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C H A P T E R 3

Photovoltaic System Conversion

LanaElChaarElectricalEngineeringDepartment,ThePetroleumInstitute,AbuDhabi,

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Abstract
Thischapterdiscussestheconversionofsolarenergyintoelectricityusing
photovoltaicsystem.TherearetwotypesofPVsystems:thegrid
connectedPVsystemandthestandalonePVsystem.Solarcellsare
composedofvarioussemiconductormaterialsthatbecomeelectrically

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conductivewhensuppliedwithheatorlight.Thevoltagegeneratedby
thearraydependsprimarilyonthedesignandmaterialsofthecell,
whereastheelectriccurrentdependsprimarilyontheincidentsolar
irradianceandthecellarea.Photovoltaictechnologyisusedtoproduce
electricityinareaswherepowerlinesdonotreach.Indeveloping
countries,ithelpsimprovinglivingconditionsinruralareas,especiallyin
healthcare,education,andagriculture.Manycontrollershavetheability
tosensetheexcessofelectricitydrawnfrombatteriestotheloadandstop
theflowuntilsufficientchargeisrestoredtothebatteries.Thelattercan
greatlyextendthebatteryslifetime.ThechoiceofthePCUhasagreat
impactontheperformanceandeconomicsofthesystem.Itdependson
thetypeofwaveformproduced,whichinturndependsonthemethod
usedforconversion,aswellasthefilteringtechniquesofunwanted
frequencies.

Keywords
Photovoltaicsystem
Solarcell
Maximumpowerpointtracker
Perturbandobserve
Incrementalconductancetechnique
BatteryforPVsystem
StandalonePVsystem
GridconnectedPVsystem

CHAPTEROUTLINE

3.1Introduction155
3.2SolarCellCharacteristics156
3.3PhotovoltaicTechnologyOperation160
3.4MaximumPowerPointTrackingComponents161
3.4.1VoltageFeedbackControl162
3.4.2PowerFeedbackControl162
3.5MPPTControllingAlgorithms162

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3.5.1PerturbandObserve(PAO)162
3.5.2IncrementalConductanceTechnique(ICT)163
3.5.3ConstantReference164
3.5.4CurrentBasedMaximumPowerPointTracker164
3.5.5VoltageBasedMaximumPowerPointTracker165
3.5.6OtherMethods165
3.6PhotovoltaicSystemsComponents166
3.6.1GridConnectedPhotovoltaicSystem166
3.6.2StandAlonePhotovoltaicSystems169
3.7FactorsAffectingPVOutput170
3.7.1Temperature171
3.7.2DirtandDust171
3.7.3DCACConversion171
3.8PVSystemDesign171
3.8.1CriteriaforaQualityPVSystem171
3.8.2DesignProcedures171
3.8.3PowerConditioningUnit172
3.8.4BatterySizing172
Summary172
References172

3.1 Introduction
For many years, fossil fuels have been the primary source of energy.
However,duetothelimitedsupply,therateofdeploymentoffossilfuels
is more rapid than their rate of production, and hence, fossil fuels will
eventuallyrunout.Moreover,thethreatofglobalclimatechangecaused
by carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fossil fuels is one of the main
reasons for the increasing consensus to reduce the consumption of such
fuels.Thisreductioncanbeachievedbyswitchingtorenewableenergyfor
many energyrequiring applications, since it is clean and green.
Today,theglobaltrendistousenondepletablecleansourceofenergyfor
a healthier and greener environment to save the future generation. The
mostefficientandharmlessenergysourceisprobablysolarenergy,which
issotechnicallystraightforwardtouseinmanyapplications.Almost,all
renewableenergysources,exceptnuclearandgeothermal,aretheenergy
formsoriginatingfromthesolarenergy.
Solarenergyisconsideredoneofthemostpromisingenergysourcesdue
to its infinite power. Thus, modern solar technologies have been
penetrating the market at faster rates, and photovoltaic (PV) technology
that has the greatest impact, not because of the amount of electricity it
producesbutbecausephotovoltaiccellsworkingsilently,notpolluting
can generate electricity wherever sun shines, even in places where no
other form of electricity can be obtained [1]. PV is a combination of the
GreekwordforlightandthenameofthephysicistAlessandroVolta[2].
PV is the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity by means of solar
cells.
Thischapterwillhighlightinbriefhowsolarcellsproduceelectricityand
willdiscussindetailthevarioustechniquesavailabletotrackthesunin
ordertomaximizetheoutputpowergeneratedbythePVarray.Moreover,
thevariouscomponentsrequiredtooperatePVsystemsefficientlywillbe
described.

3.2 Solar cell characteristics

Solarcellsarecomposedofvarioussemiconductormaterialsthatbecome
electrically conductive when supplied with heat or light. The majority of
the firstgeneration solar cells produced are composed of silicon (Si),
which exists in sufficient quantities. However, more than 95% of these
cellshavepowerconversionefficiencyabout17%[4],whereassolarcells
developedoverthelastdecadeinlaboratoryenvironmenthaveefficiency
ashighas31%[5].Alltechnologiesrelatedtocapturingsolarenergytobe
used as direct electricity generator are described as photovoltaic
technology, which is subdivided into crystalline, thin film, and
nanotechnology.
Doping technique is used to obtain excess of positive charge carriers (p
type)orasurplusofnegativechargecarriers(ntype).Whentwolayersof
different doping are in contact, then a pn junction is formed on the
boundary.
An internal electric field is built up causing the separation of charge
carriers released by light, freeing electrons within the electric field

proximity,whichthenpulltheelectronsfromthepsidetothenside(Fig.
3.1).Theprimarysolarcellequivalentcircuit(Fig.3.2)containsacurrent
source with a parallel diode, in addition to parasitic series (Rs normally
small) [6] and shunt (Rsh) resistances (relatively large) [7]. Rs is mainly
affected by the factors such as the bulk resistance of the semiconductor
material,metalliccontacts,andinterconnections,whereasRsh is affected
mainlybythepnjunctionnonidealitiesandimpuritiesnearthejunction
[8].

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FIGURE3.1

EffectoftheElectricFieldinaPV

Cell[3].

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FIGURE3.2

Solarcellequivalentcircuit[8].

AsimplifiedequivalentcircuitisshowninFig.3.3.

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FIGURE3.3

ModelforaPVcell[9].

ThediodecurrentisgivenbytheShockleyequation:

(3.1)

whereI0isthereversesaturationcurrent,qisthechargecarrier,kisthe
Boltzmanconstant,Tisthecelltemperature,andnistheidealityfactor.
The PV module has two limiting components (Fig. 3.3): opencircuit
voltage(Voc)andshortcircuitcurrent(Isc).TodetermineIsc,setV=0and
Isc = IphEq. (3.4), and this value changes proportionally to the cell
irradiance. To determine Voc, set the cell current IL = 0, hence Eq. (3.3)
leadsto

(3.2)

ThePVmodulecanalsobecharacterizedbythemaximumpointwhenthe
product (Vmp (voltage, where power is maximum) Imp (current, where
power is maximum)) is at its maximum value. The maximum power
outputisderivedby

(3.3)

and

(3.4)

A PV module is normally rated using its Wp, which is

2

normally 1 kW/m under standard test conditions (STC), which defines

2

the PV performance at an incident sunlight of 1000 W/m , a cell

temperatureof25C(77F),andanairmass(AM)of1.5.Theproduct(Vmp
Imp)isrelatedtotheproductgeneratedby(VOCISC)byafillfactor(FF)
that is a measure of the junction quality and series resistance, and it is
givenby

(3.5)

TheclosertheFFistounity,thehigherthequalityofthePVmodule.
Finally,thelastandmostimportantfactorofmeritforaPVmoduleisits
efficiency(),whichisdefinedas

(3.6)

Pin represents the incident power depending on the light spectrum

incidentonthePVcell.
Toachievethedesiredvoltageandcurrentlevels,solarcellsareconnected
in series (Ns) and parallel (Np) combinations forming a PV module. The
PVparametersarethenaffectedasshownbelow[9]:

(3.7)

(3.8)

(3.9)

(3.10)

ThismodelisshowninFigure3.4.

FIGURE3.4

PVmodulecircuitmodel.

In order to obtain the appropriate voltages and outputs for different

applications, single solar cells are interconnected in series (for larger
voltage) and in parallel (for larger current) to form the photovoltaic
module. Then, several of these modules are connected to each other to
form the photovoltaic array. This array is then fitted with aluminum or
stainlesssteelframeandcoveredwithtransparentglassonthefrontside
(Fig.3.5).

FIGURE3.5

Photovoltaiccells,modules,

panels,andarray[10].

Thevoltagegeneratedbythearraydependsprimarilyonthedesignand
materials of the cell, whereas the electric current depends primarily on
the incident solar irradiance and the cell area. This current fluctuates
since the path of the sun varies dramatically over the year, with winter
and summer seasons being the two extreme excursions. The elevation

angle of the sun (

) is expressed in degrees above the

horizon.Azimuthangle(

)ofthesunisexpressedindegreesfrom

truenorth.Zenithangle(
)ofthesunequals90degreeslessthan
theelevationangleofthesun,or

(3.11)

Azimuth,zenith,andelevationanglesareillustratedin
Fig.3.6

FIGURE3.6

Azimuth,zenith,andelevation

anglesofavectorpointedtowardthesun[11].

Theoutputfromatypicalsolarcellthatisexposedtothesun,therefore,
increases from zero at sunrise to a maximum at midday, and then falls
againto zero at dusk. The radiation of the sun varies when reaching the
surfaceoftheearthduetoabsorptionandscatteringeffectintheearth's
atmosphere. PV system designers require the estimate of the insolation
expected to fall on a randomly tilted surface, hence need a good
evaluation of global radiation on a horizontal surface, horizontal direct
and diffuse components, in order to estimate the amount of irradiation
strikingatiltedplane.

3.3 Photovoltaic technology operation

Photovoltaic technology is used to produce electricity in areas where
power lines do not reach. In developing countries, it helps improving
living conditions in rural areas, especially in health care, education, and
agriculture. In industrialized countries, such technology has been used
extensivelyandintegratedwiththeutilitygrid.
Photovoltaic arrays are usually mounted in a fixed position and tilted
toward the south to optimize the noontime and the daily energy
production. The orientation of fixed panel should be carefully chosen to
capturethemostenergyfortheseason,orforayear.Photovoltaicarrays
have an optimum operating point called the maximum power point
(MPP)asshowninFig.3.7[12].

FIGURE3.7

(a)IVcharacteristicofasolarcell

showingmaximumpowerpoint(MPP)(b)PV
characteristicofasolarcellshowingMPP.

Itisnotedthatpowerincreasesasvoltageincreases,reachingapeakvalue
anddecreasesastheresistanceincreasestoapointwherecurrentdrops
off. According to the maximum power transfer theory, this is the point
wheretheloadismatchedtothesolarpanel'sresistanceatacertainlevel
oftemperatureandinsolation.TheIVcurvechangesasthetemperature
andinsolationlevelschangeasshowninFig. 3.8 and thus the MPP will
varyaccordingly[13].

FIGURE3.8

(a)PVpanelinsolation

characteristics(b)PVpaneltemperature
characteristics[13].

It is shown that the opencircuit voltage increases logarithmically while

theshortcircuitcurrentincreaseslinearlyastheinsolationlevelincreases
[14].Moreover,increasingthetemperatureofthecelldecreasestheopen
circuit voltage and increases slightly the shortcircuit current, causing
reductionintheefficiencyofthecell.
The PV panels, usually mounted on the roof or at a near open area, are

fixed to face the sun at an angle matching the country's latitude. If

possible,seasonaladjustmentofthemodule'sdirectiontowardthesunis
donemanually.Sincesolarpowertechnologyisrelativelyexpensive,itis
important to operate panels at their maximum power conditions.
However, to collect as much solar radiation as possible, it is more
convenient and efficient to use a sun tracking mechanism causing the
module'ssurfacetotrackthesunthroughouttheday.
The tracking can be along either one axis or two axes, whereby double
axestrackingprovideshigherpoweroutput.Theenergyyieldcanbethus
increased by about 20% to 30% depending on the seasonal climate and
geographical location [1517]. Although some claim that a fixed system
costs less and requires almost no maintenance [18], different tracking
mechanisms utilized to control the orientation of the PV panels have
proved their superiority over fixed systems in terms of converted power
efficiency.
TogetmaximumpowerfromthePVpanelattheprevailingtemperature
andinsolationconditions,eithertheoperatingvoltageorcurrentshould
be controlled by a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) that should
meetthefollowingconditions[19]:
OperatethePVsystemclosetotheMPPirrespectiveoftheatmospheric
changes.
Havelowcostandhighconversionefficiency.
Provideanoutputinterfacecompatiblewiththebatterycharging
requirement.

3.4 Maximum power point tracking components

TheMPPTincreasestheenergythatcanbetransferredfromthearrayto
an electrical system. The main function is to adjust the panel's output
voltagetosupplythemaximumenergytotheload.Mostcurrentdesigns
consistofthreebasiccomponents:switchmodedcdcconverter,control
system,andtrackingcomponent.
The switchmode converter is the core of the entire supply because the
energydrawn,storedasmagneticenergy,isreleasedatdifferentpotential
levels.Bysettinguptheswitchmodesectioninvarioustopologiessuchas
buckorboostconverter,voltageconvertersaredesignedprovidingafixed
inputvoltageorcurrent,whichcorrespondtothemaximumpowerpoint,
allowingtheoutputresistancetomatchthebattery.Toachievetheabove
stated mechanism, a controller is essential to continuously monitor the
PV system and ensure its operation at the PV maximum power point by
tracking this MPP. The controller's aim is to continuously measure the
voltageandcurrentvaluesgeneratedfromthePV,andcomparethemto
certain treshhold values in order to apply either voltage controlled
methodorpowerfeedbackcontrol[20].

3.4.1 Voltage feedback control

WiththePVarrayterminalvoltagebeingthecontrolledvariable,voltage
feedbackcontrollerforcesthePVarraytooperateatitsMPPbychanging
thearrayterminalvoltageandneglectingthevariationinthetemperature
andinsolationlevel[20,21].

3.4.2 Power feedback control

Inthismethod,powerdeliveredtotheloadisthecontrolledvariable.To
achieve maximum power, dp/dv should be zero. This control scheme is
notaffectedbythecharacteristicsofthePVarray,yetitincreasespower
totheloadandnotpowerfromthePVarray[20,21].Factorssuchasfast
shadows may cause trackers to lose the MPP momentarily. It is very
criticaltoensurethatthetimelostinseekingMPPagain,whichequates
the energy lost while the array is off power point, is very short. On the
otherhand,iflightingconditionsdochange,thetrackerneedstorespond
within a short amount of time to the change avoiding energy loss.
Therefore, the controller's most important feature is its capability to
quicklyadjustthesystemtooperatebackattheMPPT.

3.5 MPPT Controlling algorithms

Several proposed algorithms to accomplish MPPT are described in the
followingsections.

3.5.1 Perturb and observe (PAO)

The PAO method has a simple feedback structure and few measured
parameters. It operates by periodically perturbing (i.e. incrementing or
decrementing)thedutycyclewhilecontrollingthearraycurrentasshown
inFig.3.9andcomparingthePVoutputpowerwiththatoftheprevious
perturbation cycle. It measures the derivative of power p and the
derivative of voltage v to determine the movement of the operating
point. If the perturbation leads to an increase (or decrease) in array
power, the subsequent perturbation is made in the same (or opposite)
direction.Thiscosteffectivetechniquecanbeeasilyimplementedandis
characterizedbycontinuouslytrackingandveryefficientlyextractingthe
maximumpowerfromPV.However,suchmethodmayfailunderrapidly
changingatmosphericconditionsduetoitsslowtrackingspeed.

FIGURE3.9

PAOtechnique[19].

3.5.2 Incremental conductance technique (ICT)

The ICT process based on the fact that the derivative of the power with
respect to the voltage (dp/dv) vanishes at the MPP because it is the
maximumpointonthecurveasshowninFig.3.10.

FIGURE3.10

Theslopeconductanceofthe

PVcurve[22].

TheICTalgorithmdetectstheMPPbycomparingdi/dvagainst

till

it attains the voltage operating point at which the incremental

conductance is equal to the source conductance [23,24]. The Reference
[23]describesindetailtheICTalgorithmusedformaximumpowerpoint
tracking. The algorithm starts by measuring the present values of the I
and V, then uses the corresponding stored value (Ib and Vb) measured
duringtheprecedingcycletocalculatetheincrementalchangesas:dI=I
IbanddV=VVb.Basedontheresultobtained,thecontrolreference
signalVrefwillbeadjustedinordertomovethearrayvoltagetowardthe

MPPvoltage.AttheMPP,

,nocontrolactionisneeded

therefore, the adjustment stage will be bypassed and the algorithm will
update the stored parameters at the end of the cycle. In order to detect
any changes in weather conditions, the algorithm detects whether a
control action took place when the array was operating at the previous
cycleMPP(dv = 0). This technique is accurate and well suited for rapid
changesinatmosphericconditionshowever,becausetheincrementsize
approach is used to determine how fast the system is responding, ICT
requires precise calculations of both instantaneous and increasing
conductance.

3.5.3 Constant reference

OneverycommonMPPTtechniqueistocomparethePVarrayvoltage(or
current)withaconstantreferencevoltage(orcurrent),whichcorresponds
tothePVvoltage(orcurrent)atthemaximumpowerpoint,underspecific
atmospheric conditions. The resulting difference signal (error signal) is
used to drive a power conditioner, which interfaces the PV array to the
load.Althoughtheimplementationofthismethodissimple,themethod
itself is not very accurate because it does not consider the effects of
temperature and irradiation variations in addition to the difficulty in
choosingtheoptimumpoint[19].

3.5.4 Current-based maximum power point tracker

Currentbasedmaximumpowerpointtracker(CMPPT)isanotherMPPT
technique that exists [22]. Employed numerical methods show a linear
dependence between the cell currents corresponding to maximum
powerandthecellshortcircuitcurrents.ThecurrentIMPPoperatingat
theMPPiscalculatedusingthefollowingequation:

(3.12)

where MC is the current factor that differs from one panel to another
and is affected by the panel surface conditions, especially if partial
shadingcoversthepanel[25].Althoughthismethodiseasytoimplement,
additionalswitchisaddedtothepowerconvertertoperiodicallyshortthe
PV array, increase the cost, and reduce the output power. This method
alsosuffersfromamajordrawbackduetoperiodictuningrequirement.

3.5.5 Voltage-based maximum power point tracker

Similar to the abovementioned method, voltagebased maximum power
tracking(VMPPT)techniquecanalsobeapplied[22].TheMPPoperating
voltageiscalculateddirectlyfromVOC

(3.13)

whereMVisthevoltagefactor.TheopencircuitvoltageVOC is sampled
by an analogue sampler, and then VMPP is calculated by Eq. (3.13). This
operatingVMPPvoltageisthereferencevoltageforthevoltagecontrolloop
asshowninFig.3.11.Thismethodalwaysresultsinaconsiderablepower
error because the output voltage of the PV module only follows the
unchangedreferencevoltageduringonesamplingperiod[9].Albeitthe
implementation of this procedure is simple, it endures several
disadvantages such as momentarily power converter shutdown causing
power loss. Furthermore, such process depends greatly on the IV
characteristicsandrequiresperiodictuning.

FIGURE3.11

TheconventionalMPPT

controllerusingopencircuitvoltageVoc[26].

Other researchers argue that these two practices are considered to be

fast, practical, and powerful methods for MPP estimation of PV
generatorsunderallinsolationandtemperatureconditions[27].

3.5.6 Other methods

Automated techniques such as Fibonacci line search, ripple correlation
control method, neural network, and fuzzy logic have also been
introduced for MPPT. In order to generate a clear understanding in
determining the advantages and disadvantages of each algorithm, a
comprehensive experimental comparison between different MPPT
algorithms was made and run for the same PV setup at South Dakota
State University [28], and results showed that the ICT method has the
highestefficiencyof98%intermsofpowerextractedfromthePVarray,
the PAO technique has the efficiency of 96.5%, and finally, the constant
voltagemethodhastheefficiencyof88%.
The ICT method provided good performance under rapidly changing
weatherconditionsandprovidedthehighesttrackingefficiency,although
four sensors were required to perform the measurements for
computations and decision making [23]. If the system required more
conversiontimeintrackingtheMPP,alargeamountofpowerlosswould
occur [20]. On the contrary, under perturb and observe method, losses
are reduced if the sampling and execution speed were increased. The
mainbenefitofthisprocedureisthatonlytwosensorsarerequired,which
resultedinthereductionofhardwarerequirementsandcost.

3.6 Photovoltaic systems' components

OncethePVarrayiscontrolledtoperformefficiently,anumberofother
components are required to control, convert, distribute, and store the
energyproducedbythearray.Suchcomponentsmayvarydependingon
the functional and operational requirements of the system. They may
requirebatterybanksandcontroller,dcacinverters,inadditiontoother
components such as overcurrent, surge protection and, other processing
equipment.Fig.3.12showsabasicdiagramofaphotovoltaicsystemand
therelationshipwitheachcomponent.

FIGURE3.12

Majorphotovoltaicsystem

components[8].

Photovoltaicsystemsareclassifiedintotwomajorclasses:gridconnected
photovoltaicsystemsandstandalonephotovoltaicsystems.

3.6.1 Grid-connected photovoltaic system

Gridconnected photovoltaic systems are composed of PV arrays
connectedtothegridthroughapowerconditioningunitandaredesigned
to operate in parallel with the electric utility grid as shown in Fig. 3.13.
ThepowerconditioningunitmayincludetheMPPT,theinverter,thegrid
interface as well as the control system needed for efficient system
performance[29]TherearetwogeneraltypesofelectricaldesignsforPV
powersystems:systemsthatinteractwiththeutilitypowergridasshown
in Fig. 3.13a and have no battery backup capability, and systems that
interact and include battery backup as well as shown in Fig. 3.13b. The
lattertypeofsystemincorporatesenergystorageintheformofabattery
to keep critical load circuits operating during utility outage. When an
outage occurs, the unit disconnects from the utility and powers specific
circuitsoftheload.Iftheoutageoccursindaylight,thePVarrayisableto
assisttheloadinsupplyingtheloads.

FIGURE3.13

GridConnectedPVsystem.

ThemajorcomponentinbothsystemsistheDCACinverteroralsocalled
the power conditioning unit (PCU). The inverter is the key to the
successful operation of the system, but it is also the most complex

hardware.Theinverterrequirementsincludeoperationoverawiderange
ofvoltagesandcurrentsandregulatedoutputvoltageandfrequencywhile
providing AC power with good power quality which includes low total
harmonicdistortionandhighpowerfactor,inadditiontohighestpossible
efficiency for all solar irradiance levels. Several interconnection circuits
have been described in [30,31]. Inverters can be used in a centralized
connection(Fig3.14aforthewholearrayofPVoreachPVmodulestring
is connected to a single inverter (Fig. 3.14b [29]. The second proposed
procedure is more efficient since it minimizes the losses due to
voltage/current mismatching as well as it enhances it modularity
capability. Moreover, the inverter may contain protective devices that
monitorthegridandislandsthegridfromthePVsystemincaseoffault
occurrence[32].

FIGURE3.14

GridConnectedPVsystem.

For the last twenty years, researchers have been working on developing
different inverter topologies that satisfy the above listed requirements.
The evolution of solid state devices such as Metal Oxide semiconductor
Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs), Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
(IGBTs), microprocessors, PWM integrated circuits have allowed
improvementsontheinverter.However,moreresearchisbeingcarriedto
ensure quality control, reliability and lower cost since inverters are the
keyforasustainablephotovoltaicmarket.
ThemainadvantageofPVsystemsistheirflexibilitytobeimplementedin
remote locations where grid connection is either impossible or very
expensivetoexecute.SuchsystemsarecalledstandalonePVsystemsand
aredescribedinthefollowingsection.

3.6.2 Stand-alone photovoltaic systems

Standalone photovoltaic systems are usually a utility power alternate.
They generally include solar charging modules, storage batteries, and
controls or regulators as shown in Fig. 3.15. Ground or roofmounted
systemswillrequireamountingstructure,andifacpowerisdesired,an
inverter is also required. In many standalone PV systems, batteries are
usedforenergystorageastheymayaccountforupto40%oftheoverall
standalonePVsystemcostoveritslifetime[33].

FIGURE3.15

DiagramofstandalonePV

systemwithbatterystoragepowerDCandAC
loads[8].

ThesebatteriescauselossesinthePVsystemduetolimitedavailabilityof
time and energy to recharge the battery in addition to the insufficient
battery maintenance. Hence, a charge controller is then used to control
the system and prevent the battery from overcharging and
overdischarging. Overcharging shortens the battery life and may cause
gassing while undercharging may lead to sulphation and stratification,
whichresultinthereductioninbatteryeffectivenessandlifetime[3437].
BatteriesareoftenusedinPVsystemsforstoringenergyproducedbythe
PV array during daytime and supplying it to electrical loads as needed
(duringnighttimeorcloudyweather).Moreover,batteriesarealsoneeded
in the tracker systems to operate at MPP in order to provide electrical
loads with stable voltages. Nearly, most of the batteries used in PV
systems are deep cycle leadacid batteries [38]. These batteries have
thickerleadplatesthatmakethemtoleratedeepdischarges.Thethicker
the lead plates, the longer the life span of the batteries. The heavier the
battery for a given group size, the thicker the plates and the better the
batterywilltoleratedeepdischarges[39].
All deep cycle batteries are rated in amperehour (AH) capacity, a
quantity of the amount of usable energy it can store at nominal voltage
[40].Agoodchargerateisapproximately10%ofthetotalcapacityofthe
batteryperhour.Thiswillreducetheelectrolytelossesandthedamageto
the plates [38]. A PV system may have to be sized to store a sufficient
amount of power in the batteries to meet power demand during several
days of cloudy weather, known as days of autonomy. The Institute of
ElectricalandElectronicsEngineers(IEEE)hassetseveralguidelinesand
standards for sizing leadacid batteries (IEEE Std 10131990) [41], for
selecting, charging, and testing in standalone PV systems (IEEE Std
13612003) [42], and for installing and maintaining them (IEEE Std
9372007)[43].
Nickelcadmium batteries are also used for PV standalone systems but
are often expensive and may have voltage compatibility issues with
certain inverters and charge controls [44]. However, their main
advantageistheyarenotaffectedbytemperatureasotherbatterytypes,
hence mostly recommended for industrial or commercial applications in
coldlocations.IEEEhasalsodraftedsomeguidelinesforinstallationand
maintenance(IEEEStd11451999)[45].
Toextendbattery'slifetimeandforefficientsystem'soperation,acharge
controller is needed to regulate the flow of electricity from the PV
modulestothebatteryandtheload.Thecontrollerkeepsthebatteryfully
charged without overcharging it. Many controllers have the ability to
sense the excess of electricity drawn from batteries to the load and stop

theflowuntilsufficientchargeisrestoredtothebatteries.Thelattercan
greatlyextendthebattery'slifetime.However,controllersinstandalone
photovoltaic system are more complex devices that depend on battery
stateofcharge,whichinturndependsonmanyfactorsandisdifficultto
measure. The controller must be sized to handle the maximum current
produced.Severalcharacteristicsshouldbeconsideredbeforeselectinga
controller such as adjustable setpoints including highvoltage and low
voltagedisconnects,temperaturecompensation,lowvoltagewarning,and
reversecurrentprotection.Moreover,thecontrollershouldensurethatno
currentflowsfromthebatterytothearrayatnight.

3.7 Factors affecting PV output

PV systems produce power in proportion to the intensity of sunlight
striking the solar array surface. Thus, there are some factors that affect
theoveralloutputofthePVsystemandarediscussedbelow.

3.7.1 Temperature
Output power of a PV system decreases as the module temperature
increases. For crystalline modules, a representative temperature
reductionfactorsuggestedbytheCaliforniaEnergyCommission(CEC)is
89%inthemiddleofspringorinafallday,underfulllightconditions.

3.7.2 Dirt and dust

Dirtanddustcanaccumulateonthesolarmodulesurface,blockingsome
ofthesunlightandreducingtheoutput.Atypicalannualdustreduction
factortouseis93%.SandanddustcancauseerosionofthePVsurface,
whichaffectsthesystem'srunningperformancebydecreasingtheoutput
powertomorethan10%[4649].

3.7.3 DCAC Conversion

Because the power from the PV array is converted back to ac as shown
earlier,somepowerisbeinglostintheconversionprocess,inadditionto
losses in the wiring. Common inverters used have peak efficiencies of
about8890%.

3.8 PV System design

The goal for a solar direct electricity generation system or photovoltaic
systemistoprovidehighquality,reliable,andgreenelectricalpower.

3.8.1 Criteria for a quality PV system

ThecriteriaforqualityPVsystemareasfollows:
Beproperlysizedandorientedtoprovideelectricalpowerandenergy
Goodcontrolcircuittoreduceelectricallosses,overcurrentprotection,
switches,andinverters
Goodchargecontrollerandbatterymanagementsystem,shouldthe
systemcontainbatteries

3.8.2 Design procedures

The first task in designing a PV system is to estimate the system's load.
Thisisachievedbydefiningthepowerdemandofallloads,thenumberof
hours used per day, and the operating voltage [50]. From the load
amperehours and the given operating voltage for each load, the power
demandiscalculated.Forastandalonesystem,thesystemvoltageisthe
potential required by the largest load. When ac loads dominate, the dc
systemvoltageshouldbechosentobecompatiblewiththeinverterinput.

3.8.3 Power-conditioning unit

The choice of the PCU has a great impact on the performance and
economics of the system. It depends on the type of waveform produced,
whichinturndependsonthemethodusedforconversion,aswellasthe
filtering techniques of unwanted frequencies. Several factors must be
consideredwhenselectingordesigningtheinverter:
Thepowerconversionefficiency
Ratedpower
Dutyrating,theamountoftimetheinvertercansupplymaximumload
Inputvoltage
Voltageregulation
Voltageprotection
Frequencyrequirement
Powerfactor

3.8.4 Battery sizing

The amount of battery storage needed depends on the load energy
demand and on weather patterns at the site. There is always a tradeoff
betweenkeepingcostlowandmeetingenergydemand.

Summary
Thischapterdiscussedtheconversionofsolarenergyintoelectricityusing

photovoltaic system. There are two types of PV systems: the grid

connected PV system and the standalone PV system. All major
components for such systems have been discussed. Maximum power
pointtrackingisthemostimportantfactorinPVsystemstoprovidethe
maximum power. For this reason, several tracking systems have been
described and compared. Factors affecting the output of such systems
have been defined and steps for a good and reliable design have been
considered.

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