Classification of common rocks

by Dr J Floor Anthoni (2000)

www.seafriends.org.nz/enviro/soil/rocktbl1.htm
• Simple properties of rocks for field-testing.
• Classification
○ Common rock minerals. These are the building blocks of rocks and precious stones.
○ Clay layer structures. Clay is one of the most important minerals for mankind.
○ Igneous rocks. Molten rock comes from deep in the earth and transforms into various
rock types.
 Classification of igneous rocks. One type smoothly grades into the next; intrusive
and extrusive rock.
 The processes inside a magma chamber. Inside gigantic cauldrons, many kinds
of rock are formed.
 Mineral formation from solid solution, describes part of the process in a magma
chamber.
○ Sedimentary rocks. Erosion by water and wind, transport and sort soil components.
 Particle sizes: definitions for names of particles from boulder to silt.
 Sediment composition triangle: defining sedimental rock type from sand, clay
and carbonate content.
 Metamorphic rocks. Under pressure and heat, sedimentary rock transforms into
new forms.
• back to rock table contents table
.
-- seafriends home -- all about soil -- Rev 20070718,

Simple properties of rocks for field-testing

Hardness is the ability of one substance to scratch another substance. Geologists use Moh's Hardness
scale, which is an arbitrary scale that ranks minerals based on hardness, on a scale from 1 to 10.
Minerals with higher numbers are harder. The average pocket knife has a hardness of about 5.5, a
copper penny 3.5 and a human fingernail about 2.5. A field geologist has such tools in his pocket.
Hardness above 7 is called gemstone hardness (cannot be scratched by quartz). Some minerals are
softer in a certain direction only.
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Potassium feldspar
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond, the hardest naturally-occurring substance
Density: The density of a mineral is an important natural property, although not easily tested in the field.
Heaviest are the gold and platinum metals (density close to 20). Silicates weigh in between 2.5 and 3.5,
ores between 4 and 8.
Cleavage: the cleavage of a mineral refers to how it breaks. Depending on the crystal structure, some
minerals break in a regular, predictable manner, whereas others don't. If a mineral breaks in such a way
that it leaves smooth, shiny surfaces, then it is said to have cleavage, and those surfaces are called
cleavage surfaces. Cleavage can be perfect, good or merely incipient. The more perfect cleavage is, the
thinner the sheets are that can be split off. Among the thinnest are flakes of mica. Such minerals form
'books' and their cleavage planes look pearly lustrous.
Fracture: When a mineral is shattered or broken open, fracture surfaces are formed that may not have
good cleavage. The appearance of such fracture surfaces is judged conchoidal (rounded), smooth,
splintery, hackly, fibrous, even or uneven.
Twinning: Twinning can be defined by the appearance of fine parallel lines, called striations, on the
cleavage planes of some minerals. Twinning occurs when a mineral repeatedly changes the direction in
which it is growing.
Transparency: According to its transparency to visible light, a mineral is called water-clear, transparent,
translucent or opaque. Between these, there are innumerable intermediate stages. Minerals may be
translucent at their edges only.
Lustre: Lustre refers to the way a mineral reflects light. It is independent of colour and can occur in
various qualities. If a mineral reflects light in a similar way as a metal, it is said to have metallic lustre.
Other types of lustre are: glassy (vitreous), pearly, silky, resinous, greasy, waxy and earthy. The degree
of lustre is described as splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering, matt, dull.
Colour: Variety of colour is the most striking characteristic of minerals, and in many cases it is their
natural colour (yellow sulphur, red cinnabar, green malachite, blue azurite, etc). But alien atoms in small
quantities can cause changes in the natural colours of crystals. Some minerals occur in an amazing
variation of hues (fluorspar is transparent, white, wine-yellow, honey-yellow to green, blue and violet)
Special light effects: Light is reflected and diffracted by regularly intercalated foreign substances, by fine
fractures or by twinning. Labradorescence is a magnificent play of colours like in the blue labradorite.
Opalescence is the reflection of light as bright rainbow colours when an opal is turned.
Streak: the colour of a powdered mineral on a white underlay, like pyrite crystals having greenish-black
powder on their naturally yellow crystals.

Classification of common rock minerals.

A mineral is an inorganic, natural solid which is found in nature. Its atoms are arranged in definite
patterns (an ordered internal structure) and it has a specific chemical composition that may vary within
certain limits. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
• Native elements. Minerals consisting of a single element.
○ Platinum. Pt. density 21.46, hardness 4-4.5. Found as granules in sand from some
igneous rocks. Most noble of metals.
○ Gold. Au. Density 19.3, hardness 2.5-3. Often found in association with pyrite, chalco
pyrite and arsenopyrite in quartz veins. When found in streams, the gold is in small flat
particles of varying sizes. It is very ductile (heat and electricity) and malleable. Used for
ornaments because of its malleability.
○ Silver Ag. Density 10-11, harness 2.5-3.
○ Copper. Cu. Density 8.95, hardness 2.5-3. First used for making tools, later mixed with
tin to make bronze.
 ○ Tin. Sb.
○ Sulfur. S. Density 2.07, hardness 1.5-2.5.
○ Graphite. C. Density 2.09-2.21, hardness 1-2. Found in compact masses, large deposits.
Its high melting point and electrical conductivity makes it suitable for high temperature
electrodes. It is used as a dry lubricant in high temperature applications.
○ Diamond. C. Density 3.50, hardness 10. Lustrous, transparent, colourless, yellow or
green. Brittle and hard.
○ Also: mercury Hg (density 13.59), Arsenic As (density 5.63, hardness 3.5), Antimony
Sb (density 6.61, hardness 3-3.5),
• Oxides (-O). Oxides are common in geochemical environments poor in silica. Silicates form
easily from a magma, so if silica is used up in a magma chamber, then the oxides remain to be
formed. Their structure is complex: octahedral and dodecahedral crystals. Very stable against
weathering, but dissolving slowly in hydrochloric acid (HCl).
○ Magnetite (lodestone). Fe3O4. Density 5.17, hardness 6. Magnetic iron oxide. Large
deposits are segregated from igneous magmas at high temperatures and are mined near
the surface as iron ores. Can contain chromium or manganese.
○ Maghemite. Fe2O3. Iron sesquioxide. Magnetic.
○ Hematite. Fe2O3. Iron sesquioxide, ferric iron oxide. Non-magnetic.
○ Ilmenite group ATiO3.:
 Ilmenite FeTiO3, titanic iron ore, a black sand containing 36.8% iron and 31.6%
titanium, is the principal ore for titanium, but is hard to melt. Ilmenite is part of
basic igneous rocks such as gabbro and norite.
 perovskite CaTiO3, stibiconite SbSb2(O,OH,H2O)7, betafite,
○ Hydrous oxides of iron, limonites
 Limonite. FeO[OH].nH2O. Density 5.26, hardness 5-6. Rust. Non-magnetic.
Oxidized iron minerals. Is an important iron ore, found in many shapes and
colours, from ochre to blood red.
 Goethite. HFeO2. Non-magnetic
○ Aluminium oxides.
 Alumina. Al2O3. Aluminium sesquioxide,
 Beauxite. A mixture of various oxides such as boehmite, diaspore, hydrargillite,
alumogel, etc., mixed with iron hydroxides which impart the red colour.
 Corundum. Al2O3. Aluminium oxide. Density 4-4.1, hardness 9. An important
mineral, used as precious stone (red ruby and blue sapphire), and its greyish
variety as emery for abrasive and refractory products.
○ Spinel group AB2O4.
 Spinel. Magnesium-aluminium oxide. MgAl2O4. Density 3.55, hardness 7.5-8.
 Also: hercynite, galaxite, gahnite, chrysoberyl, franklinite, trevorite,
alexandrite.
○ Cuprite. Cu2O. Density 6.14, haardness 3.5-4. Copper ore. Octahedral crystals, dark
red.
○ Also: Tenorite (CuO), rutile (TiO2), Cassiterite (SnO2), Pyrolusite (MnO2) Psilomelane
(Ba,H2O)Mn5O10, Manganite (MnO(OH), anatase (octahedrite), brookite, wolframite
(Mn,Fe)WO4, columbite, euxenite, Uraninite (UO2), curite, gummite,brucite (Mg(OH)2,
• Hydroxides (-OH)
○ Gibbsite. Aluminium hydroxide. Al(OH)3. Found in aluminium ore.
○ Brucite. Magnesium hydroxide. Mg(OH)2. One of magnesium's ores.
• Carbonates (-CO3) metal-ion solid solutions. Usually medium or low hardness. Soluble in
hydrochloric acid (HCl)
○ Calcite. Density 2.71, hardness 3. Most common, most abundant of all minerals. It has
many forms of crystallisation (up to 700 forms!). Fine-grained, dissolves easily in
rainwater, especially when loaded with carbon dioxide in the form of carbonic acid
(H2CO3). Stalactites, stalacmites, etc.
 Limestone. CaCO3.
 Marble. (metamorphic). CaCO3. Limestone in a metamorphic crystalline (or
granular) state, and capable of taking a polish. Used in sculpture and
architecture.
 Aragonite CaCO3. Orthorhombic crystals.
○ Dolomite. Calcium Magnesium carbonate. (Ca,Mg)CO3. CaMg(CO3)2. Is the chief
source of magnesium. Used for agricultural fertiliser, steel manufacturing, and as a filler
in paint, putty and rubber. Marble composed of dolomite has beautiful colours.
○ Ankerite CaFe(CO3)2.
○ Also: Magnesite (MgCO3), breunerite, mesitite, smithsonite (ZnCO3), siderite (FeCO3),
sphaerocobaltite (CoCO3), rhodochrosite/ dialogite (MnCO3), strontianite (SrCO3),
witherite (BACO3), cerussite (PbCO3), Azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2, Malachite
Cu2CO3(OH)2, rosasite, aurichalite, and many more....
• Sulfides (-S)
○ Pyrite (Fool's Gold). FeS2. A yellow lustrus form of irondisulphide.
○ Galena. Lead sulfide. PbS.
○ Cinnabar. Mercury sulfide. HgS.
○ Also: Chalcocite, covellite, bornite, argentite, sphalerite, marmatite, wutzite, chalcopyrite,
tetrahydrite, tennantite,pyrrhotite, niccolite, metacinnabarite, stibnite, bismuthinite,
marcasite, hauerite, cobaltite, ullmanite, arsenopyrite, molybdenite, skutterudite,
proustite, pyrargyrite, bournonite, cannizarite, sartorite, realgar, orpiment.
• Sulfates (-SO4)
○ Gypsum. CaSO4.2H2O. Density 2.31, hardness 2. A hydrated form of calcium sulphate,
occurring naturally and used in the building industry and to make plaster of Paris. Easily
identified because it can be scratched by fingernail and is light. Also: selenite, sericolite,
alabaster.
○ Barite. Barium sulfate. BaSO4.
○ Also: Thenardite Na2SO4, Celestine SrSO4, anglesite PbSO4, jarosite
KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6, brochantite, linarite, leadhillite, lanarkite Pb2SO5, alunite
KAL3(SO4)2(OH)6, hanksite, chalcanthite, melanterite, goslarite, epsomite MgSO4,
morenosite NiSO4, pickeringite, halotrichite, coquimbite, alunogen Al2(SO4)3.16H2O,
copiapite, soda-alum, potash-alum, ammonia-alum, urano-pilite, zippeite, johannite.
• Phosphates (-PO4)
○ Apatite. Ca5F(PO4)3. Density 3.1, hardness 5. A naturally occurring crystalline mineral
of calcium phosphate and fluoride, used in the manufacture of fertilisers. A fairly common
mineral found in pegmatites, metamorphic and igneous rock, and in ore veins.
 ○ Also: lithiophilite Li,MnFePO4, xenotime YPO4, monazite CePO4, linbethenite
Cu2(OH)PO4,olivenite CU2(OH)AsO4, adamite Zn2(OH)AsO4, cornetite Cu3(OH)3PO4,
descloizite, brazilianite, crandallite, and many others.
• Halides (-Cl, -F)
○ Chlorites (-Cl)
 Halite (Salt). NaCl. Rock-salt.
 Sylvite. KCl. Potassium salt, occurs in compact masses.
 Karnallite. KMgCl3.6H2O. milk white or reddish granular masses.
○ Fluorides
 Fluorite. Calcium fluoride. CaF2. Density 3.18, hardness 4, isometric crystals.
Very wide range of colours.
 Also: cryolite, atacamite, cotunnite, nadorite.
• Silicates (SiO2) (-SiO4) (-Si3O8) (-SiO3). Arranged by heavy element content (the Bowen
series)
○ Olivine. Density 3.27-3.37, hardness 6.5-7. Ultrabasic. (Fe,Mg,Mn) silicates in solid
solution. olivine = forsterite + fayalite. Density 3.3-4.4. Tetrahedral structure. Green.
Resistant to weathering but susceptible to metamorphism. Much of the Earth is made out
of this mineral, and it is a major component of the mantles of other terrestrial planets. It is
usually a greenish crystal, often found as inclusions in basaltic lavas. Large crystals are
called chrysolite and are used for jewellery.
 Foresterite. Mg2SiO4. light-green
 Fayalite. Fe2SiO4. dark-green or black.
○ Inosilicates
 Pyroxene. Ultrabasic. (Ca,Fe,Mg,Na,Al,Ti) silicates in solid solution. White.
Density 2.8-3.7. Common in meteorites. 10% of crust. Single chain tetrahedral
structure. Moderately resistant to weathering.
 Diopside. (Ca,Mg)SiO3 = wollastonite + enstatite in solid solution
 Wollastonite (metamorphic). CaSiO3
 Enstatite. MgSiO3
 Augite. A complex calcium magnesium aluminous silicate occurring in
many igneous rocks. (Fassaite, bronzite, capholite)
 Hypersthene. A rock-forming greenish mineral of magnesium iron
silicate, harder than hornblende.
 Also: hedenbergite CaFeSi2O6, Johannsenite CaMnSi2O6, spodumene
LiAlSi2O6. (triphane, kunzite, hiddenite),
 Amphibole. Basic. (Ca,Mg,Fe,Al,Na)7-8 (Si,Al)8O22(OH,F,O)2. Density 2.8-3.7.
Double chain tetrahedral structure. 7% of crust.
 Horneblende. (Ca,Na,K)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)9O22(OH,F)2
 Also: tremolite Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2, actinolite,glaucophane, crocidolite,
riebeckite,
 Also: wollastonite CaSiO3, pectolite, rhodonite (Mn,Ca)SiO3, babingtonite,
prehnite, bavenite,
○ Tektosilicates
  Feldspar. (Aluminum silicates). Ultrabasic to intermediate. (K,Na,Ca,Al) silicates
in solid solution. Density 2.6-2.8, 60% of crust. Framework-tetrahedral structure.
Hard. Glassy or pearly looking, light colour. Moderately resistant to weathering
and metamorphism.
 Plagioclase feldspars
 Anorthite. CaAl2Si2O8. Plagioclase calcium feldspar.
Ultrabasic. White to medium gray with striations.
 Albite. NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase sodium feldspar. Intermediate.
White.
 Also: danburite, sodalite, haueyinite, lazurite (lapis lazuli),
scapolite, wernerite.
 Othoclase feldspars
 K-feldspar. KAlSi3O8. Orthoclase (Microcline) potassium
feldspar. Intermediate. Density 2.56. Hardness 6. Light cream to
salmon pink. Used in ceramics and glass making.
 Also: Adularia, Sanidine, Microcline.
 Feldspathoid group: nepheline (Na,K)AlSiO4, analcite NaAlSi2O6.H2O,
leucite KALSI2O6
 Zeolites: natrolite, scolecite, thomsonite, mesolite, dachiardite, forestite,
laumontite, mordenite, arduinite, ferrierite, heulandite, stilbite, and many
more.
○ Mica. Basic to acidic. (K,Mg,Fe,Al) silicates. Black. Density 2.76-3.2. Common in igneous
rocks. 4% of crust. Is a sheet silicate with properties of talcum/ formica. Any of a group of
silicate minerals with a layered structure.
 Biotite. Basic. K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2. a black, dark brown or green
micaceous mineral occurring as a constituent of metamorphic and igneous rocks.
 Muscovite. Acidic. KAl3Si3O10(OH)2. A silver-grey form of mica ('white mica')
with a sheetlike crystalline structure, giving a pearly lustre, used in the
manufacture of electrical equipment, etc. Also: fuchsite, alurgite
 Also: paragonite, phlogopite, lepidolite, chrysocolla CuSiO3.2H2O,
○ Chlorite group. Are similar to the micas, lamellar, dark green or blue green.
 Serpentine. Mg3Si2O5(OH)4. A soft rock mainly of hydrated magnesium silicate,
usually dark green (a chlorite) and sometimed mottled or spotted like a serpent's
skin, taking a high polish and used as a decorative material.
 Chrysotile. Asbestos serpentine with exceptionally long fibres. Colour white,
greenish, silky lustre. Used for buildings, insulation and high temperature
applications.
 Also: kaemmererite, penninite, clinochlore, antigorite,
○ Zircon. Zr(SiO4). Density 4.6-4.7. Hardness 7.5. Trigonal crystal., prismatic pyramid.
Glassy or milky in colour, but may be coloured (rock quartz, smoky quartz, morion quartz,
citrine, amethyst). Most abundant and widest disseminated mineral. Essential constituent
of volcanic, metamorphic and sedimentary rock.
○ Quartz. Acidic. SiO2. Ionic co-valent bond. Density 2.6. Hard mineral, virtually insoluble
in water. Translucent. One of the most important components of granite. Opal, jasper,
agate, chalcedony, flint. Tetrahedral structure. Also: Chalcedony, agate, onyx, jasper,
tridymite, opal, hyalite, flint,
○ Garnet. A3B2(SiO4)3. Density 3.3-3.5. Tetrahedral structure. A vitreous silicate mineral,
especially a transparent deep-red kind used as a gem.
 Almandine. Fe3Al2(SiO4)3. Common, wine-red. Density 4.25
 Also: pyrope. Mg3Al2(SiO4)3, spessartite. Mn3Al2(SiO4)3, grossularite.
Ca3Al2(SiO4), andradite Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3, uvarovite. Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3,
○ Clay minerals (hydrous aluminium silicates). Are the end products of weathering. All clay
minerals are sheet silicates, each clay type owing its distinctive character to the cations
such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg++) or calcium (Ca++), which
occupy positions in and between the sheets.
 Fibrous, open clays, palygorskite. Open and well hydrated clays, not common
in soils but are important in lake deposits which have salt-lagoon characteristics.
 Sepiolite and attapulgite.
 Two-layer clays. (1:1 clay; Si-Al lattice) fixed distance hydrogen-bonded (-O-
OH-) between the silica and alumina sheets. Formed through rapid leaching of
silica in volcanic soils (allitic weathering). Consist of a tetrahedral silica and an
octahedral alumina layer. These are rich in alumina, have poor cation-exchange
capacity, stable structure and swell very little when moistened. Tropical climates,
high rainfall, acidic conditions.
 Kaolinite. Al4Si4O10(OH)8. Absorbs little water but is just right for
pottery and ceramics. A fine soft white clay produced by the
decomposition of other clays of feldspar, used especially for making
porcelain (pipe clay), and in medicines. Also called china clay. The word
kao lin means high hill in Chinese.
 Also: nacrite, dickite.
 Hydrated 1:1 clays: Halloysite, Al2Si2O5(OH)4.2H2O. A high alumina
clay, which has slender tube crystals, and is white coloured. Used for
making high quality 'bone' china porcelain and industrial ceramics.
 Three-layer clays, smectite. (2:1 clays; Si-Al-Si lattice) variable distance (-O-
O-) bonded. Formed by slow leaching of silica, consisting of one octahedral
alumina layer sandwiched between two tetrahedral silica layers. Have high
cation-exchange capacity (CEC), but lower than amorphous clays. Weak
structure, low water permeability and swells when moistened. Temperate
climates, low rainfall, neutral to alkaline soils, especially under grasslands.
 Expanding lattice clays
 Montmorillonite. (Al,Mg)8(Si4O10)3(OH)10.12H2O. or
Al4(Si4O10)2(OH)4.xH2O. Holds and absorbs large amounts of
water. 20% in clay from volcanic weathering.
 Bentonite: a soft plastic light-coloured clay formed by chemical
alteration of volcanic ash. It is composed essentially of
montmorillonite and related smectite minerals. Used to bond
moulding sands, oil well drilling and to remove colour from oils.
 Also: beidelite
 hydrous micas
 Chlorite. Mg10Al2(Si6Al2)O20(OH)16. Absorbs large amounts
of water. A green flaky mineral, decomposition product of dark
micas and is found in many altered rocks such as schists. (Note
that this mineral bears no relationship to the element chloride Cl,
but its name relates to its green colour)
  Illite (muscovite). K2Al4(Si6Al2)O20(OH)4.
 Vermiculite:
 Amorphous clays. Formed from easily weatherable materials such as volcanic
ashes, lava or basalt. Have high cation-exchange capability. Low density,
permeable to water and air. Decay of organic matter is slow and humus content
high. Tropical climates.
 Nontronite. Absorbs and holds large amounts of water. 50% in clay from
volcanic weathering.
 Pelagic clays ('red clay'). Aluminium silicates. Any combination of
montmorillonite, kaolinite, chlorite with an admixture of silt- and clay-sized grains
of quartz, feldspar and other minerals. The chlorite crystal can be modified into
an iron-rich form. Deep sea sediments commonly contain this iron-rich form, from
which it derives its name 'red clay'.
○ Subsaturite
 Kyanite (metamorphic). A blue crystalline mineral of aluminium silicate.
 Topaz. Al2SiO4(OH,F)2. Density 3.6, hardness 8.A transparent or translucent
aluminium silicate mineral, usually yellow, used as a gem. Many colours.
 Staurolite. (Fe,Mg)4Al18Si8O46(OH)2. Density 3.65-3.77, hardness 7-7.5.
Crystals cross shaped, dark grey to reddish brown.
 Sillimanite. Al2SiO5. An aluminium silicate occurring in orthorhombic crystals or
fibrous masses. Aillimanite, Andalusite, Kyanite or Dysthene.
 Also: humite, titanclinohumite, braunite, titanite CaTiSiO5, datolite, dumortierite,
howlite, grandidierite, gadolinite, uranophane.
○ Sorosilicates
 Also: gehlenite Ca2Al2SiO7, cuspidine Ca4Si2O7(F,OH)2, ilvaite, hemimorphite,
epidote Ca2(AL,Fe)3Si3O12OH, piedmontite, zoisite, clinozoisite, allanite,
orthite,idocrase/ vesuvianite,
○ Cyclosilicates
 Also: benitoite BaTiSi3O9, eudialyte, taramellite, axinite, beryl Be3Al2Si6O18
(emerald, aquamarine, heliodor, morganite), cordierite, tourmaline, dioptase.
○ Phyllosilicates
 Talc. Mg3Si4O10(OH)2. Any crystalline form of magnesium silicate that occurs
in soft flat plates, usually white or pale green in colour and used as a lubricator.
 Also: Apophyllite, pyrophillite Al2Si4O10(OH)2, agalmatolite,
Notes: Density in kg/litre or g/cm3
Clay layer structures

The diagrams look at right angles to the sheets making up the main structure of the clay
minerals. The silica and associated layers are stacked along the c-axis (up/down). The
principal clay minerals are kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite (or mica), and chlorite. The clay
minerals are structurally related to the common mineral mica. Their sheets, formed by the
joining together of silica tetrahedra in a two-dimensional array, constitute the basic structural
units. The deviations from the mica structure and the variations among clay minerals are due
to the way the silica sheets are stacked with other chemical layers, and the degree of chemical
substitution within both the original silica sheet and the added layers.
The kaolinite sheets are held together by weak hydrogen bonds. Montmorillonite as shown is
representative of a group of similar minerals, in which substitutions of iron and magnesium
 occur at various sites. The iron-rich montmorillonite is the dominant mineral of deep-sea clays
of the South Pacific. They share the property of holding water molecules between the sheets,
causing (up to double!) expansion and contraction along the c-axis during hydration and
desiccation respectively. The montmorillonite minerals also show a high capacity to exchange
cations. Illite is the term used for the sedimentary fine-grained equivalent of ordinary mica
(muscovite). The chlorite crystal represented here can be modified into an iron-rich form.
Deep-sea sediments commonly contain this more iron-rich form.
Vertical dimensions: 7-14 Aengstrom = 0.7- 1.4 nm. Clay platelets can be very thin.
(From Karl K Turekian, Oceans, 1968. After Mason, 1967.)

Notes: Density in kg/litre or g/cm3

Igneous rocks
• Igneous rocks (Granites). Igneous rocks are formed by the crystallisation of a magma. The
difference between granites and basalts is in silica content and their rates of cooling. A basalt is
about 53% SiO2, whereas granite is 73%.
○ Intrusive, slowly cooled inside the crust. (Plutonic rock = formed in the earth). Large
crystals.
 Granite. (Continental crust) Density 2.7-2.8. High silica content (acidic). = quartz
+ mica + K-feldspar in solid solution. 60% orthoclase and plagioclase fledspars +
25% quartz + 5% darker minerals (biotite, hornblende). Color from flesh to black.
Crystals intermingled. Hard, rigid, tough. Granitic rock is much less common on
the other terrestrial planets, a fact having to do with the fractionation (where early
crystallizing minerals separate fromt he rest of a magma), a process that takes
place uniquely on earth, due to the prevalence of plate tectonics.
 Granodiorite. An intermediate form between granite and diorite.
 Diorite. High silica content (acidic)
 Gabbro. Density? Medium silica content. (intermediate). Similar to granite =
quartz + feldspar + pyroxene + amphibole + mica + olivene. A layer of gabbro is
found in the ocean crust, unerneath the basalt layer (0.5-2.5km), from 2.5 to 6.3
km deep. The lunar highlands have many gabbros (made largely of potassium
feldspar - also known as plagioclase)
 Peridotite.
○ Extrusive. cooled rapidly at the surface. Small crystals.
 Rhyolite. Medium silica content (intermediate). A fine-grained volcanic rock of
granitic composition.
 Dacite.
 Andesite. (Volcanic arcs) Density >2.8. Low silica content (basic) = sodium
feldspar + amphibole. Dark, dense.
 Basalt. (Ocean crust) Density 2.9. Low silica content. (basic). Dark, dense. =
olivene + pyroxene + Ca-Feldspar in solid solution. Basaltic rocks (gabbro &
basalt) are made up of feldspars and other minerals common in planetary crusts.
They have been identified as major surface rocks on the dark lunar planes and
much of Mars, Venus and the asteroid Vesta.
• Pyroclastic rocks: debris ejected by volcanoes
○ Tuff is made of compacted debris from old volcanic ash showers.
 ○ Volcanic breccia is composed of angular mineral fragments embedded in a matrix, the
product of explosive eruptions.
○ Ignimbrites are sheets of coalesced fine particles which once flowed at high speed,
extremely hot, fluid avalanches.
Notes: Density in kg/litre or g/cm3

Classification of igneous rocks

This diagram shows the makeup of igneous rocks from the various minerals inside a magma
chamber. Density increases from bottom right to top left.
Intrusive rocks are coarse-grained in texture and crystallise slowly from magma deep in the
earth's crust. Extrusive rocks are fine-grained in texture and crystallise quickly from lava on or
near the earth's surface. The mineralogy determines the type of rock. Granites and rhyolites
consist predominantly of quartz and potash feldspar; gabbros and basalts, predominantly of
pyroxene and plagioclase feldspar. Other rock types have intermediate mineral compositions.
Note that amphibole = horneblende. Note that the density of the minerals increases from top
left (2.6) to bottom right (3.4). Top left: high silica content (acidic); bottom right: low silica
content (ultrabasic). The temperature range at which magma solidifies is 1100-700ºC.
(Paul R Pinet in Oceanography, an introduction to Planet Oceanus. 1992.)

The processes inside a magma chamber

As tektonic plates move underneath a continent, they sweep both oceanic sediment and
continental sediment downward into the hot mantle, where they heat up violently by processes
as yet unknown. The very hot magma is able to melt the continental crust and travel upward
through it, cooling in the process. A batch of magma forms, known as a magma chamber, and
what happens inside such a batch cauldron is both very complicated, yet simple to
understand.
When magma is erupted onto the surface, through the vent of a volcano, it can explode into
clouds of ash, because of the enormous pressure of compressed gases like carbon dioxide
CO2. This is usually what a young volcano does. As gas pressure diminishes with age, lava
pours out, first frothy, cooling rapidly to rhyolite and dacite. Later eruptions are more sedate,
resulting in outpourings of andesite. Finally the volcano dies, leaving columns of basalt as a
hard crater plug behind. But it is not just the gases that make a difference.
As material leaves the magma chamber, there will be less of it inside to combine with the
remaining elements. As can be seen from the igneous rock classification diagram above, the
first minerals to leave a magma chamber are also the lightest, that have segregated to the top
of the chamber: rhyolite consisting mainly of quartz and feldspars. At the other end of the
scale, basalts consist mainly of feldspars and pyroxene, which gives it higher density. As the
magma chamber cools, while also losing its pressure, it leaves behind inside the earth a
chamber full of peridotite, which consists mainly of the mineral olivene. At this stage, there is
not enough pressure left to bring this material to the surface.
A magma chamber may not make it all the way to the surface, cooling entirely inside the crust
instead. The chemical process is now slightly different in that not the lightest minerals are
'leaving' the batch but those that solidify first. The remaining liquid minerals can then still react
to form different rocks, but the result is a range of 'intrusive' igneous rocks with compositions
matching the extrusive series closely (see diagram above).
 The process of forming a rock from a solid solution melt
This diagram shows how various minerals are formed from a magma batch with a fixed ratio of
two minerals; in this example albite and anorthite. Note that the many elements inside a
magma chamber and resultant minerals, complicate this simple example much further. The
rectangle shows relative composition horizontally and temperature vertically. The starting mix
is 70% liquid albite and 30% liquid anorthite. Cooling starts above point A. Typical of solid
solutions, are the two phase curves for each mineral. To the left and above each curve, the
mineral is liquid; to the right and below, it is solid.
As the liquid cools (black arrows from the top down), it arrives at point A. Here the anorthite
starts to precipitate, almost purely. In doing so, it increases the albite concentration, and albite
moves from A to C while staying liquid. If albite were to precipitate out, its concentration in the
melt would decrease, which would move against temperature (up the curve), and is thus
impossible. At point C, all anorthite (30%) has solidified slowly. The mix now moves from C to
D, rapidly solidifying the 70% albite, which by this time has increased its concentration to 95%.
Several types of rock are formed, one on top of the other, as shown by the right-hand diagram.

Note that phase (the liquid/solid boundary) changes not only with temperature but also with
pressure, which makes the process of rock formation rather complicated and variable.

Sedimentary rocks
• Clastic sedimentary rocks consist of rock and mineral grains derived from the chemical and
mechanical breakdown (weathering) of pre-existing rock. They contain rock fragments and more
commonly, particles of quartz and feldspar. Clastic rocks are further classified on the basis of
grain size. Underneath each rock type, the Wentworth Scale of particle sizes is shown.
○ Conglomerates (> 2mm) consolidated gravel
 Boulder (>256mm)
 Cobble (65-256 mm)
 Pebble (4-64 mm)
 Granule (2-4 mm)
○ Sandstones (0.062-2 mm) consolidated sand
 Very coarse (1.0 - 2.0 mm)
 Coarse (0.5 - 1 mm)
 Medium (0.25 - 0.5 mm)
 Fine (0.125 - 0.25 mm)
 Very fine (0.0625 - 0.125 mm)
○ Shales (<0.0062 mm) consolidated mud, rich in organic matter.
 Silt (0.0039 - 0.0625 mm)
 Clay (0.0002 - 0.0039 mm)
 Argillite. A sedimentary rock, composed of clay particles which have
been hardened and cemented.
 Illite (muscovite). K2Al4(Si6Al2)O20(OH)4. is a sedimentary fine-
grained rock, equivalent to ordinari mica (muscovite).
 Colloid (<0.0002 mm)
• Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed either from minerals that precipitate directly from
aqeous (water) solutions or from the accumulation of fossilised remains of organisms which
become limestone.
 ○ Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
○ Anhydrite (CaSO4)
○ Halite (NaCl) salt
○ Limestone (CaCO3)
Sediment composition triangle
The diagram shows the range of sedimentary rock types represented as mixtures of three
components: calcium (plus magnesium) carbonates, clay minerals (represented by the
hypothetical hydrated aluminium and iron oxides as the end member), and silica (silicon
dioxide). Sediments and sedimentary rocks have the same ranges of composition.
Iron-rich laterites and aluminium-rich beauxites are the products of intense weathering.
Sandstones are primarily composed of indurated sandy sediments, in many cases dominantly
quartz.
Cherts are the sedimentary rock equivalent of biologically deposited siliceous deposits. During
the transformation into rock, the amorphous silica, originally deposited by diatoms and
radiolarians, is transformed into very hard microcrystalline quartz-rich rock.
Argillaceous (from French: argile = clay) rocks are derived from the lithification of clay-rich
muds. Sediments or sedimentary rocks rarely, if ever, have compositions represented by the
white area of the triangle.

Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks have been chemically altered by heat, pressure and deformation, while buried deep in
the earth's crust. These rocks show changes in mineral composition or texture or both. This area of rock
classification is highly specialised and complex.
• Slates are foliated rocks representing low-grade metamorphic alteration of shales (laminated
clay).
○ Argillite is a mudstone, much hardened by pressure.
• Schists are foliated medium-grade metamorphic rock with parallel layers, vertical to the direction
of compaction..
• Gneiss are banded rocks consisting of alternating layers of quartz and feldspar, of high
metamorphic grade.
• Quartzites represent metamorphosed sandstone.
○ Greywacke is a severely hardened sandstone with mica and feldspar, sometimes
containing fossils.
○ Chert is a siliceous rock deposited chemically, often common among greywacke.
• Marble is metamorphosed limestone, just recrystallised.
Metamorphic rock may be of sedimentary origin or stem from igneous rocks. Rocks formed under high
temperatures (basalt, gabbro) are less sensitive to metamorphosis than those solidified at low
temperatures (quartz & felspar minerals). The following are causes of metamorphism:
• Pressure from sinking deeper while overlaid by other sediments.
• Pressure from continental collision and consequent folding and overthrusting of the crust
(dynamometamorphism).
• Temperature from sinking deeper, into warmer layers of the crust (metamorphism).
• Temperature from igneous hot lava running nearby, either overhead or from intrusions (contact or
thermal metamorphism).
• Temperature from steam escaping from hot vents.
• Repetitive metamorphism (polymetamorphism).

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