regarding the development
of beer types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .854
Quality examination . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
Beer tasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
Microbiological examination . . . . . .860
Beer analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .863
- Determination of the
original gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .864
- Measurement of beer colour . . . . .868
- Measurement of the pH . . . . . . . . .869
- Measurement of the oxygen
content of beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869

- Measurement of the diacetyl

content of beer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
- Measurement of foam stability . . .871
- Determination of the carbon
dioxide content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .872
- Measurement of bitterness units . .873
- Measurement of haze tendency . .873
- Filterability of the beer . . . . . . . . .873
- Other measurements . . . . . . . . . . .874
7.5

Process measurement and

analysis technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
7.5.1 Temperature meters . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
7.5.2 Flow meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
7.5.3 Filling level meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
7.5.4 Density meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
7.5.5 Optical online measuring
technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .878
7.5.6 Oxygen meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .880
7.5.7 pH value meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .880
7.5.8 Conductivity measurement . . . . . . .880
7.5.9 Limit value probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .880
7.5.10 Pressure measurement . . . . . . . . . . .881
8

Small Scale Brewing . . . . . . . . . . . .889

8.1

Pub breweries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889

8.2

Microbrewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .895

8.3

Hobby brewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .896

Waste disposal
and the environment . . . . . . . . . . . .901
Environmental legislation . . . . . . . .901

9.1
9.2
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3

Waste water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902

Waste water costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
Definition of terms used
relating to waste water . . . . . . . . . . .904
Waste water treatment . . . . . . . . . . .905
- Aerobic waste water treatment

17
plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .906
- Anaerobic waste water
treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .907
- Amount and composition of
brewery waste water . . . . . . . . . . . .907
- Waste water treatment with
mixing and equalising tanks . . . . .909
9.3
9.3.1
9.3.2
9.3.3
9.3.4
9.3.5
9.3.6
9.3.7
9.3.8

Residues and waste material . . . . . .910

Spent malt and hops . . . . . . . . . . . . .910
Break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .912
Surplus yeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .912
Kieselguhr slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .913
Old labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .913
Broken glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .914
Beer cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .914
Minor sources of waste . . . . . . . . . . .914

9.4
9.4.1
9.4.2
9.4.3
9.4.4
9.5

Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .915
Dust and dust emissions . . . . . . . . .915
Brewhouse emissions . . . . . . . . . . . .915
Exhaust gas emissions . . . . . . . . . . .915
Noise emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .915
Recycling of PET bottles . . . . . . . . . .916

10

Energy management
in the brewery and maltings . . . . .917
Energy requirements in malting
and brewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .917
Boiler plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .918
Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .918
Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .919
- Heat of evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . .919
- Wet steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .921
- Superheated steam . . . . . . . . . . . . .921
- Hot water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .921
Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .921
- Classification of boilers . . . . . . . . .921
- Types of boiler structure . . . . . . . .922
- Three pass boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .923
- Energy recovery and improvement
of efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .925
Steam engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .927

10.1
10.2
10.2.1
10.2.2

10.2.3

10.2.4

10.2.5 Combined heat and power plants .927

10.3 Refrigeration plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .928
10.3.1 Refrigerants and cooling agents . . .929
- Refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929
- Cooling agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
- Operating principle of
refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
10.3.2 Compression refrigeration plants . .935
- Operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . .935
- Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .937
- Condensers (liquefiers) . . . . . . . . .939
- Control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .941
10.3.3 Absorption cooling machines . . . . .942
10.3.4 Space and liquid cooling . . . . . . . . .942
- Cooling of conventional
fermentation and lager cellars . . . .942
- Modern cooling plants . . . . . . . . . .944
- Cooling of liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
10.3.5 Advice for economic operation
of cooling plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .947
10.4
10.4.1
10.4.2
10.4.3
10.4.4
10.4.5

Electrical equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . .948

Supply of electrical energy . . . . . . . .949
Power factor cos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
Transforming the electric current . .952
Safety measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .952
Information concerning economic
use of electrical energy . . . . . . . . . . .953

10.5 Pumps, fans and compressors . . . . .954

10.5.1 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .954
- Centrifugal pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . .955
- Positive displacement pumps . . . .958
- Selection of pump size . . . . . . . . . .962
- Control of the pump rotation speed 963
- Lubricative ring seal . . . . . . . . . . . .964
10.5.2 Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
- Axial fans or ventilators . . . . . . . . .965
- Radial fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
10.5.3 Compressed air plants . . . . . . . . . . .965
- Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .967
- Air driers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .970

18
- Pressure piping network . . . . . . . .972
- Air filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .973
11.2.5
10.6

11
11.1

11.1.1
11.1.2

11.1.3

11.1.4
11.1.5
11.1.6

The global demand for energy is

increasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .974
Automation and plant planning . .977
Indications concerning the use
of measurement, control and
regulation technology . . . . . . . . . . . .977
General indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . .977
Requirements concerning the
measurement uncertainty of the
measuring technology used . . . . . . .977
Requirements of the place of
installation and cleaning and
disinfecting requirements . . . . . . . .979
Operational and equipment security
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .980
Maintenance and upkeep
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .981
Requirements of automatic
controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .981

11.2 Plant planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .984

11.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .984
- General remarks concerning
plant planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .984
- General remarks on the process
of plant planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .985
11.2.2 Basic aspects of plant planning . . . .987
11.2.3 Different procedures for planning
and setting up a plant . . . . . . . . . . . .988
11.2.4 Important documents and files
concerning plant planning . . . . . . . .990
- General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
- The procedure scheme . . . . . . . . . .991
- The basic mimic diagram . . . . . . . .994
- The procedural mimic diagram . .994
- The pipe and instrument
mimic diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .994
- Pipe and assembly plans . . . . . . . .996
- The procedure description . . . . . . .997

11.2.6
11.2.7
11.2.8
11.3
11.3.1
11.3.2
11.3.3

11.3.4

11.3.5

11.3.6

- The creation of design documents/

graphic procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
Indications for the drawing up
of contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .999
Inauguration and performance
run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1000
End of the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1001
Documentation of the project . . . .1001
Plant design and the requirements
of the plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1002
General indications . . . . . . . . . . . . .1002
Preconditions for the automaticon
of modern plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1002
Requirements of pipe and plant
design with respect to contamination-free work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1003
Operational safety requirements
of the plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1003
- Separation of media . . . . . . . . . . .1003
- Securing the plants against
unauthorised pressures . . . . . . . .1005
Indications for pipe design . . . . . .1007
- General indications . . . . . . . . . . . .1007
- Pipe connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1007
- The laying of piping systems
and the construction of pipe
holders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1009
- The flow velocity in pipes /
pressure losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1011
- Measures against liquid strikes
and vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1013
- Venting the pipes; oxygen
removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1015
- Creating heat insulations in
pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1015
- Shaping of pipe outlets . . . . . . . . .1016
- Securing the pipe against frost
and blockages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1016
- Dead spaces in pipes . . . . . . . . . .1017
Indications for the creation of heat
and cold insulations . . . . . . . . . . . .1018
- General indications . . . . . . . . . . .1018

19
- Avoidance of vapour diffusion
and condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . .1018
11.3.7 Indications concerning pipe connection, application of fittings and
sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1018
- General indications . . . . . . . . . . . .1018
- The manual connecting
technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1019
- Fixed piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1019
- Sampling fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1021
- Types of fitting designs . . . . . . . .1022
11.3.8 Indications concerning the
arrangement and operation of
CIP stations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1026

11.3.10 Indications concerning the surface

constitution of machines and
apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1028

Conversion of legally defined and

commonly used measurement units . . . . .1031
List of Advertisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1034
Reference to diagrams and documents
used
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1035
Literature references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1039

11.3.9 Indications for the chemical

warehouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1027

Index of technical terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1047