Novel

For other uses, see Novel (disambiguation).

A novel is a long narrative, normally in prose, which describes ctional characters and events, usually in the form
of a sequential story.
While Ian Watt in The Rise of the Novel (1957) suggests
that the novel came into being in the early 18th century,
the genre has also been described as possessing a continuous and comprehensive history of about two thousand
years,[1] with historical roots in Classical Greece and
Rome, medieval, early modern romance, and in the tradition of the novella. The latter, an Italian word used to describe short stories, supplied the present generic English
term in the 18th century. Miguel de Cervantes, author
of Don Quixote, is frequently cited as the rst signicant
European novelist of the modern era; the rst part of Don
Quixote was published in 1605.[2]
While a more precise denition of the genre is dicult,
the main elements that critics discuss are: how the narrative, and especially the plot, is constructed; the themes,
settings, and characterization; how language is used; and
the way that plot, character, and setting relate to reality.
The romance is a related long prose narrative. Walter
Scott dened it as a ctitious narrative in prose or
verse; the interest of which turns upon marvellous
and uncommon incidents, whereas in the novel the
events are accommodated to the ordinary train of human events and the modern state of society.[3] However,
many romances, including the historical romances of
Scott,[4] Emily Bront's Wuthering Heights[5] and Herman
Melville's Moby-Dick,[6] are also frequently called novels,
and Scott describes romance as a kindred term. Romance, as dened here, should not be confused with the
genre ction love romance or romance novel. Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and
novel: a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo.[7]

Madame de Pompadour spending her afternoon with a

book, 1756 religious and scientic reading has a dierent
iconography.

news, or short story of something new, itself from

the Latin novella, a singular noun use of the neuter plural
of novellus, diminutive of novus, meaning new.[note 1]
Most European languages have preserved the term romance (as in French, Dutch, Russian, Serbo-Croatian,
Romanian, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian roman";
German Roman"; Portuguese romance and Italian romanzo) for extended narratives.

1.1 A ctional narrative

Dening the genre

Fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing

novels from historiography. However this can be a problematic criterion. Throughout the early modern period
authors of historical narratives would often include inventions rooted in traditional beliefs in order to embellish a
passage of text or add credibility to an opinion. Historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic
purposes. Novels can, on the other hand, depict the social, political and personal realities of a place and period
with clarity and detail not found in works of history.

A novel is a long, ctional narrative which describes intimate human experiences. The novel in the modern era
usually makes use of a literary prose style, and the development of the prose novel at this time was encouraged
by innovations in printing, and the introduction of cheap
paper, in the 15th century.
The present English (and Spanish) word for a long work
of prose ction derives from the Italian novella for new,
1

However, up until the 1750s historians were the main

critics of the novel and they emphasised its lack of veracity and therefore serious worth, and criticised it for
being merely entertainment. Then in the second half of
the 18th-century criticism evolved and with Romanticism
came the idea that works of ction could be art.

1.2

Literary prose

DEFINING THE GENRE

1.3 Media: paper and print

The development of printing technology, along with the
availability of paper, changed the situation for prose ction. Paper allowed the production of cheap books that
would not necessarily be read twice, and which could
be bought exclusively for private diversion. The new
medium produced the modern novel in Europe in the
course of the 15th and 16th centuries. The formats
duodecimo and octavo, or small quarto in the case of
chapbooks, immediately created books which could be
read privately at home, or in public, without the support
of a table. To read novels in coee houses, or on journeys, became part of early modern reading culture.[11]

While prose rather than verse became the standard of

the modern novel, the ancestors of the modern Eu- 1.4
ropean novel include verse epics in the Romance language of southern France, especially those by Chrtien
de Troyes (late 12th century), and in Middle English
(Georey Chaucer's (c. 1343 1400) The Canterbury
Tales).[8] Even in the 19th century, ctional narratives in
verse, such as Lord Byron's Don Juan (1824), Alexander
Pushkin's Yevgeniy Onegin (1833), and Elizabeth Barrett
Browning's Aurora Leigh (1856), competed with prose
novels. Vikram Seth's The Golden Gate (1986), composed of 590 Onegin stanzas, is a more recent example
of the verse novel.[9]

Content: intimate experience

However, in the 15th century, following the invention of

printing, prose began to dominate European ction. This
immediately led to the development of a special elevated
prose style modelled on Greek and Roman histories, and
the traditions of verse narrative. The development of a
distinct ctional language was crucial for the genre that
aimed at creating works that readers would actually identify, and appreciate, as ction rather than history.
At the beginning of the 16th century, printing had created
a special demand for books that were neither simply published for the nonacademic audience nor explicitly scientic literature, but belles-lettres. This included modern
history and science in the vernacular, personal memoirs,
contemporary political scandal, ction and poetry. However, prose ction was soon far more popular than verse,
rhetoric and science. Fictional prose, though aiming for
stylistic elegance, was closer to everyday language, to personal letters, to the art of gallant conversation, and to
the personal memoir and travelogue. Pierre Daniel Huet
summarised the stylistic ambition of ctional prose accordingly in 1670: It must be composd with Art and
Elegance, lest it should appear to be a rude undigested
Mass, without Order or Beauty.[10]

Gerard ter Borch, young man reading a book c. 1680, the format
is that of a French period novel.

Both in 12th-century Japan and 15th-century Europe,

prose ction created intimate reading situations. On the
other hand, verse epics, including the Odyssey and Aeneid,
had been recited to a select audiences, though this was a
more intimate experience than the performance of plays
in theaters. The late medieval commercial manuscript
production created a market of private books, but it still
required the customer to contact the professional copyist
By the 18th century, however, English authors began to with the book a person wanted to have copied, a situation
criticize the French ideals of belles lettres elegance, and a that restricted the development of a more private reading
less aristocratic prose style became the ideal for them in experience. The invention of the printing press, in the
the 1740s. When, in the 1760s, it became the norm for 15th century, however, totally altered the situation.
the author to open his or her novel with a statement of the A new world of Individualistic fashion, personal views,
works ctionality, the prose became even more informal. intimate feelings, secret anxieties, conduct and gal-

3
lantry spread with novels and the associated proseromance. Love also became a major subject for novels. Pierre Huet, in an early denition of the novel, or
romance, noted: I call them Fictions, to discriminate
them from True Histories; and I add, of Love Adventures, because Love ought to be the Principal Subject of
Romance.[10] The reader is invited to personally identify
emotionally with a novels characters, whereas historians
aim ideally at objectivity.

11th-century Japan, and Elizabethan England, the European novel is often said to have begun with Don Quixote
in 1605.[13]

Early works of extended ctional prose, or novels, include works in Latin like the Satyricon by Petronius
(c. 50 AD), and The Golden Ass by Apuleius (c. 150
AD), works in Sanskrit such as the 6th or 7th-century
Daakumracarita by Dain, and in the 7th-century
Kadambari by Banabhatta, the 11th-century Japanese
Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, the 12th-century
Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (or Philosophus Autodidactus, the
1.5 Length
17th-century Latin title) by Ibn Tufail, who wrote in
Arabic, the 13th-century Theologus Autodidactus by Ibn
See also: List of longest novels
al-Nas, another Arabic novelist, and in Chinese in the
14th-century Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo
The novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose c- Guanzhong.
tion, followed by the novella, short story, and ash ction.
(1010) has been deHowever, in the 17th century critics saw the romance as Murasaki Shikibus Tale of Genji
[14][15]
scribed
as
the
worlds
rst
novel
and shows essenof epic length and the novel as its short rival. A precise
tially
all
the
qualities
for
which
Marie
de La Fayette's
denition of the dierences in length between these types
novel
La
Princesse
de
Clves
(1678)
has
been praised:
of ction, is, however, not possible.
individuality of perception, an interest in character deThe length of a novel can still be important because most velopment, and psychological observation.[16] Urbanizaliterary awards use length as a criterion in the ranking tion and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty
system.[note 2] The Booker Prize in 2007 created a seri- (960-1279 AD) China led to the evolution of oral stoous debate with its short-listing of Ian McEwan's 152- rytelling into consciously ctional novels by the Ming dypage work On Chesil Beach, with some critics stating that nasty (13681644 AD). Parallel European developments
McEwan had at best written a novella.[note 3]
did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when the
The requirement of length has been traditionally con- availability of paper allowed for similar opportunities.
nected with the notion that a novel should encompass the By contrast, Ibn Tufails Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn altotality of life.[12]
Nas Theologus Autodidactus are works of didactic phi-

Early forerunners

losophy and theology. In this sense, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan

would be considered an early example of a philosophical
novel,[17][18] while Theologus Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel.[19] Hayy ibn Yaqdhan,
with its story of a human outcast surviving on an island,
is also likely to have inuenced Daniel Defoe's Robinson
Crusoe (1719), because the work was available in an English edition in 1711.[20]

Epic poetry exhibits some similarities with the novel, and

the Western tradition of the novel reaches back into the
eld of verse epics, though again not in an unbroken tradition. The epics of Asia, such as the Sumerian Epic of
Gilgamesh (13001000 BC), and Indian epics such as the
Ramayana (400 BCE and 200 CE), and Mahabharata
(4th century BC) were as unknown in early modern Europe as was the Anglo-Saxon epic of Beowulf (c.750
1000 AD), which was rediscovered in the late 18th century and early 19th century. Other non-European works,
such as the Torah, the Koran, and the Bible, are full of stories, and thus have also had a signicant inuence on the
development of prose narratives, and therefore the novel.
Classical Greek epics like Homer's Iliad and Odyssey (9th
Paper as the essential carrier: Murasaki Shikibu writing her The or 8th century BC), and those of Ancient Rome, such as
Virgil's Aeneid (2919 BC), were re-discovered by WestTale of Genji in the early 11th century, 17th-century depiction
ern scholars in the Middle Ages. Then at the beginning
Although early forms of the novel are to be found in a of the 18th century, French prose translations brought
number of places, including classical Rome, 10th and

3 MEDIEVAL PERIOD 11001500

Homers works to a wider public, who accepted them as romances. Even today, most European languages make
forerunners of the novel. [note 4]
that clear by using the word roman roughly the way that
word novel, which claims roots in the
[note 5]
Classical Greek and Roman prose narratives
in- English uses the
[21]
Yet, epic length or the focus on a cenItalian
novella.
cluded a didactic strand, with the philosopher Plato's
tral
hero
giving
the
work its name (as in Robinson Crusoe
(c.425-c.348 BC) dialogues; a satirical dimension with
or
Oliver
Twist)
are
features derived from the tradition of
Petronius' Satyricon; the incredible stories of Lucian of
romances.
The
early
modern novel had preferred titles
Samosata; and Lucius Apuleius' proto-picaresque The
that
focused
on
curious
examples of modern life, not on
Golden Ass, as well as the heroic romances of the Greeks
heroes.
Heliodorus and Longus. Longus is the author of the
famous Greek novel, Daphnis and Chloe (2nd century The word roman or romance had become a stable generic
A.D.).
term by the beginning of the 13th century, as in the
Roman de la Rose (c. 1230), famous today in English
through Georey Chaucer's late-14th-century translation.
The term linked ctions back to the histories that had
3 Medieval period 11001500
appeared in the Romance language of 11th- and 12thcentury southern France. The central subject matter
3.1 Romances
was initially derived from Roman and Greek historians.
Works of the Chanson de geste tradition revived the memMain article: Chivalric romance
ory of ancient Thebes, Dido and Aeneas, and Alexander
The European tradition of the novel as the genre of ex- the Great. German and Dutch adaptations of the famous
histories appeared in the late 12th century and early 13th
century.[22] Chaucers Troilus and Criseyde (138087) is
a late example of this European fashion.
The subject matter which was to become the central
theme of the genre in the 16th and 17th centuries was
initially a branch of a broader genre. Arthurian histories became a fashion in the late 12th century, thanks to
their ability to glorify the northern European feudal system as an independent cultural achievement. The works
of Chrtien de Troyes set an example, in that his plot construction subjected the northern European epic traditions
to ancient Greek aesthetics. The typical Arthurian romance would focus on a single hero and lead him into a
double course of episodes[note 6] in which he would prove
both his prowess as an independent knight and his readiness to function as a perfect courtier under King Arthur.
The model invited religious redenitions with the quest
and the adventure as basic plot elements: the quest was
a mission the knight would accept as his personal task
and problem. Adventures (from Latin advenire coming towards you) were tests sent by God to the knight
on the journey, whose course he (the knight) would no
longer try to control. The plot framework survived into
the world of modern Hollywood movies which still unite,
separate and reunite lovers in the course of adventures
designed to prove their love and value. Variations kept
the genre alive: unexpected and peculiar adventures surprised the audience in romances like Sir Gawain and the
Green Knight (c. 1380). Satirical parodies of knight errantry (and contemporary politics) appeared with works
such as Heinrich Wittenwiler's Ring (c. 1410).
The shift from verse to prose dates from the early 13th
century. The Prose Lancelot or Vulgate Cycle includes
passages of that period. The collection indirectly lead to
Chaucer reciting Troilus and Criseyde: early-15th-century
Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur compilation of the
manuscript of the work at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
early 1470s.
tended prose ction is rooted in the tradition of medieval

5
Certain factors made prose increasingly attractive: it
linked the popular plots to the eld of serious histories
traditionally composed in prose (compilations such as
Malorys Le Morte d'Arthur claimed to collect historical sources for the sole purpose of instruction and national edication).[23] Prose had an additional advantage
for translation, because verse could only be translated by
skilled poets.

cles. The standard scheme of stories the author claimed

to have heard in a round of narrators promised variety of
subject matter and it led to clashes of genres. Short romances appeared within the frame tales side by side with
stories of the rival lower genres such as the fabliaux.[note 8]
Individual story tellers would openly defend their tastes in
a debate that grew into a metactional consideration.

The cycles themselves showed advantages over the production of rival extended epic-length romances. Romances presupposed a consensus in questions of style and
heroism. The cycles shifted the problem of how ctions
were to be justied onto the level of the individual storytellers: onto a level the author, Chaucer or Boccaccio,
would see as out of his control.[25] The narrators had, so
Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales[26] oered these stories
to make certain points in a lively conversation he had only
chronicled. They attacked each other if they felt the stories of their opponents had missed their points. A competition among the genres developed. If one believes the
medieval collections, diering tastes of people with different social statuses were decisive; the dierent professions fought a battle over precedent with satirical plots
designed to ridicule individuals of the opposing trades. A
3.2 The novella
cycle bound rival stories together and it oered the easiest way to keep a critical distance. The pluralistic disMain article: Novella
course created here eventually developed into the 17thThe term novel refers back to the production of short and 18th-century debate of ction and its genres.
Prose became the medium of the urban commercial book
market in the 15th century. Monasteries sold edifying collections of saints and virgins lives composed in
prose. The customers were mostly women (the interiors of many of the 14th- and 15th-century paintings of
the Annunciation show how far books had spread into
the urban households that painters usually depicted as the
Blessed Virgins bourgeois environment.[24] ) Prose became in this environment the medium of silent and private reading. It spread with the commercial book market
that began to provide such reading materials even before
the arrival of the rst commercial printed histories in the
1470s.[note 7]

Much of this original conception of the genre is still alive

whenever a short joke is told to make a certain humorous
point in everyday conversation. The longer exploits left
the sphere of oral traditions with the arrival of the printing
press. The book eventually replaced the story teller and
introduced the preface and the dedication as the paratexts
in which the authors would continue the metactional debate over the advantages of genres and the reasons why
one published and read ctional stories.

4 Renaissance period: 1500-1700

The Pilgrims diverting each other with tales; woodcut from Caxtons 1486 edition of Canterbury Tales.

The modern distinction between history and ction did

not exist at this time and the grossest improbabilities pervade many historical accounts found in the early modern
print market. William Caxton's 1485 edition of Thomas
Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur (1471) was sold as a true history, though the story unfolded in a series of magical incidents and historical improbabilities. Sir John Mandeville's Voyages, written in the 14th century, but circulated
in printed editions throughout the 18th century,[27] was
lled with natural wonders, which were accepted as fact,
like the one-footed Ethiopians who use their extremity as
an umbrella against the desert sun. Both works eventually
came to be viewed as works of ction.

stories that remained part of a European oral culture of

storytelling into the late 19th century. Fairy tales, jokes,
little funny stories designed to make a point in a conversation, the exemplum a priest would insert in a sermon
belong into this tradition. Written collections of such stories circulated in a wide range of products from practical
compilations of examples designed for the use of clerics
to such poetic cycles as Boccaccio's Decameron (1354)
and Georey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (13861400). In the 16th and 17th centuries two factors led to the sepaThe early modern genre conict between novels and ration of history and ction. The invention of printing imromances can be traced back to the 14th-century cy- mediately created a new market of comparatively cheap

RENAISSANCE PERIOD: 1500-1700

Deteriorated design: early-18th-century chapbook edition of The

Honour of Chivalry, rst published in 1598.

1474: The customer in the copyists shop with a book he wants

to have copied. This illustration of the rst printed German
Melusine looked back to the market of manuscripts.

Literacy spread among the urban populations of Europe due to a number of factors:[29] Women of wealthier
households had learned to read in the 14th and 15th centuries and had become consumers of works of religious
devotion; secondly the Protestant Reformation enkindled
propaganda and press wars that lasted into the 18th century; nally Broadsheets and newspapers became the new
media of public information.

Paralleling this expansion in reading, writing skills spread

among apprentices and women of the middle classes.
Business owners were forced to adopt methods of writentertainment and knowledge in the form of chapbooks.
ten book-keeping and accounting. The personal letter
The more elegant production of this genre by 17th- and
became a favourite medium of communication among
18th-century authors were belles lettres; that is a market
better-o 17th-century men and women.
that would be neither low nor academic. The second major development was the rst best-seller of modern c- Cheap printed histories were, in the 17th and 18th cention, the Spanish Amadis de Gaula, by Garca Montalvo. turies, especially popular among apprentices and younger
However, it was not accepted as an example of belles let- urban readers of both sexes.[30] Norris and Bettesworths
tres. The Amadis eventually became the archetypical ro- 1719 edition of The Seven Famous Champions of Chrismance, in contrast with the modern novel which began to tendom ended with a look at the entire spectrum of books
the publishers would provide in their shops on London
be developed in the 17th century.
Bridge:

4.1

Chapbooks

Main article: Chapbook

The invention of printing led to the commercialization of
histories, whether allegedly true or works of ction. Romances had circulated, prior to this time, in lavishly ornamented manuscripts to be read to an audience. The invention of the printed book created a comparatively inexpensive alternative for the special purpose of silent reading. The principal historical subject matter of chapbooks
was abridgements of ancient historians, popular medieval
histories of knights, stories of comical heroes, religious
legends, and collections of jests and fables.[28] The new
printed books reached the households of urban citizens
and country merchants who visited the cities as traders.

At the afore-mentioned Place, all Country

Chapmen may be furnished with all Sorts of
Bibles, Commonprayers, Testaments, Psalters,
Primers and Horn-books; Likewise all Sorts
of three Sheets Histories, Penny Histories, and
Sermons; and Choice of new and old Ballads,
at reasonable Rates.[31]
This new market for books was disregarded by scholars.
The texts were oered with promises of great erudition
to an audience that did not know the dierence between
erudition and the misleading advertisement. The subject
matter was extremely conservative, and the bestsellers of
this marketbooks such as Till Eulenspiegel, The Seven
Wise Masters, Don Belianis of Greece, Dr. Faustus, The
London Prentice, and Sir John Mandeville's Voyages

4.2

Romances

7
the popular and belles lettres markets in the course of the
17th and 18th centuries: low chapbooks included abridgments of books such as Miguel Cervantes' Don Quixote
(1605/1615)[note 9] and a mutilated editions of Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719), which infuriated the author
with their claim to oer the entire plot without the tedious
reections for but half the price.[note 10]
The cheap abridgments openly addressed an audience that
did not have the money to buy books with engravings and
ne print. The prefaces of the abridgements promised
shorter sentences, more action and less reection, at half
the cost.[note 11] The gradual dierentiation between fact
and ction that aected the market of the belles lettres in
the 17th and 18th centuries barely touched this chapbook
market.

4.2 Romances
4.2.1 Heroic romances

Franois Rabelais Gargantua (1537).

went through innumerable editions between 1500 and

1800. People bought these books because everyone had
heard of them.
The design of these chapbooks deteriorated and texts
were copied with little editing. Standard woodcut illustrations were repeated, often even within a single book,
wherever the plot allowed such repetition. The illustrations began to show peculiar style mixes as the printers
stocks grew: early-18th-century editions of 16th-century
titles would mix woodcuts of 16th-century knights in
armor with equally crude depictions of 18th-century
courtiers wearing wigs.
The early modern market, from the 1530s and 1540s,
divided into low chapbooks and high market expensive, fashionable, elegant belles lettres. The Amadis and
Rabelais' Gargantua and Pantagruel were important publications with respect to this divide. Both books specifically addressed the new customers of popular histories,
rather than readers of belles lettres. The Amadis was a
multivolume ctional history of style, that aroused a debate about style and elegance as it became the rst bestseller of popular ction. On the other hand, Gargantua
and Pantagruel, while it adopted the form of modern popular history, in fact satirized that genres stylistic achievements. The division, between low and high literature, became especially visible with books that appeared on both

The Amadis, Spanish edition of 1533

By the 1550s there existed a section of literature (scientic books) addressing the academic audience and a second market of books for the wider audience. The popular
second market developed its own dierentiation of class
and style. While the lowest strata of chapbooks created an
extremely conservative market, its antagonist, the elegant
"belles lettres", showed a particular design aiming at educated readers of both sexes, though not necessarily at aca-

8
demics. The very term belles lettres spoke of the ambition to leave the eld of low books and to reach the realm
of the sciences, literature, les lettres. Polite literature, galante Wissenschaften (that is sciences addressing
both sexes and all readers of taste) were the English and
German terminological equivalents. The use of French
loan words (belles lettres) marked the international aspect
of the development. The new market segment comprised
poetry, memoirs, modern politics, books of fashion, journals, and the like. Autobiographical memoirs, personal
journals and prose ction set the trend in the modern eld
as the genres that authors could most freely use for experiments of style and personal expression.

RENAISSANCE PERIOD: 1500-1700

By 1600 the Amadis had become the detested epitome

of the modern romance. A search for alternative subject
matters had begun. The biographies of Greek and Roman historians became the most important source here.
Heliodorus' romances were to be followed in matters
of style and composition,[note 12] while the heroes turned
from knights to princes and princesses acting now in ancient courts. The standard plot of adventures gave way
to a new plot of love facing intrigues, attacks, rivalry and
adversity. A new art of character observation unfolded.
The works that gained the greatest fameHonor
d'Urf's L'Astre (160727), John Barclay's Argenis
(162526), Madeleine de Scudry's Clelie, and Anton
Ulrich von Braunschweig's Rmischer Octavia (Octavia
the Roman, 16791714)were esteemed both as explorations of the ancient world and as works one would read
with an interest in modern life. They present contemporary events set in ancient times and are examples of
roman clef (readers would decipher with the aid of a key
who was who within this ctional world). The contemporary fashions of courtly conduct could be found nowhere
in such perfection as in these seemingly historical romances, and readers used them as models for their own elegant compliments, letters, and speeches. The genre had
much in common with the production of French and Italian operas of the same period. It created a special brand
of escapist Asian Romances set in the ancient empires
of Assyria, Persia, and India. These novels were particularly fashionable among urban female French and German readers of the younger generation, who would dream
of sharing the lives and adversities of exotic princesses.
The individual European markets reacted dierently on
these fashions. The fashion had a particularly short life
in England where it began in the 1650s only to end in the
1670s, as these romantic plots fell out of fashion.
4.2.2 Satirical romances

Madeleine de Scudry, Artamene (1654)

The evolution of prose ction needed the elegant market, a market of changing styles and fashions, and it
found its central critical debate with the publication of
the Amadis de Gaula in the 1530s. Two questions moved
into the centre of the debate as Spanish, French and
German translations and imitations ooded the European
market.[32] The rst was a question of style and fashion: the Amadis had moved back into the Arthurian Middle Ages, into a world of quests, knights and adventures, though it had turned its princes and princesses into
paragons of style and elegance. Was this what one had
to expect of modern prose ction? The second problem
was connected with the unprecedented public reaction:
the Amadis became the object of a widespread reading Richard Head, The English Rogue (1665)
craze. Could a market of style and distinguished taste alStories of witty cheats were an integral part of the Eurolow such a development?

4.3

Dubious and scandalous histories

pean novella with its tradition of fabliaux. Several collections knitted such stories to individual heroes who developed personal and national features. Germanys Till Eulenspiegel (1510) was the hero of chapbooks in and outside Germany. The Spanish Lazarillo de Tormes (1554)
represented a transition from a collection of episodes towards the story of the life of a central character, the hero
of the work. Grimmelshausen's Simplicissimus Teutsch
(16661668) took a further step along this path, as its
hero experienced recent world history, in this case the
history of the Thirty Years War that had devastated
Germany. Richard Head's The English Rogue (1665) is
rooted in this tradition (the English preface mentions the
precedents; the German translation that appeared in 1672
sold the book as an English equivalent of the German Simplicissimus). The tradition that developed with these titles
focused on a hero and his life. The adventures led to satirical encounters with the real world with the hero either
becoming the pitiable victim or the rogue who exploited
the vices of those he met.
A second tradition of satirical romances can be traced
back to Heinrich Wittenwiler's Ring (c. 1410) and to
Franois Rabelais' Gargantua and Pantagruel (1532
1564). It was rather designed to parody and satirize
heroic romances, and did this mostly by dragging them
into the low realm of the burlesque. Cervantes Don
Quixote (1606/1615) modied the satire of romances: its
hero lost contact with reality by reading too many romances in the Amadisian tradition.
Both branches of satirical production seem to have addressed a predominantly male audience (women are despicable victims in works such as Heads The English
Rogue). They found the appreciation of critics as long
as they revealed the weaknesses of the Amadis. The critics otherwise deplored that the satires could not oer alternatives. Other important works of the tradition are
Paul Scarron's Roman Comique (165157) with its explicit discussions of the market of ctions, the anonymous French Rozelli with its satire on Europes religions, Alain-Ren Lesage's Gil Blas (17151735), Henry
Fielding's Joseph Andrews (1742) and Tom Jones (1749),
and Denis Diderot's Jacques the Fatalist (1773, printed
posthumously in 1796).[33]

1719 newspaper reprint of Robinson Crusoe

icized by historians since the end of the Middle Ages:

ctions were lies and therefore hardly justiable at all.
The climate had, however, changed in the 1670s. Paradoxically, the same historians who pleaded for a new
era of academic research also pleaded for ction to stay
within the eld of histories. The authors who advocated
Pyrrhonism, scepticism as a historical discipline, did not
demand that ctions change. Instead, they demanded that
historians should step from the old project of historical
narratives to a new project of critical analysis and dis4.3 Dubious and scandalous histories
cussion of sources.[34] Pierre Bayle exemplied this with
all the articles of his Dictionnaire Historique et Critique
The entire market of early modern ction remained part (1697) and with his statements on the legitimacy of cof the wider production of (potentially dubious) histories. tions, especially those of the modern political market.[35]
A market of literature in the modern sense of the word, a The new novels, romances, and dubious histories, the
separate market for ction and poetry, did not exist, be- quasihistorical works of Madame d'Aulnoy, Csar
cause all books were sold under the rubric of History and Vichard de Saint-Ral,[36] Gatien de Courtilz de Sanpoliticks in the early 18th century: pamphlets, memoirs, dras,[37] and Anne-Marguerite Petit du Noyer, were, actravel literature, political analysis, serious histories, ro- cording to the modern advocates of the free press, not
mances, poetry, and novels.
only embedded in the eld of veritable critical histories:
That ctional histories could share the same space with they had an important function to fulll in that eld. In a
academic histories and modern journalism had been crit- time when factuality was not a sucient defence against

10

a libel suit, the romantic layout allowed the publication of

histories that could not risk an unambiguous assertion of
their truth. The question was not whether one should separate the markets of true and ctional histories from each
other, but whether one would be able to establish critical
discourses to evaluate all the interesting production.
The literary market-place of the late 17th and early 18th
century employed a simple pattern of options of how ctions could both be part of the historical production and
reach out into the sphere of true histories. They allowed
its authors to claim they had published ction, not truth,
if they ever faced outright allegations of libel.

RENAISSANCE PERIOD: 1500-1700

ment of it, as well as the Diversion, as to the Instruction of the Reader, will be the same;[note 13]
and as such he thinks, without farther Compliment to the World, he does them a great Service
in the Publication.[40]
Delarivier Manley, under interrogation after the publication of her scandalous Atalantis (1709), replied that she
had written a work of sheer romance, a fairy tale located
on the famous ctional island. If the ruling Whigs wanted
to prove that all her stories matched a scandalous truth of
their own actions, they might venture a libel case. The
author was released and continued her insinuations with
three more volumes of proclaimed romance published
during the next two years.[41]
While journalists continued to defend the dubious production (relying on the enlightened audiences ability to
read with the necessary grain of skepticism if not with
amusement), the defenders of public morals demanded
an entirely new organization of the market, one that isolated ction. This was the market the 18th century was
to establish.

Romances of adventures: the title pages of both the English edition of Franois Fnelon's Telemachus (London: E. Curll, 1715)
and Defoes Robinson Crusoe (London: W. Taylor, 1719).

Prefaces and title pages of 17th and early 18th-century

ction acknowledged this pattern: histories could claim
to be romances, but threaten to relate true events, as
in the Roman clef. Other works could, conversely,
claim to be factual histories, yet earn the suspicion that
they were wholly invented. A further dierentiation was
made between private and public history: Daniel Defoe's
Robinson Crusoe was, within this pattern, neither a romance nor a novel. It smelledwith its title page
alluding to Fnelons Telemachus (1699/1700)of romance, yet the preface stated that it should most certainly
be read a true private history:
IF ever the Story of any private Mans
Adventures in the World were worth making
Pvblick, and were acceptable when Publish'd,
the Editor of this Account thinks this will be so.
The Wonders of this Mans Life exceed all that
(he thinks) is to be found extant; the Life of one
Man being scarce capable of a greater Variety.
The Story is told with Modesty, with Seriousness, and with a religious Application of
Events to the Uses to which wise Men always
ap[p]ly them (viz.) to the Instruction of others
by this Example, and to justify and honor the
Wisdom of Providence in all the Variety of our
Circumstances, let them happen how they will.
The Editor[38] believes the thing to be a just
History of Fact; neither is there any Appearance
of Fiction in it: And however thinks, because all
such things are dispatch'd,[39] that the Improve-

4.4 Cervantes and the rise of the novel in

the 17th century
The term novel was rst used by William Painter for his
Palace of Pleasure well furnished with pleasaunt Histories and excellent Novelles (1566). Compared with romances"; novelles, novellas or novels (novel became the standard term in the 1650s) had to be short.
The novel also had to give up all aspirations on grandeur,
heroism and the style romantic heroes and their actions
required. Romances focused on lonely heroes and their
adventures, and novels on incidents that could serve as
examples for moral maxims. The titles of romances incorporated the names of their respective heroes and heroines: Artamene, Clelie were the heroes of heroic romances. Satirical romances did the same with their
lower class protagonists. The additional Adventures of
would later emphasize the focus on acts of heroism. In
contrast the titles of novels preferred a two-part formula
and William Congreve's Incognita or Love and Duty Reconcil'd (1692) was typical of this. The protagonists of
novels were actors in a plot, and it was the plot that gave
the example and taught the vital lessons. These protagonists could be average human beings without any special signs of grandeur, and not comical, but of the same
nature as their readers.[42] Unlike romances, the protagonists were not role models though through their actions
still taught lessons.
The rise of the novel as the major alternative to the romance began with the publication of Cervantes Novelas
Exemplares (1613). It continued with Scarron's Roman
Comique (the rst part of which appeared in 1651), whose
heroes noted a rivalry of French romances and the new
Spanish genre.[43]

4.4

Cervantes and the rise of the novel in the 17th century

11

Miguel de Cervantes, Novelas Exemplares (1613)

Late 17th-century critics looked back on the history of

prose ction, proud of the generic shift that had taken
place, leading towards the modern novel/novella.[44] A
wave of petites histoires or nouvelles historiques[45]
had replaced the old romances. The rst perfect works
in French were those of Scarron and Madame de La
Fayette's Spanish history Zayde (1670). The development nally led to her Princesse de Clves (1678), the rst
novel with what would become characteristic French subject matter.
Europe witnessed the generic shift in the titles of works
in French published in Holland, which supplied the international market. English publishers exploited the
novel/romance controversy in the 1670s and 1680s.[46]
The word novel began to replace the word romance on
title pages in the 1680s. Contemporary critics listed the
advantages of the new genre: brevity, a lack of ambition
to produce epic poetry in prose; the style was fresh and
plain; the focus was on modern life, and on heroes who
were neither good nor bad. A reader learned through their
actions, not by imitating them.[47] The novels potential to
become the medium of urban gossip and scandal fuelled
the rise of the novel/novella. The authors of modern journalistic gossip spiced their works with short anonymous

William Congreve, Incognita (1692)

histories. The stories were oered as allegedly true recent histories, not for the sake of scandal but strictly for
the moral lessons they gave. To prove this, ctionalized
names were used with the true names in a separate key.
The Mercure Gallant set the fashion in the 1670s.[48] Collections of letters and memoirs appeared, and were lled
with the intriguing new subject matter and the epistolary
novel grew from this and led to the rst full blown example of scandalous ction in Aphra Behn's Love-Letters
Between a Nobleman and His Sister (1684/ 1685/ 1687).
Before the rise of the literary novel, reading novels had
only been a form of entertainment.[49]
However, one of the earliest English novels, Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719), has elements of the romance, unlike these novels, thanks to its exotic setting and
to its heros story of survival in isolation. Crusoe lacks almost all of the elements found in these new novels: wit, a
fast narration evolving around a group of young fashionable urban heroes, along with their intrigues, a scandalous
moral, gallant talk to be imitated, and a brief, conciseness
plot. The new developments did, however, lead to Eliza

12

5 THE RISE OF THE NOVEL IN ENGLAND: 1700-1770

Haywood's epic length novel, Love in Excess (1719/20)

and to Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded
(1741), with the typical twopart title of a novel, which
names the heroine and promises its value as an example.
Some literary historians date the beginning of the English
novel with Richardsons Pamela, rather than Crusoe [50]

a distorted picture as it equates the sales and inuence of

theological and political pamphlets with editions of books
printed to sell over several years. Statistics of the French
and German markets have their own distortions: French
numbers are comparatively higher because Dutch publishers printed (or reprinted) French books for the international market. French was Europes lingua franca and
the language of international politics and fashions. Germanys book trade was large but divided between Protes5 The rise of the novel in England: tant and Catholic states. The former had arranged for a
wider exchange at Leipzigs fairs. The academic produc1700-1770
tion in Latin was comparatively large on the continent due
to the importance continental universities had gained as
The idea of the rise of the novel in the 18th century providers of careers.
is especially associated with Ian Watt's important study
The Rise of the Novel (1957).[note 16] Ian Watt puts for- Literature, as dened now, was of marginal signicance in
ward the idea that novel was a new form and associates Europe until the end of the 18th century. In the Western
this with the importance placed on realism by novelists markets some 2% to 5% of the total production fell into
such as Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, and Henry the categories of poetry and dubious or elegant historical
Fielding.[51] This theory about the novel in the 18th cen- works that were later united under the new heading of
tury led to the suggestion that the earlier Romance forms literature. In English, ctional output remained here
of long prose narrative were either not novels or were at 20 to 60 titles per year in the beginning of the 18th
at least inferior.[52] However, others including Margaret century, depending on how one accounts for the wider
French, German and Dutch statistics
Anne Doody disagree that the novel originated in the market of histories.
[57]
are
comparable.
The eastern and southern European
18th century, arguing that the history of the novel is
neighbors
largely
subscribed
to the international market.
over two thousands years old, and that in addition the
romance tradition continued through the 18th and 19th The Western European output of literature in the modcenturies and still ourishes today.[53] The idea of the ern sense rose signicantly in the course of the 18th cenrise of the novel in the 18th century is especially asso- tury; the growth rates stabilised in the 1740s. A change
ciated with English literary criticism,[53] and most other in the public appreciation supported that growth and was
European languages use the same word for an extended reected by the growing media coverage of new works.
narratives: roman in French, Dutch, Russian, CroatThe popularity of novels was a public issue in England
ian, Slovenian, Romanian, Danish, Swedish and Norweduring the 18th century. In the media outlets of the times,
gian; German Roman"; Portuguese romance and Italmuch was written about the novels, the people who wrote
ian romanzo.[7] Novelist and critic Albert J. Guerard
them, and the readers, and often painted them in a negaargues, in The Triumph of the Novel (1976), on behalf
tive light. It was believed that novels would have adverse
of the anti-realist other great tradition of the novel that
eects on those who read them. Mainly the concern was
includes Rabelais, Cervantes, Pynchon, Borges, Garca
directed towards women because they were considered
Mrquez, the "Joyce of Finnegans Wake and the Nabakov
to be more susceptible to the messages being conveyed in
of Ada", and sees Ian Watts The Rise of the Novel as conthe novels. The romantic ideals in novels were thought to
tributing to a confusion between ction and real life,
be particularly detrimental to women causing them to eiby its insistence on 'formal realism' as implicit in the
ther think or act dierently. Although there was a public
novel form in general.[54] Guerard suggests that Watts
outcry, society was not greatly changed because of novels
book is most useful for a study of the eighteenth-century
and their popularity did not decrease.[58]
novel, but that it should not be applied to the genre as a
whole.[55]
Given these dierences in opinion, what happened in the
18th century can best be described, not as the rise of the
novel, but the rise of realism in ction. Indeed, this is
what Ian Watt sees as distinguishing the novel from earlier
prose narratives.[56]
There are several theories for the growth in the importance of realism in the history of the novel. One is the
growth in the number of novels published. English readers of the late 17th and early 18th century were oered
a total of some 2,000 to 3,000 titles per year. The numbers had risen dramatically after the abolition of the Star
Chamber in 1641. The simple title count gives, however,

5.1 Changing cultural status

By around 1700, ction was no longer a predominantly
aristocratic entertainment. The Provenal 12th-century
romances and their imitators had already attracted urban
connoisseurs who had had the nancial means to commission bigger manuscripts in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Printed books had soon gained the power to reach readers of almost all classes, though the reading habits differed and to follow fashions remained a privilege. Spain
was a trendsetter into the 1630s but French authors superseded Cervantes, de Quevedo, and Alemn in the 1640s.

5.2

Realism and art

As Huet was to note in 1670, the change was one of

manners.[note 17] The new French works taught a new, on
the surface freer, gallant exchange between the sexes as
the essence of life at the French court. Aristocratic and
bourgeois customers sought distinctly French authors to
oer the authentic style of conversations in the 1660s.
The situation changed again from 1660s into the 1690s:
the French market split. Dutch publishers[59] began
to sell works by French authors, published out of the
reach of French censors. The publishing houses of The
Hague and Amsterdam also pirated the entire Parisian
production of fashionable books and thus created a new
market of political and scandalous ction and European fashions. tienne Roger in Amsterdam published
Rennevilles L'inquisition Franoise (1715), which was
also available in the year of its publication, in English
and German. Books of the period boasted of their fame
on the international market and of the existence of intermediate translations: Written originally in Italian and
translated from the third edition of the French is found
on title page of Manleys New Atalantis in 1709. A market of European rather than French fashions had arrived
in the early 18th century.[60]

13
publications and generated new productions of local importance. Women authors reported on politics and on
their private love aairs in The Hague and in London.
German students imitated them and used the relative
anonymity they enjoyed in far smaller towns like Jena,
Halle and Leipzig, to boast of their private amours in
ction.[61] The market of the metropolitan London, the
anonymous international market of the Netherlands, the
urban markets of Hamburg and Leipzig generated new
public spheres.[note 18] Once private individuals, such as
students in university towns and daughters of Londons
upper class began to use the novel as platform to exhibit
their questionable reputations, the public began to call for
a reformation of manners. [note 19]
The reform became the main goal of the second generation of 18th-century novelists who, by the mid-century,
openly welcomed the change of climate that had rst been
promoted in journals such as The Spectator. The Spectator
Number 10 had stated that the aim was now to enliven
morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality [] to
bring philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools
and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at teatables and coeehouses). Constructive criticism of novels had until then been rare.[note 20] The rst treatise on the
history of the novel had appeared as a preface to a novel,
Marie de La Fayettes Zayde (1670). Journals devoted to
the sciences could not easily switch to devote themselves
to belles lettres,[62] and a distinct secondary discourse developed with a wave of entertaining new journals like The
Spectator and The Tatler at the beginning of the century.
New literary journals like Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's
Briefe, die neuste Literatur betreend (1758) added to this
production in the middle of the century with the oer of
new, scientic reviews of art and ction. By the 1780s,
reviews constituted a new marketing platform for ction,
and authors and publishers recognized it as such. One
could write to satisfy the old market or one could address
the authors of secondary criticism and gain an audience
through their discussions. It would take yet another generation for the novel to arrive in the curricula of school
and university education. By the end of the 18th century,
the public perception of the place of a particular novel
was no longer supplied simply by social status and fashionable geographical provenance, but by critical media
attention.

5.2 Realism and art

The term "literary realism" is regularly applied to 19thcentury ction, and the novels of Defoe, Richardson and
Fielding, whose works were published between 1719 and
the 1750s, are regarded as precursors. Research of the
last decades has, however, contested views that it was
Intimate short stories: The Court and City Vagaries (1711).
Robinson Crusoe's realism that ended the sway of French
baroque romances.[note 21] Madeleine de Scudrys roBy the 1680s the fashionable political European produc- mances had not been completely unrealistic.[note 22] They
tion had inspired a second wave of private scandalous had left the market nonetheless in the 1670s, defeated by

14

5 THE RISE OF THE NOVEL IN ENGLAND: 1700-1770

opment of which eventually led to a change in how the
word literature was applied in the 19th century.

5.3 Novel and romance

Better than any romance Constantin de Rennevilles French

Inquisition (1715), the authors arrest.

the more realistic novels that appeared then. Delarivier

Manley's Atalantis was reviewed by a German academic journal in 1713 as work of contemporary public history.[note 23] Christian Friedrich Hunold ed Hamburg in 1706 after his Satyrischer Roman had depicted
the citys elegant urban life as a place of scandal.[63] The
French pseudo histories connected today with names such
as Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras (16441712) had become even more radical in their realism and depicted the
real world with a detail that rivalled that of historians.

The short novel supplanted the longer romance in the 1680s.

It found a second peak on title pages in the 1720s when it received
its body of classics. The labeling of ctions became only more
interesting at the end of the century.[note 26]

The rise of the word novel at the cost of its rival, the
romance, remained a Spanish and English phenomenon,
and though readers all over Western Europe had welcomed the novel(la) or short history as an alternative in
Critics have noted that Defoes Robinson Crusoe followed the second half of the 17th century, only the English
Alexander Selkirk's true account.[note 24] and that Cru- and the Spanish had, however, openly discredited the rosoes style of writing used modes of the Protestant spiri- mance.
tual autobiography.[64] However, Defoes book had other
models in the contemporary French pseudo histories.[65] But the change of taste was brief and Fnelons
Ren Auguste Constantin de Renneville's report of his Telemachus (1699/1700) already exploited a nostalgia for
imprisonment in the Bastille had appeared in English, the old romances with their heroism and professed virtue.
Jane Barker explicitly advertised her Exilius as A new
published by Defoes publisher William Taylor four years
Romance,
written after the Manner of Telemachus,
before Crusoe. Renneville had promised: Lives and
in 1715.[66] Robinson Crusoe spoke of his own story as
strange Adventures of several Prisoners, Crusoe risked
the focus on himself: The Life and Strange Surprising a romance, though in the preface to the third volume,
published in 1720, Defoe attacks all who said that [...]
Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. Robinson Crusoe was
serialized, in 171920, by The Original London Post as a the Story is feign'd, that the Names are borrow'd, and that
it is all a Romance; that there never were any such Man
possibly true history.[note 25]
or Place.
The 18th century witnessed the rise of increasingly realistic ction, and with a distinction made between ction The term novel rst peaked on the English market in the
and history. This development reduced the importance 1680s, when the novel(la) manifested itself as the alterof works of disreputable ction. Fiction became valued native to the older romance. However, the novel lost
as a defender of a higher truth, a truth beyond the at, its attractiveness with ensuing disreputable works. The
factual and historical truth of everyday experience. In 1720s saw a second peak of novels with the rst editions
the second half of the 18th century theories of aesthetics of classics of the genre and with new large-scale novels
praised the imitation of nature and the artists almost in the style of Eliza Haywood. By the mid-18th century
divine power to create worlds of a deeper signicance. it was no longer clear whether the market had not simply
The previous conict between historians and romancers developed two linked terms: romance as the generic
was thus nally resolved: ctions and true histories be- term, and novel as a term for a fashionable product that
came two distinct elds that the modern nations needed. focused on modern life.
Literary journals and literary histories became the privi- The late 18th century brought an answer with the
leged media for a new analysis of literary art, the devel- Romantic Movements readiness to reclaim the word

5.5

The reformation of manners

romance, especially with the gothic romance, but the

historical novels of Walter Scott also have a strong romance element. Robinson Crusoe became a novel in this
period appearing now as a work of the new realistic ction that the 18th century had created. [note 27] Throughout the 19th century, romances continued to be written
in Britain by writers like Emily Bront,[5] and in America
by the dark romantic novelists Nathaniel Hawthorne, and
Herman Melville.[67]

5.4

The acceptance of the novel as literature

15
tise, along with the European tradition of the modern
novel of the day: that is, novella from Machiavelli's
to Marie de La Fayette's masterpieces. Aphra Behn's
prose ctions had appeared as novels in the 1680s but
when reprinted in collections, her works became classics. Fnelon's Telemachus (1699/1700) became a classic
within three years after its publication. New authors now
entered the market ready to use their own personal names
as authors of ction. Eliza Haywood followed the footsteps of Aphra Behn when, in 1719, she used her name
with unprecedented pride.

5.5 The reformation of manners

Classics of the novel from the 16th century onwards: title page
of A Select Collection of Novels (172022).

The French churchman and scholar Pierre Daniel Huet's

Traitt de l'origine des romans (1670) laid the ground for
a greater acceptance of the novel as literature in the early
18th century. The theologian had not only dared to praise
ctions, but he had also explained techniques of theological reading, for the interpretation of ction, which was
a novelty: an individual could read novels and romances Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1741)
to gain insight into foreign and distant cultures as well as
into his or her own culture.[note 28] He noted that Christ
The production of classics allowed the novel to gain a
had used parables to teach.[68]
past, prestige and a canon. It called at the same moment
The decades around 1700 saw the appearance of for a present production of equal merits. A wave of midnew editions of Petronius, Lucian, and Heliodorus of 18th-century works that proclaimed their intent to propEmesa.[note 29] The publishers equipped them with pref- agate improved moral values gave critics modern novels
aces that referred to Huets treatise.[note 30] and the canon they could discuss publicly. Instead of banning novels,
it had established. Exotic ctions entered the market that the eorts at reformation of manners that had begun in
gave insight into the Islamic mind. Furthermore, The the 1690s now led to their reform.
Book of One Thousand and One Nights was rst published Female authors and heroines were the rst aected by
in Europe from 1704 to 1715 in French, and then trans- the development. Madame d'Aulnoy and Delarivier Manlated immediately into English and German, and was seen ley became notorious examples of a bygone age of imas a contribution to Huets history of romances.[note 31]
pudence. They had washed their dirty linen in public
New classics were added to the market and the English, and used their novels to reinvent themselves and convert
Select Collection of Novels in six volumes (172022), is a their own notoriety into fame. The new female heroines
milestone in this development. It included Huets Trea- had to show intimacy and sensitivity where their early-

16
18th-century ancestors had been ready to appear in public in order to sanitize their reputations. Intimate confessions and blushes lled the new novels, feelings of
guilt, even where suspicions were groundless (early-18thcentury heroines had defended their virtues and reputations amboyantly even where they had gone astray). The
modern heroines acted transparently, whereas their early18th-century counterparts had resorted to secret dealings in endless intrigues.[69] Madame de La Fayettes La
Princesse de Clves (1678) can be read as the rst novel
that showed the new behavior.

5 THE RISE OF THE NOVEL IN ENGLAND: 1700-1770

who had defended a better world. Other novels placed
the new transparent heroines into equally new caring environments. Their families resisted temptations to marry
them o against their wills, and men around them resisted temptations to seduce them in moments of weakness. The message was that respect and care were to meet
open-heartedness in a new age of sensibility. Other novels experimented with surprising acts of an enlightened
rationality with which their protagonists could escape
deadlock situations far worse than the one Marie de La
Fayettes Princesse had produced with her confessions.
The last volume of Antoine Franois Prvost's Memoirs
and Adventures of a Man of Quality, "Manon Lescaut"
(1731), aroused a scandal with its melodramatic turns and
its unresolved conicts.
Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded
(1740), composed to cultivate the Principles of Virtue
and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes
focused, by contrast, on the potential victim, a heroine of
all the modern virtues vulnerable through her social status
and her occupation as servant of the libertine who falls in
love with her. Eventually, she shows the power to reform
her antagonist.
Christian Frchtegott Gellert's Life of the Swedish Countess of G** (1747/48) tested the options of rationality.
The titular countess had to decide between two husbands after her rst, believed to be dead, returned from
a Siberian war captivity. Both her husbands, former
friends, had to come to terms with the rational problem
her situation presented (and did it in a startling mixture
of piety and modern philosophy).

Goethe's Werther (1774).

To become a fashion, if not the standard of modern behavior, the new personality features needed new social
environments. Marie de La Fayettes Princesse had fallen
into a desperate situation as soon as she risked the outrageous transparency to confess her feelings for another
man to her husband. Neither he nor his rival knew how
to continue once all this was clear. Mid-18th-century
novels created alternatives: protagonists acted transparently, their antagonists saw that as a weakness and exploited and ruined them quite the early-18th-century
option but now the moral balance shifted: the openhearted heroines were no longer victims one could blame
for a lack of virtue, but tragic (or melodramatic) gures

Beginnings of a secret market of pornography, illustration to vol.

1, p.50 of the 1766 Fanny Hill edition.

Male heroes adopted the new sentimental character traits

in the 1760s. Laurence Sterne's Yorick, the hero of
the Sentimental Journey (1768) did so with an enormous amount of humour. Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of
Wakeeld (1766) and Henry Mackenzie's Man of Feeling
(1771) produced the far more serious role models.
The

virtuous

production

inspired

sub-

and

5.6

Philosophical novels

17

counterculture of pornographic novels. Greek and

Latin authors in modern translations had provided elegant transgressions on the market of the belles lettres for
the last century.[70] Satirical novels like Richard Head's
English Rogue (1665) had led their heroes through
urban brothels, women authors like Aphra Behn had
oered their heroines alternative careers as precursors
of the 19th-century femmes fatales without creating
a subculture.[note 32] The market for belles lettres had
been openly transgressive as long as it did not nd
any reections in other media. The new production
beginning with works like John Cleland's Fanny Hill
(1748) diered in that it oered almost exact reversals
of the plot lines the virtuous production demanded.
Fanny Hill is introduced to a life of prostitution, learns
to enjoy her part and establishes herself as a free and
economically independent individual, in editions one Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy, vol.6, p.70-71 (1769)
could only expect to buy under the counter.[71]
Openly uncontrollable conicts arrived in the 1770s with
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's The Sorrows of Young
Werther (1774). The titular hero realised how impossible it had become for him to integrate into the new
conformist society. Pierre Choderlos de Laclos's Les
Liaisons dangereuses (1782) shows the other extreme,
with a group of aristocrats playing games of intrigue and
amorality.
The sentimental protagonists of the 1740s had already
surprised their readers and aroused a debate whether human nature was correctly depicted with these new novels. They discovered a truth of the heart one had not
dared to deal with so far. The radical and lonely characters that appeared in the 1760s and 1770s broke with
traditions and eventually needed entirely new back-stories
to become plausible. Childhoods and adolescences had
to explain why these protagonists should have developed
so dierently. The concept of character development
began to fascinate novelists in the 1760s. Jean Jacques
Rousseau's novels focused on such developments in philosophical experiments. The German Bildungsroman offered quasi-biographical explorations and autobiographical self-examinations of the individual and its personal
development by the 1790s. A subcategory of the genre
focused on the creation of an artist (if not the artist writing the novel). It led to the 19th-century production of
novels exploring how modern times form the modern individual.

5.6

Philosophical novels

The new 18th-century status of the novel as an object of

debate is particularly manifest in special development of
philosophical[note 33] and experimental novels.
Philosophical ction was not exactly new. Plato's dialogues were embedded in ctional narratives. Utopias
had added to this production with works from Thomas
More's Utopia (1516) to Tommaso Campanella's City of

the Sun (1602). Works such as these had not been read as
novels or romances but as philosophical texts. The 1740s
saw new editions of Mores work under the title that created the tradition: Utopia: or the happy republic; a philosophical romance (1743).
Voltaire utilised the romance to write philosophy with his
Micromegas: a comic romance. Being a severe satire upon
the philosophy, ignorance, and self-conceit of mankind
(1752, English 1753). His Zadig (1747) and Candide
(1759) became central texts of the French Enlightenment
and of the modern novel. Jean-Jacques Rousseau bridged
the genres with his less ctional Emile: or, On Education
(1762) and his far more romantic Julie, or the New Heloise
(1761). It made sense to publish these works as romances
or novels, works of ction, only because prose ction had
become an object of public discussion. The public reception provided by the new market of journals was both
freer and wider than the discussion in journals of philosophy would have been. It had become attractive to step
into the realm of ction in order to provide matter for the
ongoing debates.
The genres new understanding of itself resulted in the
rst metactional experiment, pressing against its limitations. Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (17591767) rejected continuous narration. It expanded the author-reader communication from the preface into the plot itself: Tristram
Shandy develops as a conversation between the narrative
voice and his audience. Besides narrative experiments,
there were visual experiments: a marbled page, a black
page to express particular sorrow, a page of little lines
to visualize the plot lines of the book one was reading.
Jonathan Swift's A Tale of a Tub (1704) is an early precursor in this elda work that employs visual elements
with similar ambitionyet hardly a text in the tradition
of the original novel or its rival the romance.

18

7 THE VICTORIAN PERIOD: 1837-1901

Romanticism: 17701837

at the same time, claimed to explore the entire realm of

ctionality. New, psychological interpreters, in the early
19th century, read these works as encounters with the
deeper hidden truth of the human imagination: this included sexuality, anxieties, and insatiable desires. Under
such psychological readings, novels were described as exploring deeper human motives, and it was suggested that
such artistic freedom would reveal what had not previously been openly visible.
The romances of de Sade, Les 120 Journes de Sodome
(1785), Poe's Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque
(1840), Mary Shelley, Frankenstein (1818), and E. T. A.
Homann, Die Elixiere des Teufels (1815), would later attract 20th-century psychoanalysts and supply the images
for 20th- and 21st-century horror lms, love romances,
fantasy novels, role-playing computer games, and the
surrealists.

Illustration of a Dutch edition of Juliette, a novel by the Marquis

de Sade, c. 1800

The very word romanticism is connected to the idea of

romance, and the romance genre experienced a revival,
at the end of the 18th century, with gothic ction. The
origin of the gothic romance is attributed to English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel The Castle
of Otranto, subtitled (in its second edition) A Gothic
Story. Other important works are Ann Radclie's The
Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) and 'Monk' Lewis's The
Monk (1795).
The new romances challenged the idea that the novel involved a realistic depictions of life, and destabilized the
dierence the critics had been trying to establish, between serious classical art and popular ction. Gothic
romances exploited the grotesque,[72] and some critics
thought that their subject matter deserved less credit
than the worst medieval tales of Arthurian knighthood,
and that if the Amadis had troubled Don Quixote with
curious fantasies, the new romantic tales were worse:
they described a nightmare world, and explored sexual
fantasies.[73]

The ancient romancers most commonly wrote ction

about the remote past with little attention to historical
reality. Walter Scott's historical novel Waverley (1814)
broke with this earlier tradition of historical romance,
and he was the inventor of the true historical novel.[74]
At the same time he was a romantic and was inuenced
by gothic romance. He had collaborated with the most
famous of the Gothic novelists 'Monk' Lewis" on Tales
of Wonder in 1801.[75] With his Waverley novels Scott
hoped to do for the Scottish border what Goethe and
other German poets had done for the Middle Ages,
and make its past live again in modern romance.[76]
Scotts novels are in the mode he himself dened as romance, 'the interest of which turns upon marvelous and
uncommon incidents".[77] He used his imagination to reevaluate history by rendering things, incidents and protagonists in the way only the novelist could do. His work
remained historical ction, yet it questioned existing historical perceptions. The use of historical research was
an important tool: Scott, the novelist, resorted to documentary sources as any historian would have done, but
as a romantic artist he gave his subject a deeper imaginative and emotional signicance.[77] By combining research with marvelous and uncommon incidents, Scott
attracted a far wider market than any historian could, and
he became the most famous novelist of his generation,
throughout Europe.[78]

7 The Victorian period: 1837-1901

During the 19th century, romances continued to be written in Britain, and major writers such as Charles Dickens[79] and Thomas Hardy [80] were inuenced by the tradition. The Bront sisters are notable mid-19th-century
creators of romance. Their works include Anne Bront's
The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Charlotte Bront's Jane Eyre
The authors of this new type of ction could be (and were) and Emily Bront's Wuthering Heights.[81] Publishing rst
accused of exploiting all available topics to thrill, arouse, at the very end of the 19th century, Joseph Conrad has
or horrify their audience. These new romantic novelists, been called, a supreme 'romancer'".[82] In America, it

19
was said, the romance has proved to be a serious, exible, and successful medium for the exploration of philosophical ideas and attitudes into the 20th century, and
notable examples are Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet
Letter, Herman Melville's Moby-Dick, F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, William Faulkner's Absalom, Absalom! and Robert Penn Warren's World Enough and
Time.[67]
European gures that were inuenced by romanticism
include Victor Hugo, with novels like The Hunchback
of Notre-Dame (1831) and Les Misrables (1862), and
Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov, whose novel A Hero of
Our Time (1840) is notable for introducing Superuous
man into the world of literature.

Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace (1868/69)

had previously been discussed mainly in the abstract.

Charles Dickens novels led his readers into contemporary
workhouses, and provided rst hand accounts of child
labour. The treatment of the subject of war changed with
Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace (1868/69), where he questions the facts provided by historians. Similarly the treatment of crime is very dierent in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's
Crime and Punishment (1866), where the point of view
is that of a criminal. Women authors had dominated
the production of ction from the 1640s into the early
18th century, but few before George Eliot so openly questioned the role, education, and status of women in society.
As the novel became the most interesting platform of
modern debate, national literatures were developed, that
link the present with the past in the form of the historical
novel. Alessandro Manzoni's I Promessi Sposi (1827) did
this for Italy, while novelists in Russia and the surroundHarriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Toms Cabin (1852)
ing Slavonic countries, as well as the Scandinavian counMost 19th-century authors hardly went beyond illustrat- tries, did likewise.
ing and supporting widespread historical views.[83] The With the new appreciation of history, the future also bemore interesting titles won fame by doing what no his- came a topic for ction. This had been done earlier
torian or journalist could do: make the reader experi- in works like Samuel Madden's Memoirs of the Twenence another life. mile Zola's novels depicted the world tieth Century (1733) and Mary Shelley's The Last Man
of the working classes, which Marx and Engels wrote (1826), a work whose plot culminated in the catasabout in a non-ctional mode. Slavery in the United trophic last days of a mankind extinguished by the plague.
States, abolitionism and racism became topics of far Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1887) and H. G.
broader public debate thanks to Harriet Beecher Stowe's Wells's The Time Machine (1895) were marked by the
Uncle Toms Cabin (1852), which dramatises topics that idea of long term technological and biological develop-

20

7 THE VICTORIAN PERIOD: 1837-1901

Lapham, depicts a man who, ironically, falls from materialistic fortune by his own mistakes.

7.2 The creation of national literatures

In the 19th-century an increasing emphasis on the idea
of national literature helped shape the future of the
novel. The nationalistic analysis of literature had begun
in Germany in the late 1720s with a look back on three
decades of international European fashions. German authors had embraced French "gallantry" as the essence of
elegance and style. However, Germany had gained nothing in the wars the European nations had supported on
behalf of the Holy Roman Empire, and the decades of
the Nine Years War (16891697), the War of the Spanish Succession (17011714), and the Great Northern War
(17001721) had eventually left the German speaking intellectual elite disenchanted. This help create interest interest in the 1720s in Johann Christoph Gottsched proposed national project to reform the entire market of German poetry. Subsequently Johann Jakob Bodmer, Johann
Jakob Breitinger, and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing adopted
Gottscheds project and created the national discourse
that nally gained national importance between 1789 and
1813, when Germany had to dene itself politically and
Illustration for Jules Verne's Vingt mille lieues sous les mers culturally as a result of the French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars.
(1870)
ments. Industrialization, Darwin's theory of evolution
and Marxs theory of class divisions shaped these works
and turned historical processes into a subject matter of
wide debate: Bellamys Looking Backward became the
second best-selling book of the 19th century after Harriet Beecher-Stowes Uncle Toms Cabin.[84][note 34] Such
works inspired a whole genre of popular science ction
as the 20th century approached.

7.1

Literary realism

Main article: Literary realism

Literary realism is the trend, beginning with mid
nineteenth-century French literature and extending to
late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century authors, toward depictions of contemporary life and society as it
was, or is. In the spirit of general "realism, realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities
and experiences, instead of a romanticized or similarly
stylized presentation. George Eliot's novel Middlemarch
stands as a great milestone in the realist tradition. It is
a primary example of nineteenth-century realisms role
in the naturalization of the burgeoning capitalist marketplace. William Dean Howells was the rst American author to bring a realist aesthetic to the literature of the
United States. His most popular novel, The Rise of Silas

Another important inuence in Germany was Georg Gottfried Gervinus' multi-volume Geschichte der poetischen
National-Literatur der Deutschen (1835-1842), which became the European model for literary history, and in
which the new literary historian spoke about the cultural
signicance of the works he analysed. Unlike Pierre
Daniel Huet's Treatise on the Origin of Romances (1670),
which had been a world history of ction, Gervinus was
solely interested in the works of the German nation,
whose history and mentality he hoped to better understand, and other nations were of interest only in so far as
they had been an intellectual threat.
At the start of the 19th century, the rst German states
implemented the new nationalistic eld of literary studies in their national school curricula. Then three decades
later the rst histories of German literature appeared with
proposals for the canon it was felt that the young nation
would need.[85] Thereafter literature began to penetrate
into German educational system, including universities,
and criticism in the public media.
The new topic was of immense interest because it focussed on the idea of a national literature,[note 35] and
threw a controversial perspectives on the nations history
and identity, and attempts to reform the publishing of
ction. The secularization of society propelled the discussion of national literature forward in both France and
Germany. Literature now oered texts of international
signicance, that could be used in schools and universities instead of religious texts.[86]

7.2

The creation of national literatures

Charles Dickens oering a public reading of his works, a symbol

of the new literary life. Harpers Weekly, December 7, 1867.

What had happened in Germany subsequently persuaded

scholars in France and Italy to write similar histories to
that of Georg Gottfried Gervinus for their own countries.
However, the English speaking world remained rather uninterested and it was Frenchman Hippolyte Taine who
eventually wrote the rst history of English literature in
1863, at rst in French, and an English version a year
later that opened with a look back at the recent history of
modern literary history:
HISTORY, within a hundred years in Germany, and within sixty years in France, has undergone a transformation owing to a study of
literatures.The discovery has been made that a
literary work is not a mere play of the imagination, the isolated caprice of an excited brain,
but a transcript of contemporary manners and
customs and the sign of a particular state of
intellect. The conclusion derived from this is
that, through literary monuments, we can retrace the way in which men felt and thought
many centuries ago. This method has been
tried and found successful. We have meditated
over these ways of feeling and thinking and
have accepted them as facts of prime signicance. We have found that they were dependent on most important events, that they explain these, and that these explain them, and
that henceforth it was necessary to give them
their place in history, and one of the highest.[87]

21

mile Zola, the political novelist in the centre of the public outrage
he unleashed (painting by Henry de Groux, 1898).

rediscovery of the past had followed, with such doubtful

discoveries as the Ossian fragments. Critics discussed the
belles lettres in fashionable English journals and the latest
theatre performances were reviewed in newspapers at the
end of the 18th century. The continental debate of about
literature therefore remained initially of little interest in
Britain.
Furthermore, Great Britain did not need new national
platforms. State politics and religion were open platforms, in Britain protected by modern press laws since
the 1690s. However, Continental Europe had opted for
a fundamental secularization of society. On the other
hand, the British constitution rested on a union of Church
and State, and the USA on a separation of Church and
State. Neither country needed to employ literary text
the way that religious texts had been used previously. In
Great Britain the criticism of plays and ctions was served
by the commercial criticism the market created. Germany, on the other hand invented a dualism of Literaturwissenschaft, literary criticism formulated by university
professors, and Literaturkritik, literary criticism to be
found in the newspapers. However, a single phrase is sufcient in English.

The new topic of a national literature was eventually adopted both in Britain and the US in the 1870
and 1880s, and the educational systems of the various
Western nations developed international standards. The
Western canon became the project of a new international competition.[note 36] The Western nations dened
themselves as Kulturnationen, exporters of a specic
Western civilization to their expanding Colonial Empires,
same educational institutions
The English speaking world adopted the new, national- which eventually shared the
[88]
as
the
colonizing
powers.
istic analysis of literature reluctantly. London had developed a commercial production of the belles lettres, in- New commercial rules began to shape the relationship bedependent from the markets of Amsterdam and Paris, tween author, publisher and reader. Most of the earlyas early as the early 18th century. The new market had 18th-century authors of ction had published anonyfound its own commercial criticism and did not need an mously. They had oered their manuscripts and reacademic variant with a distinctly national perspective. ceived all the payment to be expected for the manuscript.
Shakespeare had become an object of national venera- The new copyright laws introduced in the 18th and 19th
tion without the help of academic critics by the 1760s. A centuries[89][note 37] promised a prot share on all future

22

7 THE VICTORIAN PERIOD: 1837-1901

state would hope to control. These developments did not,
however, lead to stable denitions of the terms it popularized, so that Art, literature and culture became the arena
of controversy.

7.3 The modern individual

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Wilhelm Meister (1795)

The individual, the potentially isolated hero, had stood

at the centre of romantic ctions since the Middle Ages.
The early novel(la) had placed the story itself at the centre: it was driven by plot, by incident and accident, rather
than being the story of a single larger-than-life gure.
Oscar Wilde on trial in 1895.
And yet, the individual had returned with a wave of satirical romances and historical pseudo romances. Individuals such as Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders, Pamela, and
editions. This created a new market for experimental Clarissa reintroduced the old romantic focus on the indinovels that readers might nd dicult to understand. vidual as the centre of what was to become the modern
Such works were published in a small rst edition, in the novel.
hope that the critics would recognize their artistic merit. Ancient, medieval and early modern ctional characters
Novelists, mere purveyors of entertainment at one time, lacked certain features that modern readers expect. Epics
now assumed a new role as public voices, speaking as and romances created heroes, individuals who would
their nations conscience, as national sages, and farsighted ght against knight after knight, change (as an Assyrian
judges in newspapers, in public debates. The novelist who
princess) into mens clothes, survive alone on an island
reads in theatres, halls, and book shops is a 19th-century while it would never see its personal experience as an
invention.[90]
individualizing factor. The early modern novelist had reFiction was altered by these changes and dicult texts mained a historian as much as the author of the most perwere created that could not be understood without the aid sonal French contemporary memoir. As soon as it came
of critical interpretation. New novels openly addressed to relating the facts and experiences, it became a question
the present political and social issues, which were also of proper writing skills.
discussed by other media. The idea of responsibility be- The modern individual changed. The rift can rst be
came a key issue, whether of the citizen whose voice seen in the works of medieval mystics and early modern
is heard, or of the artist whose work future generations Protestant autobiographers:[94] moments in which they
will evaluate. The theoretical debate concentrated on the witnessed a change in their very experience of things, an
moral soundness of modern novels,[91] on the integrity inner isolation they would only be able to communicate
of individual artists, as well as the provocative claims of to someone who had experienced the same. The sentiaestheticists such as Oscar Wilde and Algernon Charles mental experience created a new eld of secular, rather
Swinburne, who proposed to write "art for arts sake".[92] than religiously motivated individualizations which imWorks of literature were matched by a growing market
of popular ction. In the 19th-century new institutions
like the circulating library create a new market for publishers rst editions. Fiction also became the object of
a new mass reading public[93] protected, monitored and
analysed by nationwide debates and by institutions the

mediately invited followers to join. Werther's step out

of the value systems that surrounded him, his desperate
search for the one and only soul to understand him, inspired an instantaneous European fashion. Napoleon told
Goethe he had read the volume about a dozen times;[95]
others were seen wearing breeches in Werthers colour to

23
signal that they were experiencing the same exceptionalism. The novel proved the ideal medium for the new
movements as it was ultimately written from an individuals point of view with the aim to unfold in the silence
of anothers individual mind.
The late-18th-century exploration of personal developments created room for depictions of personal experiences; it gained momentum with the romantic exploration
of ctionality as a medium of creative imagination; and it
gained a political edge with the 19th-century focus on history and the modern societies. The rift between the individual and his or her social environment had to have roots
in personal developments which this individual shared
with those around him or her, with his or her class or the
entire nation. Any such rift had the power to criticize the
collective histories the modern nations were just then producing. The new personal perceptions the protagonists of
novels oered were on the other hand interesting as they
could easily become part of the collective experience the
modern nation had to create.

Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment (1866) added a

drop-out student who became a murderer to the spectrum
of special observers whose views would promise reinterpretations of modern life.
The exploration of the individuals perception eventually
revolutionized the very modes of writing ction. The
search for ones personal style stood in the centre of the
competition among authors in the 19th century, now that
novelists had become publicly celebrated minds. The
destabilization of the author-text connection, which 20thcentury criticism was to propose later on, nally led to
experiments with what had been the individuals voice so
far speaking through the author or portrayed by him.
These options were to be widened with new concepts of
what texts actually were with the beginning of the 20th
century.

8 The 20th century and later

See also: Modernism and Postmodernism

8.1 Global market place

First galley proof of In Search of Lost Time (19131927) with

handwritten revision notes by Marcel Proust.

The novels individual perspective allowed for personal

reevaluations of the public historical perceptions and it allowed for personal developments that could still lead back
into modern societies. The 19th-century Bildungsroman
became the arena of such explorations of personal developments that separated the individual from, and then
reunited it with, his or her social environment. Outsider perspectives became the eld of mid-19th-century
explorations. The artists life had been an interesting
topic before with the artist being by public denition
the exceptional individual whose perceptions naturally
enabled him to produce dierent views. Novels from
Goethes Wilhelm Meister (1795) to Marcel Proust's In
Search of Lost Time (19131927) and James Joyce's A
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) created an
entire genre of the Knstlerroman. Jane Austen's Emma
(1815), Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary (1856), Leo
Tolstoy's Anna Karenina (187377), and George Eliot's
Middlemarch (187172) brought female protagonists into
the role of the outstanding observer. Charles Dickens's
Oliver Twist (1839) and Gottfried Keller's Green Henry
(1855) focused on the perspectives of children, Fyodor

Berlin, May 10, 1933, Nazi book burning.

Given the number of new editions and the place of the

modern novel among the genres sold in bookshops today, the novel is far from the crisis predicted by John
Barth. Literature has not ended in exhaustion[96] or
in a silent death.[97] New technologies continue to be
rapidly adapted for the writing and distributing of novels. In 1968, four years after the introduction of the rst
word processor, the IBM MT/ST, the rst novel was written on it Len Deighton's Bomber, published in 1970.[98]
Printed books have not yet been superseded by new media such as cinema, television or such new channels of
distribution as the Internet, [note 38] or e-books. Novels
such as the Harry Potter (19972007) books have created public sensation among an audience critics had seen

24

8 THE 20TH CENTURY AND LATER

be smuggled into countries, defying strict censorship, and
read there in cafs and parks almost as safely as at home.
Its covers can be as inconspicuous as those of Iranian editions of Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses (1988). An
Orwellian regime would have to search households and to
burn every retrievable copy: an engagement of dystopian
dimensions that only a novel, Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit
451 (1953), would envisage.

The artefact that constituted one of the earliest ashpoints

in the current cultural confrontation between the secular West and the Islamic East, Rushdies Satanic Verses
(1988), exemplies almost all the advantages the modern
novel has over its rivals. It is a work of epic dimensions
no lm maker could achieve, a work of privacy and indiPersian Samizdat edition of Salman Rushdie's Satanic Verses late viduality of perspective wherever it leads into the dream
1990s?
worlds of its protagonists, a work that uniquely anticipated ensuing political debates, and a work many Western
critics classied as one of the greatest novels ever written. It is postmodernist in its ability to play with the entire eld of literary traditions without ever sacricing its
topicality.[100]

Announcement of the Laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature

2008: Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clzio

as lost.[note 39]
Novels were among the rst material artefacts the Nazis
burnt in public celebrations of their power in 1933;[99]
and they remained the very last thing they allowed their
publishers to print as World War II ended in the devastation of central Europe: ction could still be employed to keep the retreating troops in dream worlds of
an idyllic homeland waiting for them.[note 40] Novels were
in the pockets of American soldiers who went to Vietnam and in the pockets of those who protested against
the Vietnam War: Hermann Hesse's Steppenwolf and
Carlos Castaneda's Journey to Ixtlan (1972) had become
cult classics of inner resistance. While it was dicult
to learn anything about Siberias concentration camps
in the strictly censored Soviet media, it was a novel,
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan
Denisovich (1962) and its proto-historic expansion The
Gulag Archipelago (1973) that eventually gave the world
an inside view.
The novel remains both public and private. It is a public product of modern print culture even where it circulates in illegal samizdat copies. It remains dicult to target. Totalitarian regimes can close down Internet service
providers, and control theatres, cinemas, radio and television stations, while individual paper copies of a novel can

The democratic West depicted itself as the advocate of

literature as the freest form of self-expression. The
Islamic fundamentalist interpretation of the same confrontation has its own historical validity. This interpretation sees a conict between Western secular nations and
a postsecular religious world.[101] In this view, the West
has severed its religious roots and begun to idolize an arrangement of secular pluralistic debates. Literature,
art, and history the subject matter of the humanities
have become a Western substitute for religion. The Islamic republic eventually demonstrated how far the West
had created its own inviolable if not sacred spheres in this
development: Westerners can become atheists, they can
admire any blasphemy as art, but they cannot act with
the same freedom in the eld of history. Holocaust denial is criminalised in several Western nations in defence
of secular pluralism. The Islamic nations protect, so goes
the rationale, at the heart of the conict a dierent hierarchy of discourses.
In a longer perspective, the conict arose with the worldwide expansion of Western literary and cultural life in the
20th century. To look back, around 1700 ction had been
a small but virulent market of fashionable books in the
sphere of public history. By contrast, in 19th-century
Europe the novel had become the center of a new literary debate. The 20th century began with the Western export of new global conicts, new technologies of
telecommunication and new industries. The new arrangement of the academic disciplines became a world standard. Within this system the humanities are the ensemble of subjects that evaluate and organise public debate,
from art and literature to history.[102] Former colonies and
modern third world nations adopted this arrangement in
their educational systems in order to pursue equal footing
with the leading industrial nations. Literature entered
their public spheres almost automatically as the arena of

8.1

Global market place

25

free personal expression and as a eld of national pride

in which one had to search for ones historical identity, as
the Western nations had done before.

Numbers of titles published in the UK in 2001.

Book Sales in the UK, 2008

Model of 20th-century literary communication. A complex interaction is organised by public and academic literary criticism as
the central provider of discussions, education and media attention.

A number of literatures could challenge the West with traditions of their own: Chinese novels are older than many
comparable Western works. The beginning of the Chinese novel is hard to determine. First evidence is found
in the hua-pen (story-texts)of the Northern Sung dynasty (960-1127). The novels were recited in tea houses
or outside in the street.[50] All the same the genre has also
been described as having a continuous and comprehensive history of about two thousand years,[1] with historical roots in Classical Greece and Rome. Other regions
of the world had to begin their traditions as the Slavonic
and Scandinavian nations had done in the 19th-century:
South Asia[103] and Latin America joined the production
of world literature at the beginning of the 20th century.
The question of what was the rst African novel to be
written by a black African author is today a topic of research in postcolonialist literary studies.[104] The race was
fueled by Western theories of cultural superiority: 20thcentury critics such as Georg Lukcs and Ian Watt saw the
novel as the form of self-expression characteristic of the
modern Western individual. The worldwide spread of
the novel was monitored and mentored by such Western
institutions as the Nobel Prize in Literature. The list of its
laureates can be read as a chronicle of the gradual expansion of Western literary life.[105] Guatemalan Miguel Angel Asturias received the Nobel Prize in 1967, Japanese
Yasunari Kawabata in 1968, Colombian Gabriel Garca
Mrquez in 1982; the Nigerian Wole Soyinka, honoured
in 1986, became the rst black African author to receive
the award; the Egyptian Naguib Mahfouz became the rst
novelist of the Arab world to do so in 1988; Kenzabur
e, honoured in 1994 is a Japanese novelist, Orhan Pamuk, honoured in 2006, is a Turkish novelist.

Total Consumer Market

Volumes (m) by Key Genre

Children's, Young Adult

& Educational
63,4
27%

Adult Fiction
75,3
32%

Adult Non-Fiction:
Trade
87,1
37%
Adult Non-Fiction:
Specialist
11,0
4%

Total consumer market, UK, 2008; value in m

won by the 1860s, and it has stepped beyond, into a new

awareness of its public outreach. Nationwide debates can
become international debates at any given moment. Todays novelists can address a worldwide public, with international institutions, prestigious prizes,[106] and such
far-reaching associations as the worldwide association of
writers P.E.N. The exiled author,[note 41] who is celebrated
by the international audience while he or she is persecuted
at home is a 20th-century (and now 21st-century) gure.
The author as keeper of his or her nations conscience is
a new cultural icon of the age of globalization.

Back in the early 18th century some 2060 titles per year,
that is between one and three percent of the total annual
English production of about 2,000 titles, could be reckoned as ction a total of 20,00060,000 copies on the
assumption of standard print runs of about 1,000 copies.
In 2001 ction made about 11% of the 119,001 titles
published in the UK consumer book market. The percentage has remained relatively stable over the past 20
years, though the total numbers doubled from 5,992 in
The contemporary novel defends the signicance it had 1986 to 13,076 in 2001.[107] The press output and the

26
money made with ction have risen disproportionately
since the 18th century: According to Nielsen BookScan
statistics published in 2009[108] UK publishers sold an estimated 236.8 million books in 2008. Adult ction (an
estimated 75.3 million copies) made 32% of this market. Childrens, young adult and educational books, a
section comprising best-sellers such as the Harry Potter
volumes, made another 63.4 million copies, 27%. The total UK consumer market is supposed to have had a value
1,773m in 2008. Adult ction made roughly a quarter
of that value: 454m.

8 THE 20TH CENTURY AND LATER

rists discuss their works. Literary recognition can also be
gained when novels inuence thinking about non-literary
controversies. A third option remains with novels that
nd their audiences without the help of critical debate.
Even serious novels can become the object of direct marketing strategies along the lines publishers usually reserve
for popular ction.

8.2 Modernism and post-modernism

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Vladivostok, 1995

Many of the techniques the novel developed over the past

100 years can be understood as the result of competition
with new mass media: lm, comic books and at the end
of the century the World Wide Web. Shot and sequence,
focus and perspective have moved from lm editing to
literary composition. Experimental 20th-century ction
is, at the same time, inuenced by literary theory.

Virginia Woolf, 1927

A vibrant literary life fuels the market. It unfolds in

a complex interaction between authors, their publishing
houses, the reading public, and a literary criticism of immense diversity voiced in the media and in the nations
educational systems. The latter provide through their
branches of academic criticism many of the topics, the
modes of discussion and to a good extent the experts
themselves who teach and discuss literature in schools
and in the media. Modern marketing of ction reects
this complex interaction with an awareness of the specic reverberations a new title must nd in order to reach
a wider audience.[note 42] Dierent levels of communication mark successful modern novels as a result of the
genres present position in (or outside) literary debates.
An elite exchange has developed between novelists and
literary theorists, allowing for direct interactions between
authors and critics. Authors who write literary criticism
can eventually modify the very criteria under which theo-

Kenzabur e, Cologne, 2008

James Joyce's Ulysses (1922) had a major inuence on

modern novelists, in the way that it replaced the 18thand 19th-century narrator with a text that attempted to
record inner thoughts: a "stream of consciousness". This
term was rst used by William James in 1890 and entered the terminology of literary criticism with the discussions of the novels of modernists like Dorothy Richardson, Marcel Proust, and James Joyce, as well as, later

8.3

Writing world history

Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner.[109] The characters endowed with these new voices had no rm ground
from which to narrate and their readers had to re-create
what was purposefully broken. One of the aims was to
represent the reality of thoughts, sensations and conicting perspectives. William Faulkner was particularly concerned with recreating real life, an undertaking which
he said was unattainable. The argumentative structure,
which a narration had used in previous centuries to make
its points, had lost its importance. Also in the 1920s
expressionist Alfred Dblin went in a dierent direction
with Berlin Alexanderplatz (1929), where interspersed
non-ctional text fragments enter the ctional sphere to
create another new form of realism to that of stream-ofconsciousness.

27
allusions in his works, he didn't think such notes would
detract from the reading of them, and added: James
Joyce once said after he had published Ulysses that he had
given the professors work for many years to come; and
I'm always looking for ways of employing professors, so
I hope to have given them some work too.[117]
Novelists such as John Barth, Raymond Federman, Lance
Olsen, and Umberto Eco went still further, by mixing criticism and ction, creating critiction (a term Raymond
Federman attempted to coin in 1993).[118]
While the postmodern movement has been criticized as
too reliant on theory, and escapist, it was successfully exploited in several lms of the 1990s and rst decade of
the 21st century: Pulp Fiction (1994), Memento (2000),
and The Matrix (19992003) can be read as new textual
constructs designed to prove that we are surrounded by
virtual realities, by realities we construct out of circulating fragments, of images, concept, a language of cultural
materials, which the new lmmakers explore.

Later works like Samuel Beckett's trilogy Molloy (1951),

Malone Dies (1951) and The Unnamable (1953), as well
as Julio Cortzar's Rayuela (1963) and Thomas Pynchon's Gravitys Rainbow (1973) all make use of the
stream-of-consciousness technique. On the other hand,
Robert Coover is an example of those authors, who the
1960s, fragmented their stories and challenged time and 8.3
sequentiality as fundamental structural concepts.

Writing world history

In the second half of the 20th century, Postmodern

authors[110] subverted serious debate with playfulness,
claiming that art could never be original, that it always
plays with existing materials. The idea that language is
self-referential had already been an accepted truth in the
world of pulp ction. A postmodernist re-reads popular
literature as an essential cultural production. The creative
avant-garde of the 1960s and 1970s closed the gap[111]
and recycled popular knowledge, conspiracy theories,
comics and lms to recombine these materials into entirely new works of art. Roland Barthes' 1950s analysis of
popular culture,[112] and his late 1960s claim that the author was dead while the text continued to live,[113] became
standards of postmodern theory. Novels from Thomas
Pynchon's The Crying of Lot 49 (1966), to Umberto Chinua Achebe, Bualo, 2008
Eco's The Name of the Rose (1980) and Foucaults Pendulum (1989) made use of a universe of intertextual
references[114] while they thematized their own creativity
in a new postmodern metactional awareness.[115]
What separated these authors from their 18th- and 19thcentury predecessors, who had also invited other textual
worlds into their own compositions, was the interaction
the new authors sought with the eld of literary criticism.
20th-century metactional works expect literary historians to deal with them; literary critics and theorists become the privileged rst readers that the new texts need.
James Joyce is said to have said, to have joked, that in
Ulysses, I've put in so many enigmas and puzzles that it
will keep the professors busy for centuries arguing over
what I meant, and thats the only way of insuring ones
immortality,[116] a statement to which Salman Rushdie
Michel Houellebecq, Warsaw, 2008
referred in 1999, when asked about the possibility of
there being "Clis Notes" to his writings. Rushdie an- On the one hand, media and institutions of criticism enswered that although he didn't expect readers to get all the able the modern novel to become the object of global

28

8 THE 20TH CENTURY AND LATER

mon sense and collective history. Personal anxieties,
daydreams, magic and hallucinatory experiences mushroomed in 20th-century novels. What would be a clinical psychosis if stated as a personal experience in one
extreme example, Gregor Samsa, the point of view character of Kafkas The Metamorphosis, awakes to nd that
he has become a giant insect will, as soon as it is transformed into a novel, become the object of competing literary interpretations, a metaphor, an image of the modern experience of personal instability and isolation. The
term "Kafkaesque" has joined the term "Orwellian" in
common parlance to refer not only to aspects of literature, but of the world.

Horror has also been an extremely popular genre in literature. Many are from famous horror-writer Stephen
King and known horror writer Dean Koontz. King has
Elfriede Jelinek, Munich, 2004
written over 100 stories throughout his lifetime. His
rst published novel was Carrie, a horror novel about
a teenage girl tormented by her fellow schoolmates and
her religious-crazed mother, she uses her powers of
telekinesis to exact revenge. The novel became a bestseller. But Kings rst hardback best-seller is the wellknown novel The Shining, about a family who moves into
a hotel in Colorado and the husband takes a job there.
The son, Danny Torrance, has the power to see ghosts
and malevolent spirits, which is called Shining. The
novel adapted into a 1980 horror lm and that became
named as one of Hollywoods most scariest lms. Not all
horror novels are written for adults. R.L. Stine is a childrens horror writer, best known for writing the popular
Goosebumps series. Neil Gaiman wrote the childrens
horror novella Coraline, a story about a girl and her famPaul Auster, Salman Rushdie and Shimon Peres, New York City, ily moving into an apartment and she nds a secret door to
2008
a perfect world, but later nds out that the world is a trap
to capture her and destroy her. The novella was a success,
winning the Bram Stoker Award. It was later adapted into
debate. On the other hand, novels themselves, individ- the Academy-Award nominated lm Coraline.
ual books, continue to arouse attention with unique personal and subjective narratives that challenge all circu- Each generation of the 20th century saw its unique aslating views of world history. Novels remain personal. pects expressed in novels. Germanys lost generation of
Their authors remain independent individuals even where World War I veterans identied with the hero of Erich
they become public gures, in contrast to historians and Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front (1928)
journalists who tend, by contrast, to assume ocial po- (and with the tougher, more existentialist rival Thor
sitions. The narrative style remains free and artistic, Goote created as a national socialist alternative). The Jazz
whereas modern history has by contrast almost entirely Age found a voice in F. Scott Fitzgerald, the Great Deabandoned narration and turned to the critical debate of pression in John Steinbeck and the incipient Cold War
interpretations. Novels are seen as part of the realm of in George Orwell. Frances existentialism was promiart, defended as a realm of free and subjective self- nently voiced in Jean-Paul Sartre's Nausea (1938) and
expression. Crossovers into other genres the novel as Albert Camus' The Stranger (1942). The counterculture
lm, the lm as novel, the amalgam of the novel and the of the 1960s gave Hermann Hesse's Steppenwolf (1927)
comic book that led to the evolution of the graphic novel a new reception, while producing such iconic works of
have strengthened the genres inuence on the collective its own as Ken Kesey's One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest
and Thomas Pynchon's Gravitys Rainbow. Chuck Palahimagination and the arena of ongoing debates.
niuk's Fight Club (1996) became (with the help of the
Personal realities have attracted 20th- and 21st-century lm adaptation) an icon of late-20th-century manhood
novelists: rst in an explicit reaction to the new sci- and a reaction to the 20th-century production of female
ence of psychology, later, far more importantly, in a re- voices. Virginia Woolf, Simone de Beauvoir, Doris Lessnewed interest in subject matter that almost automati- ing, Elfriede Jelinek became prominent female and femcally destabilizes and marginalizes the realities of com-

8.3

Writing world history

Stephen King, February 2007

inist voices. Questions of racial and gender identities,

the option to reclaim female heroines of a predominantly
male cultural industry[119] have fascinated novelists over
the last two decades with their potential to destabilize the
preceding confrontations.
The major 20th-century social processes can be traced
through the modern novel: the history of the sexual revolution[note 43] can be traced through the reception of sexually frank novels: D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterleys
Lover had to be published in Italy in 1928; British censorship lifted its ban as late as 1960. Henry Miller's
Tropic of Cancer (1934) created the comparable US
scandal. Transgressive ction from Vladimir Nabokov's
Lolita (1955) to Michel Houellebecq's Les Particules lmentaires (1998) entered a literary eld that eventually
opened itself to the production of frankly pornographic
works such as Anne Desclos' Story of O (1954) to Anas
Nin's Delta of Venus (1978).
Crime became a major subject of 20th- and 21st-century
novelists. The extreme confrontations of crime ction
reach into the very realities that modern industrialized,
organized societies try and fail to eradicate. Crime is also
an intriguing personal and public subject: criminals each
have their personal motivations and actions. Detectives,
too, see their moral codes challenged. Patricia Highsmith's thrillers became a medium of new psychological explorations. Paul Auster's New York Trilogy (1985
1986) crossed the borders into the eld of experimental
postmodernist literature.
The major political and military confrontations of the
20th and 21st centuries have inspired novelists. The

29
events of World War II found their reections in novels from Gnter Grass' The Tin Drum (1959) to Joseph
Heller's Catch-22 (1961). The ensuing cold war lives on
in a bulk of spy novels that reach out into the realm of
popular ction. Latin American self-awareness in the
wake of the (failing) left revolutions of the 1960s and
1970s resulted in a "Latin American Boom", connected
today with the names of Julio Cortzar, Mario Vargas
Llosa, Carlos Fuentes and Gabriel Garca Mrquez and
the invention of a special brand of postmodern magic
realism. The unstable status of Israel and the Middle
East have become the subject of Israeli and Arab perceptions. Contemporary ction has explored the realities
of the post-Soviet nations and those of post-Tiananmen
China. Arguably, though, international perceptions of
these events have been shaped more by images than
words. The wave of modern media images has, in turn,
merged with the novel in the form of graphic novels that
both exploit and question the status of circulating visual
materials. Art Spiegelman's two-volume Maus and, perhaps more important in its new theoretical approach, his
In the Shadow of No Towers (2004) a graphic novel
questioning the reality of the images the 9/11 attacks have
produced are interesting artefacts here.
The extreme options of writing alternative histories have
created genres of their own. Fantasy has become a
eld of commercial ction branching into the worlds of
computer-animated role play and esoteric myth. Its center today is J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings
(1954/55), a work that mutated from a book written for
young readers in search of openly ctionalised role models into a cultural artefact of epic dimensions. Tolkien
successfully revived northern European epic literature
from Beowulf and the North Germanic Edda to the
Arthurian Cycles and turned their incompatible worlds
into an epic of global confrontations that magically preceded all known confrontations.
Science ction has developed a broad variety of genres from the technological adventure Jules Verne had
made fashionable in the 1860s to new political and personal compositions. Aldous Huxley's Brave New World
(1932) has become a touchpoint for debate of Western
consumerist societies and their use of modern technologies. George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) focuses on the options of resistance under the eyes of public
surveillance. Stanisaw Lem, Isaac Asimov and Arthur C.
Clarke became modern classical authors of experimental
thought with a focus on the interaction between humans
and machines. A new wave of authors has added postapocalyptic fantasies and explorations of virtual realities
in crossovers into the commercial production of quickly
mutating sci- genres. William Gibson's Neuromancer
(1984) became a cult classic here and founded a new
brand of cyberpunk science ction.

30

8.4

8 THE 20TH CENTURY AND LATER

Popular ction

$650 million and then classic literary ction with $466

million.[120]

Main article: Popular ction

The most important subgenres, in this period, were acPopular ction shares the literary market place with other cording to Romance Writers of America 's data, given on
the basis of numbers of releases:
Contemporary series romance: 26%
Contemporary romance: 22%
Historical romance: 16%
Paranormal romance: 12%
Romantic suspense: 7%
Inspirational romance: 7%
Paulo Coelho in Davos, Switzerland, 1999

Romantic suspense (series): 5%

Other (chick-lit, erotic romance, womens ction):
3%
Young adult romance: 3%

Pulp magazines in a German newspaper shop, 2009

types of literature through the genres that they share.

The historic advantage of genres is to allow the direct
marketing of ction. While the reader of so-called elitist literature will follow public discussions of novels, the
popular production has to employ the traditionally more
direct and short-term marketing strategies with the open
declarations of their content. Genres ll the gap that the
absent critics leaves, and work as direct promises of reading pleasure. The most typical stratum of popular ction
is based entirely on genre expectations, which it xes with
serializations and identiable brand names. Ghost writers
hide behind collective pseudonyms to ensure the steady
supply of ction that will have the very same hero, the
very same story arc, and the very same number of pages,
issue after issue.
Though a production not promoted by secondary criticism it is popular literature that holds the largest market share. Romance ction had an estimated $1.375
billion share in the US book market in 2007. Religion/inspirational literature followed with $819 million,
science ction/fantasy with $700 million, mystery with

In an historical perspective modern popular literature

might be seen as the successor of the early modern
chapbook. Both elds share a focus on readers who are
in search of easily accessible reading satisfaction. Early
modern booksellers saw a reduced vocabulary and a focus on plot as the advantages in the abridged versions
that they sold. The market of chapbooks disappeared,
however, in the course of the 19th century. The German rediscovery of chapbooks in the 1840s and their
new identication as a distinct, and truly original, production of "Volksbcher", books the people had created,
is noteworthy.[121] The popular modern works had by that
time developed out of the early modern belles lettres.
John J. Richetti was the rst to point out the various similarities within the spectrum of genres.[122]
The 20th-century love romance is a successor of the novels Madeleine de Scudry, Marie de La Fayette, Aphra
Behn, and Eliza Haywood wrote from the 1640s into the
1740s. The modern adventure novel goes back to Daniel
Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) and its immediate successors. Modern pornography has no precedent in the
chapbook market; it goes back, again, to the libertine
and hedonistic belles lettres, to John Cleland's Fanny Hill
(1749) and its companions of the elegant 18th-century
market. Ian Fleming's James Bond is a descendant of the
anonymous yet extremely sophisticated and stylish narrator who mixed his love aairs with his political missions in La Guerre d'Espagne (1707). Marion Zimmer
Bradley's The Mists of Avalon exploits Tolkien, as well as
Arthurian literature and its romantic 19th-century reections. Modern horror ction also has no precedent on the
market of chapbooks it goes back to the elitist market of
early-19th-century romantic literature. Modern popular
science ction has an even shorter history, hardly dating
past the 1860s.

8.4

Popular ction

31
Brown does this on his website answering the question
whether his Da Vinci Code could be called an antiChristian novel:
No. This book is not anti-anything. Its a
novel. I wrote this story in an eort to explore
certain aspects of Christian history that interest me. The vast majority of devout Christians
understand this fact and consider The Da Vinci
Code an entertaining story that promotes spiritual discussion and debate. Even so, a small but
vocal group of individuals has proclaimed the
story dangerous, heretical, and anti-Christian.
While I regret having oended those individuals, I should mention that priests, nuns, and
clergy contact me all the time to thank me for
writing the novel. Many church ocials are
celebrating The Da Vinci Code because it has
sparked renewed interest in important topics of
faith and Christian history. It is important to
remember that a reader does not have to agree
with every word in the novel to use the book as
a positive catalyst for introspection and exploration of our faith[123]

Dan Brown on the book jacket of one of his novels

The emerging eld of popular ction immediately created

its own stratications with a production of bestselling authors such as Raymond Chandler, Barbara Cartland, Ian
Fleming, Johannes Mario Simmel, Rosamunde Pilcher,
Stephen King, Ken Follett, Patricia Cornwell, and Dan
Brown who enjoy the potential to attract fans and who
appear as role models in author-fan relationships. The
typical popular market segment does not develop any
mythologies of authorship, and hardly dierentiates between hero and author: readers buys the new Perry Rhodan, Captain Future, or Jerry Cotton.
Popular ction has dealt with almost any topic the modern
public sphere has provided. Class and gender divisions
are omnipresent in love stories: the majority of them harp
on tragic confrontations that arise wherever a heroine of
lower social status falls in love with a doctor, the wealthy
heir of an estate or company, or just the Alpine farmer
whose maid she happens to be. It is not said that these
aspirations lead to happy endings. They can be read as
escapist dreams of how to change social status by marriage; they are at the same time constant indicators of
existing or imaginary social barriers. All major political
confrontations of the past one hundred years have become
the scenery of popular exploits, whether they focused on
soldiers, spies, or on civilians ghting between the lines.
The authors of popular ctionand that is the essential
dierence between them and their counterparts in the
sphere of so-called elitist literaturetend to proclaim that
they have simply exploited the controversial topics. Dan

The author of popular ction has a fan community to

serve and satisfy. He or she can risk rebung both the
critical public and its literary experts in their search for interesting readings (as Dan Brown eectively does with his
statement on possible readings of his novel). The popular
authors position towards his text is generally supposed to
be relaxed. Authors of other types of literature are by
contrast supposed to be compelled to write. They follow
(says the popular mythology) their inner voices, a feeling
for injustice, an urge to face a personal trauma, an artistic vision. The authors of popular ction have their own
calling: they must not fail the expectations of their audiences. A covenant of loyalty and mutual respect is the
basis on which the author of popular ction continues his
or her work. The typical branches of the production have
no contact to mythologies of authorship.
The articial and arbitrary boundaries between popular and so-called serious literature have blurred in recent years, through the explorations of postmodern and
poststructuralist writers, as well as the exploitation of
popular literary classics by the lm industry. The present
landscape of media with television and the Internet indiscriminately reaching the entire audience has a potential to destabilize boundaries between the elds. The
division lines are, on the other hand, likely to stay intact
as the critical discourse continues to need and to produce
privileged objects of debate.
J. K. Rowling, 2010
Henning Mankell lecturing at Parkteateret, Oslo
2007
Joyce Carol Oates, 2006

32

10 NOTES

Doris Lessing, Cologne literature festival 2006,

Germany

See also

10

Notes

[1] Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2 August

2009. The term novel is a truncation of the Italian word
novella (from the plural of Latin novellus, a late variant of
novus, meaning new), so that what is now, in most languages, a diminutive denotes historically the parent form.
The novella was a kind of enlarged anecdote like those
to be found in the 14th-century Italian classic Boccaccios
Decameron, each of which exemplies the etymology well
enough.
[2] The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America Nebula Award gives the following guidelines: Novel 40,000
words or more; Novella 17,50039,999 words; Novelette 7,50017,499 words; Short Story 7,499 words
or fewer. For this purpose, word is understood to be
ve characters plus one space, so, a novel must have at
least 240,000 characters-with-spaces, which, in practice,
does make about one hundred printed pages, a reasonable
length for a novel.
[3] Cf. a rather unfavourable review in the Irish Independent:
Ian McEwans new novel has been greeted with unqualied, sometimes ecstatic, praise from every reviewer in
Britain, which may strike some readers here as a bit odd
when they read the book. For a start, its not a novel. Its
barely even a novella. In some ways its more a long short
story, built around a single event and involving just two
charactersif it was a play it would be a one-act twohander.
[4] Anne Dacier's translations, 1699 and 1708, turned
Homers verses into prose and generated an uproar among
European intellectuals, who were surprised by their archaic tone.
[5] Good surveys are: John Robert Morgan, Richard Stoneman, Greek ction: the Greek novel in context (Routledge,
1994), Niklas Holzberg, The ancient novel: an introduction (Routledge, 1995), Gareth L. Schmeling, The Novel
in the Ancient World (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 1996)
and Tim Whitmarsh (hrsg.) The Cambridge companion to
the Greek and Roman novel (Cambridge University Press
2008).
[6] For the structural analysis see: Hugo Kuhns 1948 article on Hartmanns von Aue, Erec reprinted in Dichtung
und Welt im Mittelalter (Stuttgart, 1959). pp. 133150.
See also: Hans Fromm: Doppelweg, in: Werk-TypSituation, ed. Ingeborg Glier et al. Festschrift Hugo Kuhn
(Stuttgart, 1969), pp. 6479. The structural analysis
has been criticised by Elisabeth Schmid, Weg mit dem
Doppelweg. Wider eine Selbstverstndlichkeit der germanistischen Artusforschung, in: Erzhlstrukturen der
Artusliteratur. Forschungsgeschichte und neue Anstze,
ed. Friedrich Wolfzettel (Tbingen, 1999), p.69-85 and

by Friedrich Wolfzettel in his, Doppelweg und Biographie in: Erzhlstrukturen der Artusliteratur. Forschungsgeschichte und neue Anstze, ed. F. Wolfzettel (Tbingen,
1999), p. 119141.
[7] See for a survey of medieval reading practices: Jessica
Brantley, Reading in the Wilderness: Private Devotion and
Public Performance in Late Medieval England (University
of Chicago Press, 2007).
[8] On Chaucers tendency to increase the romances inuence see: Joseph Mersand, Chaucers Romance Vocabulary (New York, 1939); on the competing novelistic
fabliaux tradition see: Charles Muscatine, Chaucer and
the French Tradition (Berkeley, Los Angeles, 1957).
[9] The history of the ever-renowned knight Don Quixote de
la Mancha containing his many wonderful and admirable
achievements and adventures (London: W.O./ H.) is an
example here, Wing: 1522:14, today in the possession of
the British Library. The title appeared around 1695 without a date, so that it could be sold over any period of time,
with the plot was condensed to 24 pages. The prestigious
Peter Motteux edition published in 1706 consisted of four
volumes each of 400 pages.
[10] The rst of these editions was the so-called Amsterdam
Coee House Edition published by T. Cox on August 1,
1719. The original Publisher, Taylor, threatened to sue
Cox and his customers in The St. James Post (7 August
1719), and repeated his threats in the 2nd edition of vol.
2. Cox replied in The Flying Post (29 October 1719). See
H. C. Hutchins, Robinson Crusoe and Its Printing (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1925), pp. 99100/
14245.
[11] The Contes des fes the Comtesse D'Aunois had published
in 1698 sold in an English chapbook abridgment with all
these promises of the simplied and cheaper reading matter the translator in the preface: I did not attempt this
with a Design to follow exactly the French Copy, nor have
any regard to our English Translation; which to me, are
both tedious and irksome. Nor have I begun some of it
many Years since: But to make it portable for your walking Diversion, and less Chargeable: and chiey to set aside
the Distances of Sentences and Words, which not only dissolve the Memory, but keep the most nice and material Intrigues, from a close Connexion. The History of the Tales
of the Fairies. Newly done from the French (London: E.
Tracy, 1716), fol. Arv .
[12] See on the early modern reception of Greek romances:
Georges Molini, Du roman grec au roman baroque. Un
art majeur du genre narratif en France sous Louis XIII
(Toulouse, Presses universitaires du Mirail, 1995).
[13] Though Taylor has stated that he supposes the account to
be just history of fact this is a direct rendering of what
Horace has said about the aims of poetic ctions: aut
prodesse volunt aut delectare poetae, to instruct and to
delight, that is what poets are aiming at, Ars Poetica verse
333.
[14] Press output statistics would be needed to see how important the political production actually was for the publishers. One would produce them with an estimate of the

33

numbers of sheets printed. A viable solution would be

(for the period 16001800) to assume standard editions of
about 800 copies; the number of sheets a title needed per
copy could be deduced from format and page numbers. It
is not clear whether it would be technically possible to use
the ESTC data to create such a statistic.
[15] Numbers follow the ESTC classication of ction and
have to be seen as arbitrary identications of ctions.
Searching for dubious histories and works written in what
is today perceived as the literary style of novels one is
likely to arrive at higher numbers.
[16] Ian Watt's, The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe,
Richardson and Fielding (London, 1957) set the phrase
and inspired a number of ensuing publications. Major titles are here John J. Richetti, Popular Fiction before Richardson. Narrative Patterns 17001739 (1969),
Lennard J. Davis, Factual Fictions: The Origins of the
English Novel (New York: Columbia University Press,
1983), J. Paul Hunter, Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction (New York:
Norton, 1990), and a volume of the journal Eighteenth
Century Fiction brought out under the title Reconsidering
The Rise of the Novel (which appeared in JanuaryApril
2000). Research in Aphra Behn, Delarivier Manley, and
Eliza Haywood has changed the picture since the 1970s
with a focus on the two generations of female authors who
dominated the stage into the 1720s. Major studies and text
editions have been provided here by Patricia Kster, Ros
Ballaster, Janet Todd and Patrick Spedding. A compound
story is here Josephine Donovan, Women and the Rise of
the Novel, 14051726 revised edition (Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).
[17] We owe (I believe) this Advantage to the Renement and
Politeness of our Gallantry; which proceeds, in my Opinion, from the great Liberty which the Men of France allow to the Ladies. They are in a manner Recluses in Italy
and Spain; and separated from Men by so many Obstacles,
that they are scarce to be seen, and not to be spoken with
at all. Hence the Men have neglected the Art of Engaging
the Tender Sex, because the Occasions of it are so rare.
All the Study and Business there, is to surmount the Diculties of Access; when this is eected, they make Use of
the Time, without amusing themselves with Forms. But in
France, the Ladies go at large upon their Parole; and being
under no Custody but that of their own Heart, erect it into
a Fort, more strong and secure than all the Keys, Grates,
and Vigilance of the Douegnas. The Men are obliged to
make a Regular and Formal Assault against this Fort, to
employ so much Industry and Address to reduce it, that
they have formed it into an Art scarce known to other Nations. 'Tis this Art which distinguishes the French from
other Romances, and renders the Reading of them so Delicious, that they cause more Protable Studies to be neglected. Pierre Daniel Huet, The History of Romances,
transl. by Stephen Lewis (London: J. Hooke/ T. Caldecott, 1715), pp. 138140.
[18] The standard study, though problematic with its theory of
historical delays, is here Jrgen Habermas, The Structural
Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry Into a
Category of the Bourgeois Society [1962], translated by
Thomas Burger (MIT Press, 1991).

[19] The Entertainments of Gallantry: or Remedies for Love.

Familiarly discoursd, by a society of persons of quality
(London: J. Morphew, 1712) celebrate how easy it has
become for private individuals to write little novels the
entire book wants to prove this in the End. For criticism of
the new production see the Entertainments pp.7477, Jane
Barkers preface to her Exilius (London: E. Curll, 1715),
and George Ernst Reinwalds Academien- und StudentenSpiegel (Berlin: J. A. Rdiger, 1720), pp.424427.
[20] See for a European perspective: Hugh Barr Nisbet,
Claude Rawson (eds.), The Cambridge history of literary criticism, vol. IV (Cambridge University Press 1997);
for greater detail Ernst Weber, Texte zur Romantheorie:
(16261781), 2 vols. (Mnchen: Fink, 1974/ 1981) and
the individual volumes of Dennis Poupard (et al.), Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800: Critical Discussion
of the Works of Fifteenth-, Sixteenth-, Seventeenth-, and
Eighteenth-Century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Philosophers, and Other Creative Writers (Detroit, Mich.: Gale
Research Co, 1984 .).
[21] Ian Watts The Rise of the Novel (London, 1957) established the standard connections between Defoe, Richardson and Fielding and the 19th-century emergence of literary realism. J. Daviss, Factual Fictions: The Origins of
the English Novel (New York: Columbia University Press,
1983) and J. Paul Hunters Before Novels: The Cultural
Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction (New York:
Norton, 1990) substantiated the connection. Feminist research on Defoes precursors, research on female authors
from Aphra Behn and Delarivier Manley revised the picture and coincided with research in the market of French
late-17th-century (ctional) memoirs and histories. See
e.g. Gustave Reynier, Le Roman raliste au XVIIe sicle
[1914] (Genve: Slatkine Reprints, 1971), Roger Francillon, Fiction et ralit dans le roman franais de la n du
XVIIe sicle, Saggi e ricerche di letteratura francese, vol.
XVII, (1978), pp. 99130, and Gnter Berger, Histoire
et ction dans les pseudo-mmoires de l'ge classique:
dilemme du roman ou dilemme de l'historiographie?",
Perspectives de la recherche sur le genre narratif franais
du XVIIe sicle, actes du colloque de Pavie (octobre 1998),
Pise-Genve, Edizioni Etsditions Slatkine n 8 (2000).
p.213-226.
[22] See on connections between the heroical romance and
French historical ction: Camille Esmein, Le roman hroque (16401680), premire thorisation d'un
roman historique in Fiction narrative et hybridation
gnrique dans la littrature franaise ed. by Hlne Baby
(L'Harmattan, 2006).
[23] See the serious political review of Manleys New Atalantis
the Deutsche Acta Eruditorum (1713), vol. 9, p.771-779,
and vol. 14, pp. 112115.
[24] Compare John Howell, The life and adventures of Alexander Selkirk: Containing the Real Incidents Upon which
the Romance of Robinson Crusoe is Founded (Oliver &
Boyd, 1829) and Diana Souhami, Selkirks Island: The
True and Strange Adventures of the Real Robinson Crusoe
(Harcourt, 2002).

34

[25] Volume 1 was reprinted in The Original London Post, or

Heathcots Intelligence, numbers 125202 (London: 7 October 1719 30 March 1720), volume 2 followed with
numbers 203-89 (London, 1 April 18 October 1720).
The advertisement for W. Taylors edition of the second
part in no. 202 implies that this was no pirated edition. It
is rather likely that Taylor and Defoe allowed the serialization to the disadvantage of the rival pirate publishers.
[26] The statistic includes a small number of plays that came
out as novels or romances while both words also stood
for genres of stories.
[27] The precise date cannot be determined. John Howell used
the word romance in 1829 in the title of his The life
and adventures of Alexander Selkirk: Containing the Real
Incidents Upon which the Romance of Robinson Crusoe is
Founded (Oliver & Boyd, 1829). The word novel had
by that time referred to Robinson Crusoe on the very same
ground with the publication of Providence displayed: or,
the remarkable adventures of Alexander Selkirk [...] whose
adventures was founded the celebrated novel of Robinson
Crusoe (Bristol: I. James etc., 1800).
[28] Huet had gone, however, into this direction with a longer
preparation. His De interpretatione libri duo, quorum prior
est de optimo genere interpretandi alter de claris interpretibus (1661) had by 1670 become one of the greatest
works in the eld of theological interpretation.
[29] The Works of T. Petronius Arbiter [...] second edition [...]
made English by Mr. Wilson, Mr. Burnaby, Mr. Blount,
Mr. Tho. Brown, Capt Aylo, and several others (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1710). The
Works of Lucian, translated from the Greek, by several eminent hands, 2 vols. (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J.
Morphew, 1711). See The Adventures of Theagenes and
Chariclia [...] written originally in Greek by Heliodorus
Bishop of Tricca, in the Fourth Century, 2 vols. (London:
W. Taylor/ E. Curll/ R. Gosling/ J. Hooke/ J. Browne/ J.
Osborn, 1717).
[30] A tongue in cheek reference to Huet can be found in
The German Rogue: or, The Life and Merry Adventures,
Cheats, Stratagems, And Contrivances of Tiel Eulespiegle
[...] Made English from the High-Dutch (London, 1720),
a German chapbook oered in the new design of a classic
according to Huet.
[31] August Bohses (alias Talander) preface to the German
edition starting in 1710 oers the link between the Arabian Nights and Huet. See: Die Tausend und eine Nacht
[...] erstlich vom Hrn. Galland, der Kn. Academie Mitgliede, aus der arabischen Sprache in die frantzsische,
und aus selbiger anitzo ins Teutsche bersetzt: erster und
anderer Theil. Mit einer Vorrede von Talandern (Leipzig:
J. L. Gleditsch/ M. G. Weidmann, 1710).
[32] Aphra Behn's Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His
Sister (1684/ 1685/ 1687) with her heroine becoming a
high-tier prostitute had explicit sex scenes and nonetheless became a classic that male and female readers of taste
could openly praise.
[33] See for the 17th- and 18th-century philosophical novel:
The chapter The Spinozistic Novel in French, in

10 NOTES

Jonathan Irvine Israel, Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy

and the Making of Modernity 16501750 (Oxford University Press, 2002), p.591-599, Roger Pearson, The fables
of reason: a study of Voltaires Contes philosophiques
(Oxford University Press 1993), Dena Goodman, Criticism in action: Enlightenment experiments in political
writing (Cornell University Press 1989), Robert Francis
O'Reilly, The Artistry of Montesquieus Narrative Tales
(University of Wisconsin., 1967), and Ren Pomeau and
Jean Ehrard, De Fnelon Voltaire (Flammarion, 1998).
[34] On the publishing history of Uncle Toms Cabin: Claire
Parfait, The Publishing History of Uncle Toms Cabin,
18522002 (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007).
[35] See for the connection of criticism and the (early) modern
nation building: Thomas Docherty, Criticism and Modernity: Aesthetics, Literature, and Nations in Europe and Its
Academies (Oxford University Press, 1999) and Terry Eagleton, The Function of Criticism [1984] (Verso, 2005).
[36] See on the politics of the 19th- and 20th-century canon
building: John Guillory, Cultural Capital: The Problem of
Literary Canon Formation (University of Chicago Press,
1993) and Mihly Szegedy-Maszk, Literary Canons: National and International (Akadmiai Kiad, 2001).
[37] With a special perspective on the censors interest to establish copyright laws and thus to x responsibilities, see
Lyman Ray Patterson, Copyright in Historical Perspective
(Vanderbilt University Press, 1968).
[38] The entire English book production from 1473 to 1700
became available to experts through Early English Books
Online and the production from 1700 to 1800 through
Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gallica France
provides similar services for all French readers. Google
is currently scanning massive numbers of 19th-century
books. Html databases such as Project Gutenberg oer
classic ction. Modern Internet ction exists on numerous platforms, with a special emphasis on graphic novels.
[39] As of June 2008, the Potter series has sold more than 400
million copies and has been translated into 67 languages.
Guy Dammann (June 18, 2008). Harry Potter breaks
400m in sales. The Guardian (Guardian News and Media Limited). Retrieved 2008-10-17.
[40] See the chapters on the war production of the most important German publisher of the period in Saul Friedlnder,
Norbert Frei, Trutz Rendtor and Reinhard Wittmann
(eds.), Bertelsmann im Dritten Reich (Gtersloh: Bertelsmann, 2002). See also: Hans-Eugen and Edelgard
Bhler, Der Frontbuchhandel 19391945. Organisationen, Kompetenzen, Verlage, Bcher (Frankfurt am Main:
Buchhndler-Vereinigung, 2002).
[41] See: Andrew Gurr, Writers in exile: the identity of home in
modern literature (Brighton, Sussex: Harvester Pr., 1981);
John Glad (ed.), Literature in exile (Durham: Duke Univ.
Pr., 1990); David Bevan (ed.), Literature and exile (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990); James Whitlark and Wendell Aycock (eds.) The literature of emigration and exile (Lubbock, Tex: Texas Tech University Press, 1992); and Guy
Stern, Literarische Kultur im Exil: gesammelte Beitrge
zur Exilforschung (19891997) (Dresden: Dresden Univ.
Press, 1998).

35

[42] See titles like David Cole, The Complete Guide to Book
Marketing 2nd edition (Allworth Communications, Inc.,
2004) and Alison Baverstock, How to Market Books: The
Essential Guide to Maximizing Prot and Exploiting All
Channels to Market, 4th edition (Kogan Page Publishers,
2008).
[43] See: Charles Irving Glicksberg, The Sexual Revolution in
Modern American Literature (Nijho, 1971) and his The
Sexual Revolution in Modern English Literature (Martinus Nijho, 1973). On recent trends: Elizabeth Benedict, The Joy of Writing Sex: A Guide for Fiction Writers (Macmillan, 2002). Very interesting with its focus on
trivial literature written for the female audience: Carol
Thurston, The Romance Revolution: Erotic Novels for
Women and the Quest for a New Sexual Identity (University of Illinois Press, 1987).

11

References

[1] Margaret Anne Doody, The True Story of the Novel.

New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996, rept.
1997, p. 1. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
[2] Merriam-Websters Encyclopedia of Literature. Kathleen
Kuiper, ed. 1995. Merriam-Webster, Springeld, Mass.
[3] Essay on Romance, Prose Works volume vi, p.129,
quoted in Introduction to Walter Scotts Quentin Durward, ed. Susan Maning. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1992, p.xxv. Romance should not be confused with
harlequin romance.
[4] Introduction to Walter Scotts Quentin Durward, ed. Susan Maning, pp.xxv-xxvii.
[5] Moers, Ellen. Literary Women: The Great Writers[1976]
(London: The Womens Press, 1978)
[6]

Robert McCrum, The Hundred best novels: Moby

Dick, The Observer, Sunday 12 January 2014.

[7] Doody (1996), p. 15.

[8] Doody (1996), pp. 18-3, 187.
[9] Doody (1996), p. 187.
[10] Huet, PierreDaniel, Traitt de l'origine des romans
(1670), Stephen Lewis 1715 translation, The History of
Romances, pp. 3-4. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
[11] See Johann Friedrich Riederer's Satyra von den LiebesRomanen, in: Die abentheuerliche Welt in einer
Pickelheerings-Kappe, vol. 2 (Nrnberg, 1718) with descriptions of the diverse situations in which people read
novels at the beginning of the 18th century at Marteau.
[12] Gyrgy Lukcs The Theory of the Novel. A historicophilosophical essay on the forms of great epic literature
[rst German edition 1920], transl. by Anna Bostock
(Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1971).
[13] Merriam-Websters Encyclopedia of Literature. Kathleen
Kuiper, ed. 1995. Merriam-Webster, Springeld, Mass.

[14] The Tale of Genji. Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2014. Web. 06 Apr.
2014.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/
581365/The-Tale-of-Genji>
[15] The Japanese. Reischauer, Edwin O. Belknap Press.
Cambridge, MA 1980. p.49. ISBN 0-674-47178-4.
[16] Identity in Asian Literature edited by Lisbeth Littrup.
Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 1996, p. 3.
[17] Jon Mcginnis, Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology
of Sources, p. 284, Hackett Publishing Company, ISBN .
[18] Samar Attar, The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment:
Ibn Tufayls Inuence on Modern Western Thought, Lexington Books, ISBN .
[19] Muhsin Mahdi (1974), "The Theologus Autodidactus of
Ibn at-Nas by Max Meyerhof, Joseph Schacht, Journal
of the American Oriental Society 94 (2), pp. 232234.
[20] The Improvement of Human Reason, exhibited in the life
of Hai Ebn Yokdhan: written in Arabic above 500 Years
ago, by Abu Jaafar Ebn Tophail [...] newly translated from
the original Arabick, by Simon Ockley (London: W. Bray,
1711).
[21] Encyclopdia Britannica
[22] See Heinrich von Veldeke's Eneas Romance written
around 1175 or Herbort von Fritzlar's Liet von troye (c.
1195).
[23] See William Caxton's preface to his 1485 edition.
[24] See the Annunciations of Robert Campin (c. 1430)
(Image) and Rogier van der Weyden (c. 1435) (Image).
[25] See on the authorial function: George Kane, The Autobiographical Fallacy in Chaucer and Langland Studies,
Chambers Memorial Lecture (London: HK Lewis, 1965).
[26] See: David Lawton, Chaucers Narrators (Woodbridge,
Eng., Dover, NH, 1985).
[27] The ESTC notes 29 editions published between 1496 and
1785 ESTC search result
[28] See Rainer Schwerling, Chapbooks.
Zur Literaturgeschichte des einfachen Lesers. Englische Konsumliteratur 16801840 (Frankfurt, 1980), Magaret Spuord,
Small Books and Pleasant Histories. Pleasant Fiction and
its Readership in Seventeenth-Century England (London,
1981) and Tessa Watt, Cheap Print and Popular Piety
15501640 (Cambridge, 1990).
[29] See Guglielmo Cavallo, Roger Chartier, A History of
Reading in the West, transl. by Lydia G. Cochrane (University of Massachusetts Press, 2003), and Jennifer Andersen and Elizabeth Sauer, Books and Readers in Early
Modern England: Material Studies (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001).
[30] See Johann Friedrich Riederer German satire on the
widespread reading of novels and romances: Satyra von
den Liebes-Romanen, in: Die abentheuerliche Welt in
einer Pickelheerings-Kappe, vol. 2 (Nrnberg, 1718).
online edition

36

[31] The Illustrious and Renown'd History of the Seven Famous Champions of Christendom (London: T. Norris/ A.
Bettesworth, 1719), pp. 164168. See de:Volksbuch for
a longer excerpt of the publishers backlist.
[32] See Hilkert Weddige, Die Historien vom Amadis auss
Franckreich": Dokumentarische Grundlegung zur Entstehung und Rezeption (Beitrage zur Literatur des XV. bis
XVIII. Jahrhunderts ; vol. 2) (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1975).
[33] Compare also: Gnter Berger, Der komisch-satirische Roman und seine Leser. Poetik, Funktion und Rezeption
einer niederen Gattung im Frankreich des 17. Jahrhunderts (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universittsverlag, 1984),
Ellen Turner Gutirrez The reception of the picaresque
in the French, English, and German traditions (P. Lang,
1995), and Frank Palmeri, Satire, History, Novel: Narrative Forms, 16651815 (University of Delaware Press,
2003).
[34] See: Markus Vlkels study of the entire debate Pyrrhonismus historicus und Fides historica (Frankfurt: Lang,
1987).
[35] See Martin Mulsow, Pierre Bayles Beziehungen nach
Deutschland. Mit einem Anhang: ein unverentlichtes
Gesprch von Bayle, Aufklrung 16 (2004), 233242.
online edition of Stolles notes
[36] See his Dom Carlos, nouvelle histoire (Amsterdam, 1672)
and the recent dissertation by Chantal Carasco, SaintRal, romancier de l'histoire: une cohrence esththique et
morale (Nantes, 2005).
[37] Jean Lombard, Courtilz de Sandras et la crise du roman
la n du Grand Sicle (Paris: PUF, 1980).
[38] That would be William Taylor, the publisher unless otherwise stated.

11

REFERENCES

[45] See: Ren Godenne, L'association 'nouvelle petit roman' entre 1650 et 1750, CAIEF, n18, 1966,
p.67-78, Roger Guichemerre, La crise du roman et
l'panouissement de la nouvelle (16601690)", Cahiers
de l'U.E.R. Froissart, n3, 1978, pp. 101106, Ellen J.
Hunter-Chapco, Theory and practice of the petit roman
in France (16561683): Segrais, Du Plaisir, Madame de
Lafayette (University of Regina, 1978), and the two volumes of La Nouvelle de langue franaise aux frontires des
autres genres, du Moyen-ge nos jours, vol. 1 (Ottignies:
1997), vol. 2 (Louvain, 2001).
[46] See Robert Ignatius Letellier, The English novel, 1660
1700: an annotated bibliography (Greenwood Publishing
Group, 1997).
[47] See the preface to The Secret History of Queen Zarah (Albigion, 1705) the English version of Abbe Bellegarde,
Lettre une Dame de la Cour, qui lui avoit demand
quelques Reexions sur l'Histoire in: Lettres curieuses de
littrature et de morale (La Haye: Adrian Moetjens, 1702)
online edition
[48] DeJean, Joan. The Essence of Style: How the French Invented Fashion, Fine Food, Chic Cafs, Style, Sophistication, and Glamour (New York: Free Press, 2005).
[49] Warner, William B. Preface From a Literary to a Cultural
History of the Early Novel In: Licensing Entertainment The Elevation of Novel Reading in Britain, 16841750
University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles
Oxford: 1998.
[50] Cevasco, George A. Pearl Buck and the Chinese Novel, p.
442. Asian Studies - Journal of Critical Perspectives on
Asia, 1967, 5:3, pp.437-451.
[51] The Rise of the Novel, chapter 2.
[52] Doody (1996), pp.2-3.
[53] Doody (1996), p. 1-2.

[39] Changed to disputed in the third edition

[54] Albert J. Guerard The Triumph of the Novel (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1976), p.12.

[40] Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe (London: W. Taylor,

1719)

[55] The Triumph of the Novel, p.12.

[41] See Delarivier Manleys account of the aair in her

Adventures of Rivella (London: E. Curl, 1714), p.114

[56] The Rise of the Novel (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books,

1963, p.10.

[42] See Camille Esmein, Construction et dmolition du

'hros de roman' au XVIIe sicle, La fabrique du personnage ed. by Franoise Lavocat, Claude Murcia, Rgis
Salado (Paris: Honor Champion diteur, 2007).

[57] See the statistics Inger Leemans oers for the Dutch and
French production, Het woord is aan de onderkant: radicale ideen in Nederlandse pornograsche romans 1670
1700 (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002), S.359364. See also
for an overview of the German and English early-18thcentury production:

[43] See Paul Scarron, The Comical Romance, Chapter XXI.

Which perhaps will not be found very Entertaining
(London, 1700) with its call for the new genre. online
edition

[58] Vogorini, Ana (2008). The Novel-Reading Panic in

18th Century in England: An Outline of an Early Moral
Media Panic. Medijska istraivanja 14 (2): 109115.
Retrieved 26 October 2014.

[44] See [Du Sieur,] Sentimens sur l'histoire in: Sentimens

sur les lettres et sur l'histoire, avec des scruples sur le stile
(Paris: C. Blageart, 1680) online edition and Camille Esmeins Potiques du roman. Scudry, Huet, Du Plaisir et
autres textes thoriques et critiques du XVIIe sicle sur le
genre romanesque (Paris, 2004).

[59] See for the following: Christiane Berkvens-Stevelinck, H.

Bots, P. G. Hoftijzer (eds.), Le Magasin de L'univers: The
Dutch Republic as the Centre of the European Book Trade:
Papers Presented at the International Colloquium, Held at
Wassenaar, 57 July 1990 (Leiden/ Boston, MA: Brill,
1992).

37

[60] See also the article on Pierre Marteau for a prole of the
European production of (not only) political scandal.

[74] The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature, ed. Marion

Wynne Davis. New York: Prentice Hall, 1990, p.885.

[61] See George Ernst Reinwalds Academien- und StudentenSpiegel (Berlin: J. A. Rdiger, 1720), p.424427 and the
novels written by such authors as Celander, Sarcander,
and Adamantes at the beginning of the 18th century.

[75] The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature, ed. Marion

Wynne Davis, p.885.

[62] See: Siegfried Seifert, The learned periodical as the

medium of current literary criticism and information in
18th-century Germany, Transactions of the 7th International Congress on the Enlightenment, 2 (1988), p.661-63.
[63] See Benjamin Wedel, Geheime Nachrichten und Briefe
von Herrn Menantes Leben und Schriften (Cologne:
Oelscher, 1731, reprint: Zentralantiquariat der DDR,
Leipzig 1977).
[64] See George Alexander Starr, Defoe and Spiritual Autobiography (Princeton: University Press, 1964).
[65] See Wilhelm Fger, Die Entstehung des historischen Romans aus der ktiven Biographie in Frankreich und England, unter besonderer Bercksichtigung von Courtilz de
Sandras und Daniel Defoe (Munich, 1963).
[66] See the preface to her Exilius (London: E. Curll, 1715)
[67] A Handbook of Literary Terms, 7th edition, ed. Harmon
and Holman (1995), p.450.
[68] See the extended excerpt of Stephen Lewis 1715 edition
at Traitt de l'origine des romans (1670) for the collection
of these statements and further literature.
[69] See for novels teaching strategies: Vera Lee, Love
and strategy in the eighteenth-century French novel
(Schenkman Books, 1986), Anton Kirchhofer, Strategie und Wahrheit: Zum Einsatz von Wissen ber Leidenschaften und Geschlecht im Roman der englischen
Empndsamkeit (Mnchen: Fink, 1995). online edition and the two rst context chapters in Olaf Simons,
Marteaus Europa, oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur
wurde (Amsterdam, 2001), p.200-207 and pp.259290.

[76] The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature, ed. Marion

Wynne Davis, p.884.
[77] The Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol.2, 7th edition, ed. M. H. Abrams. New York: Norton, 2000, pp.
20-21.
[78] The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature, p.885.
[79] Arthur C. Benson, Charles Dickens. The North American Review, Vol. 195, No. 676 (Mar., 1912), pp. 381391.
[80] Jane Millgate, Two Versions of Regional Romance:
Scotts The Bride of Lammermoor and Hardys Tess of the
d'Urbervilles. Studies in English Literature, 15001900,
Vol. 17, No. 4, Nineteenth Century (Autumn, 1977), pp.
729-738.
[81] Lucasta Miller, The Bront Myth. London: Vintage, 2002.
[82] Dictionary of Literary Terms & Literary Theory, ed. J.
A. Cuddon, 4th edition, revised C. E. Preston (1999), pp.
761.
[83] For the wider context of 19th-century encounters with
history see: Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University, 1977).
[84] See Scott Donaldson and Ann Massa American Literature: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (David &
Charles, 1978), p. 205.
[85] See for the project of a German Nationalliteratur": Peter
Uwe Hohendahl, Building a National Literature: The Case
of Germany, 18301870 transl. by Renate Franciscono
(Cornell University Press, 1989).

[70] The elegant and clearly fashionable edition of The Works

of Lucian (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1711), would thus include the story of Lucians
Ass, vol.1 p.114-43.

[86] See Ian Hunter, Culture and Government. The Emergence

of Literary Education (Basingstoke, 1988).

[71] See Robert Darnton, The Forbidden Best-Sellers of PreRevolutionary France (New York: Norton, 1995), Lynn
Hunt, The Invention of Pornography: Obscenity and the
Origins of Modernity, 15001800 (New York: Zone,
1996), Inger Leemans, Het woord is aan de onderkant:
radicale ideen in Nederlandse pornograsche romans
16701700 (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002), and Lisa Z. Sigel,
Governing Pleasures: Pornography and Social Change in
England, 18151914 (January: Scholarly Book Services
Inc, 2002).

[88] See: Sebastian Neumeister und Conrad Wiedemann

(eds.), Res publica litteraria: Die Institutionen der
Gelehrsamkeit in der frhen Neuzeit (Wiesbaden: Otto
Harrassowitz, 1987) and Dena Goodman, The Republic
of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment
(Cornell University Press, 1996).

[87] .Hippolyte Taine, Histoire of English Literature [French

1863] (1864)

[72] See Georey Galt Harpham, On the Grotesque: Strategies

of Contradiction in Art and Literature, 2nd ed. (Davies
Group, Publishers, 2006).

[89] See Mark Rose, Authors and Owners: The Invention

of Copyright 3rd ed. (Harvard University Press, 1993)
and Joseph Lowenstein, The Authors Due: Printing and
the Prehistory of Copyright (University of Chicago Press,
2002)

[73] See Gerald Ernest Paul Gillespie, Manfred Engel, and

Bernard Dieterle, Romantic prose ction (John Benjamins
Publishing Company, 2008).

[90] See Susan Esmann, Die Autorenlesung eine Form der

Literaturvermittlung, Kritische Ausgabe 1/2007 PDF; 0,8
MB.

38

[91] See: James Engell, The committed word: Literature and

Public Values (Penn State Press, 1999) and Edwin M.
Eigner, George John Worth (ed.), Victorian criticism of
the novel (Cambridge: CUP Archive, 1985).

11

REFERENCES

2006) und Richard Wires, The Politics of the Nobel Prize in

Literature: How the Laureates Were Selected, 19012007
(Edwin Mellen Press, 2009).

[106] See James F. English, The Economy of Prestige (2005).

[92] Gene H. Bell-Villada, Art for Arts Sake & Literary Life:
How Politics and Markets Helped Shape the Ideology & [107] Data published in The Bookseller and made available at
Culture of Aestheticism, 17901990 (University of NeBook Marketing Ltd.
braska Press, 1996).
[108] See the Press Release issued of February 9, 2009.
[93] See Richard Altick and Jonathan Rose, The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public, [109] See Erwin R. Steinberg (ed.) The Stream-of-consciousness
18001900, 2nd ed. (Ohio State University Press, 1998)
technique in the modern novel (Port Washington, N.Y:
and William St. Clair, The Reading Nation in the RomanKennikat Press, 1979). On the extra-European usage of
tic Period (Cambridge: CUP, 2004).
the technique see also: Elly Hagenaar/ Eide, Elisabeth,
[94] See D. Bruce Hindmarsh, The Evangelical Conversion
Narrative: Spiritual Autobiography in Early Modern England (Oxford University Press, 2005), Owen C. Watkins,
The Puritan Experience: Studies in Spiritual Autobiography
(Routledge & K. Paul, 1972).

Stream of consciousness and free indirect discourse in

modern Chinese literature, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 56 (1993), p.621 and P. M.
Nayak (ed.), The voyage inward: stream of consciousness
in Indian English ction (New Delhi: Bahri Publications,
1999).

[95] See Gustav Seibt, Goethe und Napoleon. Eine historische

[110] See for a rst survey Brian McHale, Postmodernist Fiction
Begegnung (Mnchen: C. H. Beck, 2008).
(Routledge, 1987) and John Docker, Postmodernism and
[96] John Barth "The Literature of Exhaustion" (1967)
popular culture: a cultural history (Cambridge University
Press, 1994).
[97] Alvin Kernan, The Death of Literature (Yale University
Press, 1990).
[111] See Leslie Fiedler's Cross the border, close the gap!"
Playboy (December 1969).
[98] Kirschenbaum, Matthew (March 1, 2013). The BookWriting Machine: What was the rst novel ever written
[112] Roland Barthes, Mythologies [1957] (New York: Hill &
on a word processor?". Slate. Retrieved March 2, 2013.
Wang, 1987).
[99] Jan-Pieter Barbian, Literaturpolitik im Dritten Reich. Institutionen, Kompetenzen, Bettigungsfelder, new edition [113] Roland Barthes "The Death of the Author" [1969] in Image, Music, Text (London: Fontana, 1977).
(Stuttgart: dtv, 1995).
[100] See: Sabrina Hassumani, Salman Rushdie: a postmod- [114] See Grard Genette, Palimpsests, trans. Channa Newman & Claude Doubinsky (Lincoln, NB: University of
ern reading of his major works (Fairleigh Dickinson Univ
Nebraska Press) and Graham Allan, Intertextuality (LonPress, 2002).
don/New York: Routledge, 2000).
[101] See e.g. Malise Ruthven, A satanic aair: Salman
Rushdie and the rage of Islam (Chatto & Windus, 1990), [115] See Linda Hutcheon, Narcissistic Narrative. The MetacGirja Kumar, The book on trial: fundamentalism and
tional Paradox (London: Routledge, 1984) and Patricia
censorship in India (Har-Anand Publications, 1997) and
Waugh, Metaction. The Theory and Practice of SelfMadelena Gonzalez, Fiction After the Fatwa: Salman
conscious Fiction (London: Routledge 1988).
Rushdie and the Charm of Catastrophe (Amsterdam:
Rodopi, 2005).
[116] This comment was allegedly made by Joyce in October
1921, recalled by Jacques Benoist-Mchin in 1956 before
[102] See: Donovan R. Walling, Under Construction: The
it became a standard with Richard Ellman's biography,
Role of the Arts and Humanities in Postmodern SchoolJames Joyce (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982)
ing (Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational
p.521.
Foundation, 1997).
[103] See Paul Brian, Modern South Asian Literature in English [117] Paul Brians in his Notes for Salman Rushdie,The Satanic
Verses (1988) Version (February 13, 2004), p.5.
(Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press, 2003).
[104] See for the rise of postcolonial literatures Bill Ashcroft, [118] Raymond Federman, Critiction: Postmodern Essays,
(SUNY Press, 1993).
Gareth Griths, Helen Tin (eds.), The empire writes
back: theory and practice in post-colonial literatures (London/ New York: Routledge, 1989), 2nd edition (London/ [119] See, for example, Susan Hopkins, Girl Heroes: The New
Force In Popular Culture (Annandale NSW:, 2002).
New York: Routledge, 2002).
[105] See: Kjell Espmark, The Nobel Prize in literature: a study [120] See the page Romance Literature Statistics: Overview
of the criteria behind the choices (G.K. Hall, 1991), Ju(visited March 16, 2009) of Romance Writers of Amerlia Lovell, The politics of cultural capital: Chinas quest
ica homepage. The subpages oer further statistics for
the years since 1998.
for a Nobel Prize in literature (University of Hawaii Press,

12.2

Secondary literature

[121] See Karl Joseph Simrocks edition Sammlung deutscher

Volksbcher, 13 vols. (Frankfurt, 184567) and Jan Dirk
Mller (ed.) in his Romane des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts,
vol. 1 (Frankfurt a. M., 1990).
[122] See his Popular Fiction before Richardson. Narrative Patterns 17001739 (Oxford: OUP, 1969).
[123] Dan Brown on his website visited February 3, 2009.

12
12.1

Further reading
17th- and 18th-century views

1651: Paul Scarron, The Comical Romance, Chapter XXI. Which perhaps will not be found very
Entertaining (London, 1700). Scarrons plea for
a French production rivalling the Spanish Novels.
online edition
1670: Pierre Daniel Huet, Traitt de l'origine des
Romans, Preface to Marie-Madeleine Pioche de La
Vergne comtesse de La Fayette, Zayde, histoire espagnole (Paris, 1670). A world history of ction.
pdf-edition Gallica France
1683: [Du Sieur], Sentimens sur l'histoire from:
Sentimens sur les lettres et sur l'histoire, avec des scruples sur le stile (Paris: C. Blageart, 1680). The new
novels as published masterly by Marie de LaFayette.
online edition
1702: Abbe Bellegarde, Lettre une Dame de la
Cour, qui lui avoit demand quelques Reexions sur
l'Histoire in: Lettres curieuses de littrature et de
morale (La Haye: Adrian Moetjens, 1702). Paraphrase of Du Sieurs text. online edition
1705/1708/1712: [Anon.] In English, French and
German the Preface of The Secret History of Queen
Zarah and the Zarazians (Albigion, 1705). Bellegardes article plagiarised. online edition
1713: Deutsche Acta Eruditorum, German review of
the French translation of Delarivier Manleys New
Atalantis 1709 (Leipzig: J. L. Gleditsch, 1713). A
rare example of a political novel discussed by a literary journal. online edition
1715: Jane Barker, preface to her Exilius or the Banish'd Roman. A New Romance (London: E. Curll,
1715). Plea for a New Romance following Fnlons Telmachus. online edition
1718: Johann Friedrich Riederer, Satyra von den
Liebes-Romanen, from: Die abentheuerliche Welt
in einer Pickelheerings-Kappe, 2 (Nrnberg, 1718).
German satire about the widespread reading of novels and romances. online edition

39
1742: Henry Fielding, preface to Joseph Andrews
(London, 1742). The comic epic in prose and its
poetics. online edition

12.2 Secondary literature

Erwin Rohde Der Griechesche Roman und seine
Vorlufer (1876) [un-superseded history of the ancient novel] (German)
Lukcs, Georg (1971, 1916). The Theory of the
Novel. trans. Anna Bostock. Cambridge: M.I.T.
Press. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Bakhtin, Mikhail. About novel. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans.
Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin and
London: University of Texas Press, 1981. [written
during the 1930s]
Watt, Ian (1957). The Rise of the Novel: Studies in
Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. Berkeley: University of Los Angeles Press. Watt reads Robinson Crusoe as the rst modern novel and interprets the rise
of the modern novel of realism as an achievement of
English literature, owed to a number of factors from
early capitalism to the development of the modern
individual.
Burgess, Anthony (1963). The Novel To-day. London: Longmans, Green.
Burgess, Anthony (1967). The Novel Now: A Students Guide to Contemporary Fiction. London:
Faber.
Ben Edwin Perry The Ancient Romances (Berkeley,
1967) review
Richetti, John J. (1969). Popular Fiction before
Richardson. Narrative Patterns 17001739. Oxford: OUP. ISBN.
Burgess, Anthony (1970). Novel, The classic
Encyclopdia Britannica entry.
Miller, H. K., G. S. (1970) Rousseau and Eric Rothstein, The Augustan Milieu: Essays Presented to
Louis A. Landa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970).
ISBN 0-19-811697-7
Arthur Ray Heiserman The Novel Before the Novel
(Chicago, 1977) ISBN 0-226-32572-5
Madden, David; Charles Bane; Sean M. Flory
(2006) [1979]. A Primer of the Novel: For Readers
and Writers (revised ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow
Press. ISBN 0-8108-5708-1. Updated edition of
pioneering typology and history of over 50 genres;
index of types and technique, and detailed chronology.

40
Spuord, Magaret, Small Books and Pleasant Histories (London, 1981).
Davis, Lennard J. (1983). Factual Fictions: The Origins of the English Novel. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-05420-3.
Spencer, Jane, The Rise of Woman Novelists. From
Aphra Behn to Jane Austen (Oxford, 1986).
Armstrong, Nancy (1987). Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel. New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504179-8.
McKeon, Michael (1987). The Origins of the English Novel, 16001740. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3291-8.
Reardon (ed.), Bryan (1989). Collected Ancient
Greek Novels. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04306-5.
Hunter, J. Paul (1990). Before Novels: The Cultural
Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction. New
York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-02801-1.
Ballaster, Ros (1992). Seductive Forms: Womens
Amatory Fiction from 1684 to 1740. Oxford:
Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-811244-0.
Doody, Margaret Anne (1996). The True Story of
the Novel. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University
Press. ISBN 0-8135-2168-8.
Relihan, Constance C. (ed.), Framing Elizabethan
ctions: contemporary approaches to early modern
narrative prose (Kent, Ohio/ London: Kent State
University Press, 1996). ISBN 0-87338-551-9
Reconsidering The Rise of the Novel, Eighteenth
Century Fiction, Volume 12, Number 2-3, ed. David
Blewett (JanuaryApril 2000).
McKeon, Michael, Theory of the Novel: A Historical Approach (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 2000).
Josephine Donovan, Women and the Rise of
the Novel, 14051726 revised edition (Palgrave
Macmillan, 2000).
Simons, Olaf (2001). Marteaus Europa, oder, Der
Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde: eine Untersuchung
des Deutschen und Englischen Buchangebots der
Jahre 1710 bis 1720. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN
90-420-1226-9. A market study of the novel around
1700 interpreting contemporary criticism.
Inger Leemans, Het woord is aan de onderkant: radicale ideen in Nederlandse pornograsche romans
16701700 (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002). ISBN 9075697-89-9.

12 FURTHER READING
Price, Leah (2003). The Anthology and the Rise of
the Novel: From Richardson to George Eliot. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52153939-0. from Leah Price
Rousseau, George (2004). Nervous Acts: Essays on
Literature Culture and Sensibility (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). ISBN 1-4039-3454-1
Roilos, Panagiotis, Amphoteroglossia: A Poetics of
the Twelfth-Century Medieval Greek Novel (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005).
Mentz, Steve, Romance for sale in early modern
England: the rise of prose ction (Aldershot [etc.]:
Ashgate, 2006). ISBN 0-7546-5469-9
Rubens, Robert, A hundred years of ction: 1896
to 1996. (The English Novel in the Twentieth Century, part 12). Contemporary Review, December
1996.
Schmidt, Michael, The Novel: A Biography (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2014).
Schultz, Lydia, Flowing against the traditional
stream: consciousness in Tillie Olsens 'Tell Me a
Riddle.'" Melus, 1997.
Steven Moore, The Novel: An Alternative History.
Vol. 1, Beginnings to 1600: Continuum, 2010. Vol.
2, 16001800: Bloomsbury, 2013.

41

13
13.1

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13.2

Images

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6/62/1474_Melusine_Ausgabe_Augsburg_Johann_B%C3%A4mler_Blatt_2.png License: Public domain Contributors: copy of the page
Original artist: Printer Johann Bmler, Augsburg, Germany

42

13

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader, background research to Olaf Simons: Marteaus Europa oder Der Roman, bevor
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and_City_Vagaries.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan of 1711 title page Original artist: Unknown
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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/1715_
Constantin_de_Renneville_imprisoned.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: German edition of Constantin de Rennevilles French
Inquision (1715): Constantin de Renneville, Entlarvte und jedermann zur Schau dargestellte Franzsische Inquisition (1715). Original artist:
Constantin de Renneville
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File:1766_John_Cleland_Fanny_Hill_v1_p50.png Source:
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Cleland_Fanny_Hill_v1_p50.png License: Public domain Contributors: Cleland, John. Memoirs of a woman of pleasure. From the
original corrected edition. With a set of elegant engravings. ... London, 1766. Vol. 1, p.50 Original artist: John Cleland
File:1769_Laurence_Sterne_Tristram_Shandy_v6_p70.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/1769_
Laurence_Sterne_Tristram_Shandy_v6_p70.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy, Volume 1, p.70
Original artist: Laurence Sterne
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1933-may-10-berlin-book-burning.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Jpeg version of old gif photo. U.S. National Archives (See
also: http://www.ushmm.org/research/research-in-collections/search-the-collections/bibliography/1933-book-burnings) Original artist:
User Dyss on en.wikipedia
File:20000_Nautilus_engines.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/20000_Nautilus_engines.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
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File:2001_Numbers_of_Titles_published_in_the_UK.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/2001_
Numbers_of_Titles_published_in_the_UK.png License: Public domain Contributors: As to the graphics: Own work by uploader, Data:
J Whitaker & Sons, published in The Bookseller. Source: http://www.bookmarketing.co.uk Original artist: Olaf Simons
File:2008.06.09._Michel_Houellebecq_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_11.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/
d8/2008.06.09._Michel_Houellebecq_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_11.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work, http://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Kmarius Original artist: Mariusz Kubik, http://www.mariuszkubik.pl
File:2008_UK_Book_Sales_Volume.svg Source:
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Volume.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work. Derived from <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
2008_UK_Book_Sales_Volume.png' class='image'><img alt='2008 UK Book Sales Volume.png' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/2008_UK_Book_Sales_Volume.png/25px-2008_UK_Book_Sales_Volume.png'
width='25'
height='19' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/2008_UK_Book_Sales_Volume.png/38px-2008_UK_
Book_Sales_Volume.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/2008_UK_Book_Sales_Volume.png/
50px-2008_UK_Book_Sales_Volume.png 2x' data-le-width='669' data-le-height='503' /></a> File:2008 UK Book Sales Volume.png
by Olaf Simons, released under PD-self. Based on data from BookScan. Coloured using Inkscape. Original artist: cm (talk)
File:2009_Deutschsprachige_Trivialliteratur_im_Zeitungsgeschaeft.JPG Source:
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commons/f/ff/2009_Deutschsprachige_Trivialliteratur_im_Zeitungsgeschaeft.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work
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Wikipedia
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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License: CC0 Contributors: http://www.openclipart.org/cgi-bin/navigate/education/books (note: the link no longer works since reorganization of the OpenClipArt website). Original artist: Original author: AJ Ashton (on OpenClipArt). Code xed by verdy_p for XML
conformance, and MediaWiki compatibility, using a stricter subset of SVG without the extensions of SVG editors, also cleaned up many
unnecessary CSS attributes, or factorized them for faster performance and smaller size. All the variants linked below are based on this
image.
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Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3c32077.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Charles A. Barry

13.2

Images

43

File:Chaucer_Troilus_frontispiece.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Chaucer_Troilus_frontispiece.

jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.unc.edu/depts/chaucer/zatta/chaucer.jpg Original artist: Unknown
File:Chinua_Achebe_-_Buffalo_25Sep2008.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Chinua_Achebe_-_
Buffalo_25Sep2008.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: photo taken by Stuart C. Shapiro Original artist: Stuart C. Shapiro
File:Congreve_Incognita_(1692).png
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%281692%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Dan_Brown_bookjacket_cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Dan_Brown_bookjacket_
cropped.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Cropped from Image:Dan Brown - bookjacket.jpg; originally from http://www.
danbrown.com/meet_dan/gallery/high_res/1.html Original artist: Photographer Philip Scalia
File:ESTC-Title-count-1600-1800.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/
ESTC-Title-count-1600-1800.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader, background research to Olaf Simons: Marteaus Europa oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde (Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001). ISBN 90-420-1226-9 Original
artist: Olaf Simons
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Elfriede_jelinek_2004_small.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Elfriede_jelinek_2004_small.
jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Ghuengsberg at
en.wikipedia
File:Evstafiev-solzhenitsyn.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Evstafiev-solzhenitsyn.jpg License:
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File:Fenelon_Telemachus-1715_DeFoe_Crusoe_1719.jpg Source:
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Telemachus-1715_DeFoe_Crusoe_1719.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Franois_Rabelais,_Gargantua,_Lyon,_Denis_de_Harsy,_1537.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
6/69/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rabelais%2C_Gargantua%2C_Lyon%2C_Denis_de_Harsy%2C_1537.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Fran%C3%A7ois_Rabelais,_Gargantua,_Lyon,_Denis_de_Harsy,_1537.jpg Original artist: anonymous Book: Rabelais
File:Gerard_ter_Borch_d._J._008.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Gerard_ter_Borch_d._J._008.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 2nd third of 17th century Original artist: Gerard ter Borch
File:Honour_of_Chivalry_c1715.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Honour_of_Chivalry_c1715.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons by Ireas using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The
original uploader was Olaf Simons at German Wikipedia
File:Juliette_Sade_Dutch.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Juliette_Sade_Dutch.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.ameanet.org/memberz/juliette/ Original artist: ?
File:Literary_Communication.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Literary_Communication.gif License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader. The model was rst published in the German Wikipedias de:literature
article on July 18th, 2005. It is a result of discussions between Anton Kirchhofer and Olaf Simons (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/User_talk:Olaf_Simons' title='User talk:Olaf Simons>talk</a>). The English version was rst used to discuss the reception of literary
works in Anton Kirchhofers and Olaf Simons Oldenburg lectures Introduction into literary studies in the Winter semester of 2006/2007.
The model has its roots on pages 81-114 of Olaf Simons, Marteaus Europa oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde. Rodopi, Amsterdam
2001, ISBN 90-420-1226-9. Original artist: Olaf Simons
File:MS_A_la_recherche_du_temps_perdu.jpg
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recherche_du_temps_perdu.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: From: http://www.christies.com/departments/exceptionalprices.
asp?DID=10 Original artist: Original upload: en.wikipedia 21:16, 4 October 2004 . . Solipsist
File:Madame_de_Pompadour.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Madame_de_Pompadour.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Franois Boucher
File:Nobel2008Literature_news_conference1.jpg
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Nobel2008Literature_news_conference1.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Prolineserver (<a
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Prolineserver' title='User talk:Prolineserver'>talk</a>)
File:Oe_kenzaburo_japaninstitut_koeln_041108.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Oe_kenzaburo_
japaninstitut_koeln_041108.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hpschaefer
File:Oscarwildetrial.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Oscarwildetrial.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: The Illustrated Police News, May 4 1895. (Previously uploaded to the English language Wikipedia (log by Jack1956 (talk))
Original artist: Unknown
File:Paul_Auster,_Salman_Rushdie_and_Shimon_Peres.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Paul_
Auster%2C_Salman_Rushdie_and_Shimon_Peres.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: David Shankbone Original artist: David
Shankbone
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Contributors:
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Tkgd2007
File:Richard_Head_1666.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/89/Richard_Head_1666.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

44

13

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Richardson_pamela_1741.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Richardson_pamela_1741.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally uploaded to en.wikipedia in 2005 and 2008 by Olaf Simons and Ottava Rima (le log).
Original artist: Print: C. Rivington & J. Osborn. 1st. upload: Olaf Simons. Cropped and centered by Ottava Rima.
File:Romances-novels-1600-1799.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Romances-novels-1600-1799.
png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Background research to Olaf Simons: Marteaus Europa oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde
(Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001). ISBN 90-420-1226-9 Original artist: Olaf Simons
File:Salman_Rushdie,_Satanic_Verses_-1988-_illegal_Iranian_edition.JPG Source:
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commons/5/52/Salman_Rushdie%2C_Satanic_Verses_-1988-_illegal_Iranian_edition.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Private,
book bought in Germany Original artist: Olaf Simons
File:ScuderyArtamene.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/ScuderyArtamene.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Madeleine de Scudry, Artamne, ou le grand Cyrus ddie Madame la Duchesse de Longueville, Paris, chez
Augustin Courb, Imprimeur & Libraire ordinaire de Monseigneur le Duc d'Orleans, dans la petite Salle du Palais, la Palme, M. DC. LIV
Original artist: Madeleine de Scudry
File:Select_Collection_Novels_1722.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Select_Collection_Novels_
1722.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: English wikipedia Original artist: Olaf Simons
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File:Tosa_Mitsuoki_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Tosa_Mitsuoki_001.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Source: The Tale of Genji: Legends and Paintings
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