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Fermentation Processes
FRANS W. J. M. M. HOEKSI,*, CARLA VAN WEES-TMGERMA.@, KURT GASSER3,HENRICUS M. MOMME@,
SERGIO SCHMIL? and KAREL ChA.M. LUYBEM
LONZA AG, 3930 Visp, Switzerland
*KluyverLaboratory for Biotechnology, D e w Universig of Technology, Julianalaan 6 7,2628 BC Dew, The Netherlands
31ngenieurschule Wallis, Route du Rawyl4 7, 1950 Sion, Switzerland
4LONZA Biotec sro, Okruini 134,28161 Koufim, Czech Republic
Foam reduction through stimng was studied in 20 L bioreactors with artificial media and with an actual biotransformation process. For a given stirrer configuration and within a certain range of the broth mass, the foam height was correlated with the broth mass, i.e. the distance between upper stirrer and dispersion surface, and with the superficial gas
velocity. Increasing the stirrer speed often resulted in reducing the foam height. A mechanistic model was developed for
the Stirring As Foam Disruption (SAFD) technique, relating the foam height to the horizontal liquid velocity near the
dispersion surface. The model illustrates the general applicability of the SAFD technique and points to foam entrainment
as the major mechanism for the foam disruption.
On a etudie la reduction du moussage par Iagitation dans des bioreacteurs de 20 1 avec des milieux artificiels et avec
un procede de biotransformation reel. Pour une configuration dagitateur donnee et dans une certaine gamme de masse
de bouillon de culture, la hauteur de mousse a ete correlee a la masse de bouillon, soit la distance entre Iagitateur
superieur et la surface de dispersion, ainsi qua la vitesse de gaz superficielle. Augmenter la vitesse de lagitateur conduit
souvent a la reduction de la hauteur de mousse. Un modele mecanistique a ete mis au point pour la technique de desintkgration de mousse par agitation (SAFD); ce modele relie la hauteur de mousse a la vitesse liquide horizontale pres de la surface de dispersion. Le modele illustre Iapplicabilite generale de la technique SAFD et suggere que Ientrainement de la
mousse est le mecanisme essentiel de la desintegration de la mousse.
Keywords: foam, fermentation, mechanical foam control, gadfoam entrainment, multiple impellers.
n many technical processes, foam is an undesired phenomenon. There exist quite a number of mechanical,
chemical or thermal ways to destroy foam (Pahl and Franke,
1995). In fermentation processes, foaming is caused mainly
by proteins. Concentrations of 1 mg/L suffice to influence
foaming (Prins and vant Riet, 1987). Foam takes up space
and therefore reduces the effective production volume.
Secondly, the gas-outlet filters of bioreactors can be blocked
or get wet due to foam overflow, risking loss of a fermentation run.This risk could be minimized by operation with a
large head space. However, this reduces bioreactor output.
Accumulation of substrates and biomass in the foam also
reduces productivity (Schugerl, 1985). The enrichment of
cells in the foam might cause autolysis of the cells releasing
proteins and enhancing the interaction of surfactants with
dissolved proteins resulting in more foam. Consequently,
reduction of the foam layer in bioprocesses is a must. There
are several ways to do this:
1) Addition of an anti-foam agent. The addition of (large
amounts of) anti-foam is less desirable, because it reduces
gas hold-up and therefore oxygen transfer (Lee et al., 1993,
Yasukawa et al., 1991a) and may have negative effects on
the purification process after the biotransformation.
TABLE1
Design, Dimensions and Hydrodynamic Data of Upper Stirrers (Data for the pump capacity coefficient (N ) are taken from Nienow
(1990), except for the pitched blade stirrers, for which N, was given by the manufacturer TECHMIX sro YBrno, Czech Republic))
D
P, at
P,, at
Stirrer
(swept)
W
L
X
No. of
500 rpm
800 rpm
mm
mm
mm
mm
blades
Po
W
W
type
N4
120
95
125
120
95
RT120*
PBD,,,***
PBD,,*
**
30
23.8
44
44
32
24
19
60
24
24
4.5
2
2
2
2
6
6
4
6
6
0.72
0.72
0.73
0.9
0.9
4.3
4.9
0.75
1.51
1.91
62
22
13
22
8.6
254
90
54
89
35
*Rushton turbine.
**Hydrofoil Lightnin A3 15.
0 mm
c1
.-.
47 mm
47 mm
1019
TABLE2
Stirrer Configurations Tested (The 6-blade 45" pitched blade stirrer pumping upward (PBLI) had the same dimensions as the downward
pumping impeller (PBD).The hollow blade agitator (HB)of the Chemineer type CD-6 had 6 blades. The media are given in Table 3)
Middle
Bottom
Upper
Configuration
stirrer
stirrer
stirrer
Media tested
HB
I, I1
RT95
RT95
HB
L-c, I
RT95 - RT95
RT95
RT95
HB or RT,,,
L-c, I, 11,111, 1v
R7-I20
RTl20
HB
I, I1
PBD95
PBD95
HB
I
PBD95 - PBD95
PBD95
PBD95
HB
I
PBDl20
PBDl20
HB
L-c, I
PBDl2O - PBDl20
PBDl20
PBD120
HB
L-c, I
PBDl20
PBUl20
PBDI20 - PB"l20
HF
HF
I, I1
HB
HF-HF
HF
HF
HB
L-c, I
HB
HB
I
TABLE3
Composition of the Model Media Used (Concentrations in deionised
water in % (w/w). The description of the biotransfonnation medium
is given by Hoeks, 1991 and Hoeks et al., 1996)
Triton X-100
NaCl
Medium
Tween 40
I
0.0002
11
0.0002
4
111
0.00063
IV
0.00063
4
L-c
biotransformation
Modelling
DEVELOPMENT
OF THE MODEL FOR THE SAFD TECHNIQUE
plane at the tank wall (Josh et al., 1982, see Figure 2). In
this paper it is assumed that only the upward component of
the flow generated by the upper stirrer is relevant for SAFD.
For axial downward pumping stirrers, the liquid flow was
considered to consist of only one loop around the impeller
(see Figure 2). Axial pumping sthers form a rapid recirculation loop around the tips of the impeller blades when aerated (Manikowski et al., 1994).
MATHEMATICAL
ELABORATION OF THE SAFD TECHNIQUE
A cylinder with a diameter of half the tank diameter
(0.5T) from the middle of the upper stirrer to the gas-liquid
dispersion surface is defined (see Figure 2). For the mathematical elaboration of the model for axial pumping stirrers,
it is assumed that the flow direction of the liquid is horizontal
from the wall to the axis over the whole height of this cylinder. Furthermore, it is assumed that the liquid velocity is
constant over the height of the cylinder. Consequently, the
velocity vLdl of the above defined liquid flow at the position
of the cylhder wall is calculated by dividing the stirrer discharge flow under gassed conditions, QL,g, by the vertical
cylinder surface A, (see Figure 2). In formula:
..............................
QLX
vL.dl = 1
(1)
The scale independent parameter vL,dl is chosen to represent the horizontal liquid velocity near the dispersion level
and shall be related to the equilibrium foam height.
For radial pumping stirrers it is assumed that half the total
liquid flow generated by the Rushton turbine flows in an
upward loop and the other half in a downward loop (see
Figure 2). Therefore, the stirrer discharge flow QL,g for the
calculation of the liquid velocity vLdlin the upper loop is
divided by two ( Q L , 4 2 ) . Note that for radial pumping stirrers, the flow from wall to axis above the stirrer can only
exist in the upper part of the upward loop. In the lower part
of the upward loop the flow is from the axis to the wall (see
Figure 2). Again, a cylinder with a diameter of half the tank
diameter (0.5T) from the middle of the upper stirrer to the
gas-liquid dispersion surface is defined. For the mathematical elaboration of the model for radial pumping stirrers, it is
assumed that the flow direction of the liquid is horizontal
from the wall to the axis only in the upper half of this cylinder.
Furthermore, it is assumed that the liquid velocity is constant over the height of the upper half of the cylinder. Thus,
for the calculation of the liquid velocity VL,d[, the vertical
cylinder surface A, must be divided by two for radial pumping sthers (AJ2). Consequently, Equation (1) is valid for
radial pumping stirrers as well, because both QL,gand A, are
divided by two.
The height of the above defined cylinder is calculated by
taking the difference between the filling volume at the dispersion level ( v d ) and the filling volume at the level of the
middle of the upper stirrer (V,) and dividing it by (x/4)P.
The vertical surface area of the cylinder is xT/2 times this
height (see Figure 2):
Ac = zOST (vd - 5)
(n/ 4)T2
........................
(2)
The pumping capacity of a stirrer depends on the dimensionless pump capacity coefficient (Nq), the stirrer speed
T
Figure 2 - Schematic presentation of upper stirrer with model
cylinder and flow patterns of axial and radial pumping stirrers. V,
indicates the filling volume in the bioreactor at the level of the middle
of the upper impeller. Vd indicates the filling volume in the bioreactor at the dispersion level.
QL,,= Nq N D 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(3)
Equation (3) does not take the entrained flow into account
(Oldshue, 1983).
The flow generated by impellers is reduced under gassed
conditions by the ratio of gassed to ungassed power draw of the
stirrer to the power 0.34 (Rousar and Van den Akker, 1994).
Q ~ ~ =pg ( 0.34
p y QL,u
)
.........................
(4)
2 = - 1 7 . 5 F l ~ + 1 . 1 2 5 .......................
p,
(6)
1021
The plot of PgIP, against the gas flow number for the
hydrofoil Lightnm A315 is taken from Balmer et al. (1987)
for the hydrofoil Prochem Maxflo and also linearised.
Nienow (1990) stated that the hydrodynamics of both hydrofoil types are very similar.
P
2=-11Flc+0.73..
pu
........................
(7)
(gr25[
B
P=o.1 p,
N2D4 )-I5
gwV2l3
(12)
............
The ungassed power draw at 500 and 800 rpm (P,) and
the power number (Po) of the various stirrers are listed in
Table 1. The ungassed power draw follows from (Joshi et al.,
1982):
P, = p Po N3 D5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(9)
.....................
Po = 2.5 ( X / D ) ~ io.065
.
(10)
Po = 0.78 (x/D)-O.I4(D/T)-O.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1 1)
Bujalski (1986b) argued that the power number increases
proportionally to the ratio of the blade width and the impeller
diameter (WID). The power number of the 95 mm pitched
blade stirrer is adjusted accordingly. Bujalski (1986b) found
that Equation (1 1) is valid for single downward pumping
stirrers at DIT < 0.5 and for upward pumping stirrers with
higher D/Tratios. In this paper, with multiple impeller systems
and DIT not deviating too much from 0.5, it is assumed that
Equation (1 1) can still be used. The hydrodynamic data for
the hydrofoil Lightnin A3 15 are taken from Nienow (1990).
COMPARISON WITH LITERATURE
A literature study did not reveal any publication on the
use of stirrers with the purpose of foam reduction. However,
when studying a rotating disk mechanical foam breaker,
effects of stirrer speed on foaming have been observed
(Ohkawa et al., 1984). Ohkawa et al. (1984) also observed
effects of liquid volumes on foaming, which are covered in
the above model by reducing the distance between the upper
stirrer and the dispersion level, thus increasing the liquid
velocity at the dispersion surface. In a publication of Bakker
and Frijlink (1989), drawing down and dispersing floating
solids (polystyrene spheres) were presented. They concluded
that upward pumping impellers close to the surface are most
efficient for drawing floating solids into the gas-liquid dispersion. It was found that the creation of a vortex, which is
advantageous for drawing down the floating solids, is not
easy under aerated conditions (Bakker and Frijlink, 1989).
1022
v ~ ,a~ ND
, ...............................
(14)
30 25 -800 rprn
"I
15 --
0
0
I 10 --
I lo
800 rpm
20 ._
oooo
8
500 rpm
o
A
A
0
.*
0 0
5t
8
10
11
12
13
14
04
8
10
11
12
13
14
Figure 3 - Foam height as a function of broth mass and superficial gas velocity for the 120 mm Rushton turbine (RT,20)as upper
stirrer at 500 and 800 rpm. Duplicate L-camitine biotransfomations. The open and the closed symbols distinguish between the
data of either the one or the other biotransformation.
0 vsg = 0.0065 d s , 500 rpm
A A: vsg = 0.013 d s , 500 rpm
0 W: vsg = 0.0065 d s , 800 rpm
0 0:vsg = 0.013 m/s, 800 rpm
Figure 4 - Foam height as a function of broth mass and superficial gas velocity using two 95 mm Rushton turbines (RT9>- RT?,)
as upper stirrers at 500 and 800 rpm. Duplicate L-camitine biotransformations,For symbols see Figure 3.
Comparison of all the upper stirrers at the highest superficial gas velocity and a given stirrer speed shows that the
large Rushton turbine of 120 mm diameter resulted in the
lowest foam height for a given broth mass (compare Figures
3 and 4). During the experiments reported here, it was
observed that the 120 mm Rushton turbine created the
largest vortex and had the best foam reducing properties.
This corresponds well with the observations by Frijlink and
Bakker (1989) on drawing down of floating solids. Tanaka
and I m i (1987) found that larger impellers are more effective concerning gas entrainment.
Of course, the power draw of the 120 mm Rushton is
much larger than those of the other stirrers for a given stirrer
speed. However, the Rushton turbine of 120 mm diameter
draws less power at 500 rpm than the 95 mm Rushton turbine at 800 rpm (see Table 1). Still, the foam height at a
given broth mass and a given superficial gas velocity was
considerably lower for the 120 mm Rushton turbine at
500 rpm than with the 95 mm Rushton turbine at 800 rpm
(compare Figures 3 and 4). Consequently, for a given power
draw large stirrers at a low stirrer speed have to be preferred
(see below). The hydrofoil has a lower ungassed power
draw than the RTss and the PBD,,, (see Table 1). A hydrofoil of 140 mm would have an ungassed power draw of
23 W at 500 rpm, comparable to the power draw of the RTs5
and PBD,,,. Therefore, the foam reducing properties of a
140 mm hydrofoil should be better than those of a 95 mm
Rushton turbine or a 120 mm PBD at equal stirrer speed.
+:
I023
PBD120-PBU120
combination, which was the worst foam
reducing stirrer combination of all.
2) At a broth mass higher than the maximum foam free broth
mass, there was in many cases a range of broth mass in
which the foam height was almost linear dependent on the
broth mass for a given superficial gas velocity and a given
stirrer speed (see Figures 3 and 4). Doubling the airflow in
this range of broth mass resulted in a foam layer, which was
approximately twice as high (see Figures 3 and 4). At constant broth mass in the range of foam regime 2 and at constant airflow, increasing the stirrer speed from 500 to
800 rpm gave a reduction in foam height of 20 to 50%.
3) At a higher broth mass still, in some cases there seemed
to be a height of the foam layer which was independent of
the broth mass, or the foaming could not be kept under control.
The observation that there seemed to be a constant height of
the foam at higher broth mass was more profound with the
model media. When using Medium I and only stirring with
the hollow blade impeller at the bottom of the tank, the foam
height was 7-8 cm, practically independent of the superficial gas velocity. This observation is not consistent with
Bikerman's theory on foaming, but has been observed
before (Lee et al., 1993). Consequently, elaborating SAFD
only makes sense if the equilibrium foam height is in the
range, in which the foam height is influenced by stirring, i.e.
regimes 1 and 2. This equilibrium is system dependent. Note:
The equilibrium foam height was 2 to 3 times higher for the
biotransformation system as compared to the model media.
The observations described under foam regime 2 are consistent with Bikerman's theory concerning the dynamic
equilibrium of foam, which Lee et al. (1993) redefined as a
constant ratio between foam height and superficial gas
velocity. Through stirring this dynamic equilibrium can be
influenced, but at too high distances between upper stirrer
and dispersion level, foam reduction through stirring does
not occur anymore (foam regime 3). This compares well
with observations on gas entrainment: Tanaka and Izumi
(1987) showed that reducing the liquid height in a stirred
tank facilitated gas entrainment strongly. Thus, at too high
distances between upper stirrer and dispersion level, not stirring but other phenomena determine the foam height, such
as redistribution of surfactants, secondary foam formation,
foam mass, etc. (Pahl and Franke, 1995).
Interesting is the comparison between configurations with
one and with two upper stirrers of the same type and size.
There was a tendency that one stirrer was more effective
than two. This is best shown by the comparison of the maximum foam free broth mass, which was up to 15% higher
with one stirrer (see Table 4a). If the flow generated by the
upper stirrer is the cause of foam disruption, a reduction in
foam disruption ability caused by the middle stirrer in close
proximity points at an interference of the flows generated by
the upper and the middle impeller. As Chiampo et al. (1993)
have demonstrated, this interference is strong at low
impeller spacings, as is the case here with 3 impellers, and
increases with increasing superficial gas velocity. The interference of the flows may also explainwhy the PBD,20-PBUl,o
combination did not have good foam disruption properties.
Analogous to the comparison of the Rushtons of different
diameters, 95 mm pitched blade stirrers were less effective
in foam disruption than 120 mm pitched blade stirrers
(see Table 4). In fact, stirring with 95 mm pitched blade stirrers
influenced the foam height only marginally if at all.
1024
FEi
C
TABLE4B
Maximum Foam Free Broth Weight (foam height < 0.5 cm) for
the 120 mm Rushton Turbine as a Function of Stirrer Speed,
Superficial Gas Velocity and Medium (The maximum foam free
broth mass was determined by extrapolation of the linear
relationship of foam against broth mass)
Maximum foam free broth mass (kg)
0.0065 m/s 0.0065 m/s 0.013 m / s
0.013 m/s
Medium
500rpm
800rpm
500rpm
800rpm
11.4
11.5
10.8
I
12.5
111
12.3
9.5
10
IV
8.8
I*
I1
11.7
10
10.7
8.4
>I I?
9.9
9
8.0
13.5
10.8
L-c*
11.5
+RT,20 as bottom stirrer, otherwise HB as bottom stirrer.
30 T
H3
e
15
120 mm Rushton
10.8
9.0
9.9
8.7
12.6
h, = -16.59 * (1 - 0.28 / v L ~ J
%+
p++
+ +
++
f+
++ ;
+ +
k+++++
+
+
P ............................
hf=+-
(15)
vL,dl
......................
(16)
hf =a(l--
vL.dl
) .........................
(1 7)
05 mm Rushton
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
vwI [m/sl
VL,dl,o was estimated graphically for each stirrer combination. a was determined by linear regression of the equation:
y = m,with hf = y and
z=(l-- vL,dl,O ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(18)
vL,dl
1025
-PBD,a
- PBDla
-PBD,,,
- PBU,,
I.-
10
0.0
+
-0.5
0.5
0.0
2
TABLE5
Correlation Coefficients for Equation (1 7) for the Stirrer
Configurations and Media Tested, and the Corresponding
R-Squared Values
Configuration
Medium 01 [cm] v ~ , [~d,s,] ~ R-squared
I
I1
I
L-c
I
I***
I1
Ill
IV
-7.80
-1 1.92
-5.23
-16.59
-12.40
-10.75
-13.32
-97.69
-27.83
-14.98
(-0.4 I)*
(-1.63)*
-5.55
-3.43
-41.24
-3.21
-5.94
-3.84
-6.09
4.45
-29.48
L-C***
I
I
I
I
L-C
I
L-C
I
II**
I
L-C
*no v ~ , for
~ , these
, ~ stirrer configurations.
**800 rpm only.
***RT,20 as bottom stirrer.
0.16
0.15
0.18
0.28
0.20
0.2 1
0.20
0.20
0.2 1
0.26
(2.0)*
(1 .O)*
0.72
-0.75
0.85
0.75
2.20
0.55
0.44
0.60
0.58
0.72
0.52
0.73
0.38
0.28
0.53
0.12
0.84
0.23
0.20
(0.70)*
(0.06)*
0.52
0.35
0.55
0.59
0.40
0.38
0.37
0.04
0.76
~~
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
VLdl
-1 .o
HF - HF
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
[dsl
...............................
N oc P5I.3
(19)
(20)
30
HB + RTei
I
25t
.g
IC
10
0
0.00
I!
a3
i
e
2(
medium
0.05
0.10
0.15
VLdl
0.20
0.25
0.30
[wd
0.25
CI
HB + RTIS
9
0.20
TABLE6
Calculation of vL,dl,sfrom Data on Gas Entrainment from
Veljkovic et al. (1991) for Rushton Turbines
T
(m)
0.2
. _
0.3
0.3
0.45
hU
(m)
0.0667
0.1
0.1
0.15
(m)
0.133
0.2
0.2
0.3
(h)(rps)
NS
0.004
0.0002
0.0015
0.0006
21
7
11.5
6.67
'$'u
eshmate
1
1
1
1
0.15
vL.dl.S
0.10
(ds)
0.113
0.056
0.092
0.08 1
TABLE7
Gas Hold-up for 10 kg Broth Weight and vZg= 0.013 d s for the
Stirrer Configurations and Media Tested
&G at
&c at
Configuration
Medium
500 rpm
800 rpm
0.20
0.18
bottom stirrer (HB)
I
0.27
1
0.22
0.36
I1
0.28
0.29
0.23
I
0.23
0.17
L-C
0.3 1
0.26
I
0.28
I*
0.32
0.33
0.37
0.29
0.34
0.34
0.40
> 0.20
> 0.22
0.19
0.23
0.20
0.25
0.20
0.25
0.22
0.27
0.15
0.23
0.22
0.25
0.15
0.19
0.22
0.25
HF
I
I1
0.29
0.35
HF-HF
I
0.24
0.28
L-C
0.18
0.23
*RT,20 as bottom stirrer.
~
&
HB
0.25
CI
4
3c 0.20
I
cn
0.15
~~
0.10
10
11
12
13
14
I027
,P v%y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (21)
*
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Rob van der Lans from the Technical
University Delft for his suggestions and critical review of the manuscript. This work was supported by grants from the Swiss Federal
Office for Education and Science and was carried out for the project Bioprocess scale-up strategy based on integration of microbial
physiology and fluid dynamics in the Biotechnology Research and
Technological Development Programme of the European Union.
Nomenclature
= vertical surface area of cylinder with diameter T/2 above
upper stirrer (m2 )
D
= stirrer diameter (m)
Fl, = gas flow number, Q,/ND3
= acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
g
h
= height from the middle of the upper stirrer to the
dispersion surface (m)
= equilibrium foam height (m)
hf
L
= blade length (m)
m b = broth mass (kg)
N
= stirrer speed (s-)
= dimensionless pump capacity coefficient for stirrer
N,
discharge flow, defined by Equation (3)
P
= power draw of a stirrer (W)
Po
= power number (-)
Q , = gas flow (m3/s)
= discharge flow induced by stirrer (m3/s)
= diameter of bioreactor (m)
v ~ , ~= ,horizontal radial liquid velocity near the dispersion level
above upper stirrer at distance TI2 from axis calculated
from the discharge flow of the upper stirrer (m/s)
= superficial gas velocity ( d s )
= volume of liquid (m3)
vd
= dispersion volume (L)
V,
= bioreactor volume from bottom till top of upper stirrer (L)
W
= blade width (m)
x
= material thickness of stirrer (m)
y
= correlation parameter, defined by Equation ( 1 8) (m)
z
= correlation parameter, defined by Equation ( 18) (-)
A,
fL
Conclusions
Through stirring, reduction of the height of the foam layer
on low viscous broths can be achieved. This has been
demonstrated using an actual biotransformation process and
artificial foaming media. A simple mechanistic model for
calculating the liquid velocity near the dispersion surface
related to stirring and correlating this velocity to the foam
height has been presented in this study. This model for stirring as a foam disruption, SAFD,technique does not account
for the complex flow patterns which are stirrer type dependent. Consequently, the correlation between liquid velocity
and foam height is stirrer type dependent. But for Rushton
turbines with different diameters similar correlations, more
or less independent of the medium were obtained, suggesting the independence of geometry of the model.
The recommendations from this work for reducing the
height of the foam layer on production scale are, in general:
1) Reduce the superficial gas velocity by raising the head
pressure andor reducing the air flow.
Apply the SAFD technique:
2) Raise the stirrers or lower the broth mass.
3) For a given size of the stirrer motor and thus power draw,
reduce the stirrer speed and increase the (upper) stirrer
diameter.
1028
Greek letters
a
/3
y
E,
,&
,,
= density (kg/m3)
95
120
= diameter of stirrer: 95 mm
= diameter of stirrer: 120 mm
= gassed conditions
= minimal parameter value for the onset of gas entrainment
= ungassed conditions
g
S
u
Abbreviations
HB
HF
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