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Basictestsontransformers

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Electricityisgeneratedinpowerhouses.Powerhousesaresituatedat
distantplaceswherefromthegeneratedpoweristobetakentoindustries,
commercialcentres,residentialcolonies,andvillages.Thegenerators
usedinpowerhousesgenerateelectricityataparticularvoltage.Normally
thegenerationvoltageis11,000Vor11kV.Electricityistransmittedfrom
theplaceofgenerationtotheplaceofitsusethroughelectrical
transmissionlineswhicharetakenoverheadusingtransmissiontowers.
Thevoltagelevelofthepowertobetransmittedisraisedtohighervalues,
sayfrom11kVto220kVtoreducethecostoftransmission.Highvoltage
transmissionreducesthesizeoftransmissionlineconductorsthereby
reducingtheweightoftheconductingmaterialused.Sincepoweristhe
productofvoltageandcurrent,forthesamepowerifvoltageisincreased,
themagnitudeofcurrentwilldecrease.Fortransmittingatthisreduced
current,thesizeofthelineconductorswillreduce,andhencethecostgets
reduced.Thepowerhousewherefromelectricityistransmittedthrough
transmissionlinesiscalledthesendingendwhereastheotherendofthe
transmissionlineswheretheelectricityisreceivedforuseiscalledthe
receivingend.Atthesendingendthevoltagelevelisincreasedusing
stepuptransformersbefore,connectingtothetransmissionlines,while
atthereceivingendthevoltagelevelisloweredbeforethedistributionof
electricityforuse.Thevoltagelevelisraisedforreducingthecostof
transmissionwhileitisagainloweredbeforesupplyingtoconsumers,for
safetyreasons.Consumersuseelectricityat230Vorat400V.

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EMFequation


Figure6.1Blockdiagramaticrepresentationofatransformer

Adeviceknownastransformerwhicheitherraisesorlowersthevoltage
levelofelectricalpowerisalwaysusedatboththeendsofthe
transmissionlines.Whenvoltageisraisedfromlowerleveltohigherlevel,
thedeviceusediscalledastepuptransformer.Whenvoltageislowered
fromahighleveltoalowlevel,thetransformerusediscalledastepdown
transformer.
Thefrequencyofthealternatingvoltageonbothsidesofthetransformer
willnotchange.Whateverthefrequencyoftheinputvoltageis,thesame
willbethefrequencyoftheoutputvoltage.
Withthisintroduction,wemaydefineatransformerasadevicewhich
raisesorlowersthevoltagelevelofanyelectricalpowerinputwithout
changingthefrequency.Theblockdiagramaticrepresentationofa
transformerhasbeenshowninFig.6.1.
6.2 APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS

Voltampereratingofthetransformeristhesamewhethercalculatedon
thelowvoltagesideoratthehighvoltageside.Itmustbenotedthata
transformerdoesnotgenerateanyelectricity.Itonlytransformsand
transferselectricalpowerfromonecircuittotheotheratdifferentvoltage
levels.Dependingupontherequirement,transformersaremadefor
variousvoltageandcurrentratings.Transformersusedtoraisethe
voltagelevelatthesendingendofthetransmissionlines,andtolowerthe
voltagelevelatthereceivingendarecalledpowertransformers.These
areverybigtransformersratedat,say,11kV/220kVandseveralMVAs
(megavoltampers)astheirpowerratings.
Smallertransformersareusedinloweringthevoltagelevelforthe
purposeofdistributionofelectricitytoconsumers.Thetransformerwhich
feedselectricitytoyourhousewillhavespecificationslike11kV/400V,50
Hz,500kVA.Here,thevoltageisbeingreducedto400Vor230Vatthe
userendforsafesupplytoresidences.Thesearecalleddistribution
transformers.Supplyofpowerathighvoltagetoresidencesmayleadto
chancesoffatalaccidentsandotherproblems.Equipmenttobeusedalso
havetobemanufacturedforhighervoltageratings.Insulationofwires
usedinhousewiringwillhavetobesustainingforhighervoltages.
Therefore,electricityissuppliedatresidencesat230Vforsinglephase
appliancesandat400Vforthreephaseequipment.Verysmall
transformersareusedinmanyelectricalandelectronicequipment,and
gadgetstolowerthevoltagelevelfrom230Vononesideto,say,6Vor3
V,ontheotherside.Forexample,ifyouaretoconstructabattery
eliminatorforyourtransistorradio,oryourtaperecorder,youneedtoget
6Vdcsupplyfromtheavailable230Vacsupply.Atransformeris
requiredtostepdownthevoltageandthenadioderectifierandfilterare
requiredtogetthesteady6Vdcoutput.Fig.6.2showstheuseof
transformersofdifferentvoltageratings.
Electricityisgeneratedinthepowerhousewhenaturbine(T)rotatesa
generator(G).Thegenerationvoltageis11kVwhichissteppedupto220
kVbyastepuptransformer.Theoutputofthetransformerisconnected
tothehighvoltagetransmissionline.Atthereceivingendofthe
transmissionline,astepdowntransformerisusedtobringthevoltage
levelagaintoalowerlevel.Thepowerreceivedisfurthersteppeddownto
lowervoltagebyuseofdistributiontransformersandisconnectedtothe
loadoftheconsumer,i.e.,toindustry,commercialbuildings,and
residentialhouses.Fig.6.2(b)showstheuseofdistributiontransformers
forsupplytovariouskindsofelectricalloadsincludinglowvoltagedc
supplyafterrectification.Thus,wehaveseenthattransformersof
differentvoltagelevelsandpowercapacityareusedfortransmission,
distribution,andutilizationofelectricity.Transformersare,therefore,
seenasoneofthemostimportantcomponentsofthewholepowersystem
network.


Figure6.2Illustratestheuseoftransformersinsteppingupand
steppingdownoperations
6.3 BASIC PRINCIPLE AND CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

Transformersworkontheprincipleofelectromagneticinduction.To
understandtheprincipleofworkingofatransformer,onesmall
experimentcanbeperformedasexplainedbelow.Wewillneedone
battery,onesinglewayandonetwowayswitch,twocoils,andaPMMC
typedclowrangecenterzerovoltmeter.Theconnectionsareasshownin
Fig.6.3.InFig.6.3(a),whentheswitchSisturnedonandoffquickly,the
voltmeterneddlewillgetdeflected.InFig.6.3(b),atwowayswitchis
used.Whentheswitchisquicklyturnedonandoff,thecurrentthrough
coil1willflowinoppositedirectionseverytimetheswitchisoperated.
Therewillbevoltageinducedinthesecondcoilaswouldbeindicatedby
thedeflectionoftheneedleofthevoltmeterinoppositedirections.
Operationofthetwowayswitchinoppositedirectionschangesthe
polarityofsupplyvoltagetocoil1.Thefrequencyofchangeofpolaritywill
dependuponhowquicklytheswitchisrepeatedlyoperated.Thisis
equivalenttoconnectinganacsupplyofcertainfrequencytocoil1,which
hasbeenshowninFig.6.3(c).


Figure6.3Principleofelectromagneticinduction:(a)changingcurrent
incoil1producesEMFincoil2(b)changingcurrentflowinginreverse
directionincoil1producesalternatingvoltageinthesecondcoil(c)
alternatingvoltageappliedtocoil1inducesalternatingEMFinthesecond
coil
Voltageisinducedinthesecondcoilduetochangesofcurrentflowingin
thefirstcoil.Whencurrentflowsthroughthefirstcoilafluxisproduced
aroundthecoil.Ifcurrentischanging,thefluxproducedwillalsochange.
Ifthesecondcoilisplacednearthefirstcoil,therewillbeachanging
linkageofthefluxbythecoils.ThiswillinduceEMFinboththecoils.The
magnitudeofEMFinducedwilldependupontherateofchangeofthe
fluxlinkageandthenumberofturnsofthecoil.

6.3.1 Basic Principle

ThebasicprincipleofthetransformeristhatEMFisinducedinacoildue
totherateofchangeoffluxlinkagebyitashasbeenshowninFig.6.3(c).
Inatransformer,twocoils,whicharealsocalledwindingswoundonan
ironcore,areused.Coil1iscalledtheprimarywindingandcoil2iscalled
thesecondarywinding.SeeFig.6.4(b).Thesewindingsaremadeonan
ironcorewhichismadeofamagneticmaterial.Themagneticmaterial
permitseasyestablishmentofthefluxthroughthecore,andhence
throughthewindings.Sinceitisnecessarytoproducemorefluxbyusing
smallcurrent,thereluctanceofthefluxpathmustbelow.Ironhashigh
permeability,i.e.,lowreluctance.Useofironasthecorematerialforthe
windingsimprovesthemagneticcouplingbetweenthewindings,whichis
essentialforthetransferofpowerfromonecircuittotheotherefficiently.
Bychangingtheratioofthenumberofturnsofthecoilsthemagnitudeof
theinducedEMFinthesecondcoilcanbechanged,e.g.ifthenumberof
turnsofthesecondcoilislessthanthefirstcoil,EMFinducedwillbeless.
ThefrequencyoftheinducedEMFinthetwocoilswillbethesameasthat
ofthefrequencyofpowersupplytothefirstcoil.Now,itshouldbe
possibletoconnectanelectricalloadacrossthesecondcoil,andpower
willbedeliveredtotheload.Thus,whenelectricalsupplyisconnectedto
theprimarycircuitorthewinding,powergetstransferredtothesecond
circuitviathemagneticcircuit.Thisdevice,calledtransformer,isbased
onthesameprincipleofmagneticcouplingoftwocoils.The
constructionaldetailsofatransformerisdescribedasfollows.

6.3.2 Constructional Details

Fig.6.4(a)showstheoutsideviewofatransformer.Itmaybenotedthat
thetransformerisplacedinsideanirontankfilledwithoil.Thetankhas
someradiatingtubesandfinssothatoilinsidethetankgetscirculated
andtheheatfromthetransformerisradiatedtotheatmosphere.The
transformerconsistsofacoremadeupofamagneticmaterialaround
whichtwocoilsareplaced.Onecoilisconnectedtosupplyvoltageas
showninFig.6.4(b).Thiscoiliscalledtheprimarywinding.Theother
coiliscalledthesecondarywinding.Supplyistakenfromthesecondary
windingbyconnectinganyelectricalloadlikefan,tubelight,electrical
motors,etc.
Thetransformercoreismadeupofthinsheetscalledlaminations.The
laminatedsiliconsteelsheetsarecutintopropersizefromabigsheetand
areplacedoneabovetheothertoformthecoreofrequiredwidthand

crosssection.Thelaminatedsheetsaretightlyfastenedtoformthecore.
Ifthelaminationsarenottightlyfastened,theywillvibrateinthe
magneticfieldandgiverisetohummingnoise.Thismagneticvibrationof
laminationsisknownasmagnetostrictionwhichisnotdesirable.Thecore
ismadeupofamagneticmaterialusingthinlaminatedsheetsinsteadofa
solidone.Thisisdonetoreducepowerlossinthecoreduetocirculating
currentflowinginthecoreandproducingundesirableheatingofthecore
aswellasofthewindingswhicharewoundonthecore.Thereasonfor
circulatingcurrentinthecoreisexplainedbelow.Whenanalternating
voltageisappliedacrosstheprimarywinding,analternatingcurrentI0
willflowthroughthewinding.Thiscurrentwillproduceanalternating
fluxwhichwilllink(i.e.,passthrough)boththeprimaryandsecondary
windings.Thefluxwillclosetheirpaththroughthemagneticmaterial,
i.e.,thecorematerial.EMFswillbeinducedintheboththewindingsdue
tochangeoffluxlinkageasinducedEMF,eisexpressedas

Figure6.4Constructionaldetailsofatransformer.(a)Outsideviewofa
transformer(b)viewofcoreandwindings

where,Nisthenumberofturnsofthewinding,and istheflux
produced.
EMFwillalsobeinducedinthecorematerialwhenthematerialisbeing
subjectedtoanalternatingmagneticfield.DuetothisinducedEMFinthe
core,acirculatingcurrent,callededdycurrentwillflowacrossthecore
crosssection.Ifthecoreislaminatedandthelaminatedsheetsare
varnishedwithvarnishinsulation,theeddycurrentwillgetreduced,and
hencetherewillbereducededdycurrentloss.Toreducetheeddycurrent
lossinthecoreitis,therefore,madeupofthinlaminatedsiliconsteel
sheets.
Insteadofiron,thecoreismadeupoflaminatedsiliconsteelsheets.
Whenacertainpercentageofsiliconisaddedtosteel,thehysteresisloss
inthecoregetsreduced.Hysteresislossoccursduetoorientationofthe
magneticdipolesofthemagneticmaterialwhenthematerialissubjected
tothealternatingmagneticfield.
Thewindingsofthetransformeraremadeupofinsulatedcopperwires.
Thecrosssectionalareaofthewindingwireswilldependuponthe
requirementofcurrentcarryingcapacity,andthenumberofturnsare
calculatedaccordingtothevoltageratioofprimaryandsecondary
windings.Thecoreandthewindingassemblyareplacedinsideatank
filledwithtransformeroilforthepurposeofprovidinginsulationtothe
windingsandalsoforcoolingpurpose.Transformeroilusedismineraloil
havinghighdielectricstrength.Thetankisprovidedwithradiatingtubes
sothatheatedoilgetscirculatedthroughthetubesandheatproducedin
thetransformerisradiatedtotheatmospherethroughtheoilcirculating
fromthetankthroughtheradiatingtubes.
2

HeatisproducedinthetransformerduetoI Rlossinthewindingsand
2

hysteresisandeddycurrentlossinthecore.TheI Rlossinthewindings

willdependuponthemagnitudeofcurrentflowthroughthewindings
whenthetransformerissupplyingsomeelectricalload.Thecoreloss
whichisthesumofhysteresislossandeddycurrentlossremainsconstant
atanyload.Evenwhenthetransformeroutputcircuit,i.e.,thesecondary
winding,isnotconnectedtoanyload,therewillbecorelossoncean
alternatingvoltageisappliedtoitsprimarywinding.Aslongasthe
primaryvoltageiskeptconstant,thecorelosswillremainconstant.That
2

iswhythecorelossiscalledconstantloss.TheI Rlosswhichisalso
calledcopperlossisavariableloss,asitvarieswiththemagnitudeofload
current.
Theselosseswilloverheatthetransformerunlesstheheatgeneratedis
radiatedouttotheatmosphere.Ifatransformergetstoooverheated,its
insulationstrengthwillreduceandultimatelytheremaybeshortcircuit
insidethetransformerdamagingitcompletely.
Transformersaremanufacturedassinglephasetransformersandas
threephasetransformers.Inthreephasetransformersthreeseparate
windingsaremadeforbothprimaryandsecondarysides.Thewindings
areconnectedeitherinstarorindelta.Terminalconnectionsarebrought
outthroughlowvoltage(L.V.)terminalsandhighvoltage(H.V.)
terminals.Aconservatortankfittedwithabreatherisplacedabovethe
tank.Theconservatorisconnectedtothetransformertankwithapipe
andcarriestransformeroil.Theemptyspaceabovethelevelofoilinthe
conservatorisprovidedtoallowtheexpansionofoilinthetankdueto
heatingandfortheremovalofgasformed.
6.4 CORE-TYPE AND SHELL-TYPE TRANSFORMERS

Therearetwotypesofcoreconstructions,vizcoretypeandshelltype.In
coretypeconstruction,theprimaryandsecondarywindingsareplaced
aroundthelimbsofthetransformercore.Thewindingsaremadein
cylindricalformandareplacedaroundthecorelimbs.First,thelow
voltagewindingisplacedaroundthelimbs.Overthelowvoltage
windingsareplacedthehighvoltagewindings.Thehighvoltagewinding
isplacedsomewhatawayfromthecoresoastoreducetheinsulation
problem.Thewindingsareinsulatedfromthecorethroughinsulating
cylindricaldiscmadeofinsulatingmaterial.Thewindingsaremadeupof
insulatedcopperwiresintwosectionsorpartsandareconnectedafter
theyareplacedinpositionstoformprimaryandsecondarywindings,
respectively.
Inashelltypeconstruction,thewindingsareplacedinthecentrallimb.
Thewindingsarewoundintheformofanumberofcirculardiscs,andare
placedoneabovetheother.Theextremetwodiscsonthecentrallimbare
lowvoltagewindingsections.These,l.sectionsandh..sectionsare
thenconnectedtoformlowvoltageandhighvoltagewindings.The
widthofthecentrallimbistwicethewidthoftheouterlimbssothatthe
fluxdensityisthesameinallthelimbs.


Figure6.5Coretypeandshelltypetransformers

Thechoiceoftypeofcoretobeusedfortransformerconstruction
dependsonanumberoffactors.Inpowertransformers,ingeneral,the
coretypeconstructionispreferredwhilefordistributiontransformers,
theshelltypeconstructionispreferred.Theleakagefluxandleakage
reactanceofatransformerdependsuponthemagneticcouplingbetween
theprimaryandsecondarywindings.Voltageregulationandshortcircuit
impedancedependupontheleakagereactanceofatransformer.Inthe
shelltypeconstructionthemagneticcouplingisbetterthaninthecore
typeconstruction.

6.4.1 Power Transformers and Distribution Transformers

Powertransformersareconnectedatthetwoendsofthetransmission
linestostepuportostepdownthevoltage.Anumberofsuch
transformersareconnectedinparalleldependingupontheamountof
powertobetransmitted.Theyareratedforhighvoltages,e.g.11kV/220
kV,100MVA.Thesizeofsuchtransformersisverylarge.Theyare
installedoutdoorsinasubstation.
Distributiontransformersfeedelectricitytotheconsumers.Theyare
ratedforvoltageslike11kV/400V.Thesetransformersaregenerallyof
polemountedtypeandalwaysremainenergizedbeingreadyall24hours
tosupplyelectricitytotheconsumers.Evenifthereisnoconsumptionof
electricityfromadistributiontransformer,ithastoremainenergizedall
thetime.Thecorelossesofsuchtransformersmustbelowbydesign.
Otherwise,theiralldayoperatingefficiencywillbelow.
6.5 EMF EQUATION

WehaveknownthatEMFsareinducedinthetransformersprimaryand
secondarywindingswhenalternatingfluxlinkbothofthem.The
frequencyofalternationofthefluxwilldependuponthefrequencyofthe
primarysupplyvoltagewhichisnormally50Hz.Themagnitudeofthe
EMFinducedinthetwowindingsofatransformerwillbedifferentifthey
havedifferentnumberofturns.LetusnowderivetheEMFequation.
ReferringtoFig.6.6,andconsideringasinusoidalinputvoltage,V1ata
frequency,f,thefluxproducedduetocurrent,I0is =

msint.

ThegeneralequationfortheinstantantaneousvalueoftheEMFinduced,
eisexpressedas


[NotethattheminussignindicatesthattheinducedEMFopposesthe
supplyvoltageaccordingtoLenzslaw.]

Figure6.6Twowindingsofatransformerwoundonacommoncore

Asinusoidallyvaryingfluxisrepresentedas

where istheinstantaneousvalue,and
Considering =

misthemaximumvalue

msint,

weget

Thisequationisoftheform

Weknowforasinusoidalvoltage,theRMSvalueis

timesits

maximumvalue.If,EistheRMSvalueoftheinducedEMF,then

PrimarywindinghasN1turns.TheinducedEMFintheprimarywinding
E1is


SincethesamefluxproducingE1alsolinksthesecondarywindinghaving
N2numberofturns,theinducedEMFinthesecondarywinding,E2is

Dividingeq.(6.3)byeq.(6.4),

Kiscalledtheratioofvoltagetransformation.Forastepuptransformer,
N2>N1,andhence,thevalueofKismorethan1.Forastepdown
transformer,N2islessthanN1,andhenceK<1.
6.6 TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD

Transformeronnoloadmeansthatthesecondarywindingisopenandno
electricalload(likeamotor,aheater,afan,anairconditioner,etc.)is
connectedacrossitsterminalsforsupplyofelectricalpower.Sincethe
transformeronnoloadisnotdoinganyusefulworkexceptthatit
remainsenergizedandisreadytosupplyelectricitywhenrequired,its
outputonnoloadisconsideredtobezero,Ontheinputside,the
transformerwilldrawsomesmallamountofcurrent,I0.Simplified
representationofatransformeronnoloadhasbeenshowninFig.6.7(a).
Sincethereisnoloadconnectedacrossthesecondarywinding,thecircuit
isopen,andhencenocurrentwillflowthroughthesecondarywindingas
hasbeenshown.TheprimarysupplyvoltageisV1andthecurrentflowing
throughthiswindingisI0.Whatwillbethephasorrelationshipbetween
V1andI0?Ifthewindingisapurelyinductiveone,I0willlagthevoltage
V1by90.However,therewillbehysteresislossandeddycurrentlossin
thecore.Thus,I0shouldhaveacomponentICinphasewithV1.Thecore
lossisequaltoV1ICWatts.Therefore,I0willlagV1byananglesomewhat
lessthan90.IfV1isshownvertical,I0willlagV1byanangle

0ofsay

85ashasbeenshowninFig.6.7(b).
TheinducedEMFsE1andE2whichareduetoatimevaryingflux will
lag by90.ThiscanbeobservedfromtheEMFequationwhereitwas
shownthatwhen =

msint,theinducedEMFE=Emsin(t/2).

Again,accordingtoLenzslaw,theinducedEMFE1mustopposethe
causefromwhichitisdue,i.e.,V1.ThemagnitudeofE1willbesomewhat
lessthanV1.ThiscanbeobservedfromFig.6.7(a)whereitisseenthat
currentI0flowsfromahigherpotentialV1toacomparativelylower
potentialE1.ThusE1opposesV1,E1iscreatedby andlags by90.
ThephasorrelationshipofV1,I0, ,E1,E2hasbeenshowninFig.6.7(b).
IthasalsobeenshownthatI0canberesolvedintotwocomponentsIm
andIc,whereImisinphasewith andisresponsibleforproducing .
ThisImisalsocalledthemagnetizingcurrentbecausethiscurrent
magnetizesthecore,i.e.,producestherequiredfluxinthecore.Imis
equaltoI0sin

0.IcisequaltoI0cos

0.Therefore,

noloadpowerinputW0isequaltoV1I0cos

.The

0whichequalsV1Ic.The

inducedEMFinthesecondarywinding,i.e.,E2hasbeenshownlagging
flux by90.IthasbeenassumedthatN2>N1,andhenceE2>E1.


Figure6.7Transformeronnoload:(a)coreandthewindings(b)no
loadphasordiagram

Here,cos

0isthenoloadpowerfactorwhichisverylow(maybe0.1or

so).
Thenoloadpowerinputiswastedasalossasthereisnooutput.
Input=output+losses
Ifoutputiszero,inputequalslosses.Letusseewhatarethenoload
losses.SincecurrentI0isflowingthroughtheprimarywindingwhichhas
aresistanceof,sayR1,therewillbesomeamountofcopperlossinthe
2

windingasI0 R1Watts.However,sinceI0issmall,I0 R1willalsobe

small.Sincethecoreismadeupofamagneticmaterialtherewillbeloss
inthecore.Thecorelossisduetotworeasons.Oneiscalledhysteresis
loss.Hysteresislossiscausedduetothemagnetizationofthemagnetic
materialinalternatedirectionsineveryhalfcycleofthesupplyvoltage.
Themagneticdipolesofthemagneticcorematerialalignthemselvesin
alternatedirectionsproducingalternatingflux.Theworkdoneduetothis
isequivalenttotheinputenergyspentandiscalledhysteresisloss.
Theotherlosscomponentisduetoeddycurrent.Largenumberofsmall
eddycurrentsflowinthemagneticcorematerialduetotheEMFinduced
inthecore,whichissubjectedtoalternatingmagneticfieldsimilartothe
twowindings.EMFsgetinducedinthecorematerialforthesamereason
asforthecoils.ThisEMFinducedinthecorecreatescurrentwhich
continuestocirculateinthecoreandheatupthecoreunnecessarily.This
currentisofnousetousandleadstoonlywasteofinputenergy.Thisis
callededdycurrentloss.Thesumofhysteresisloss(Wh)andeddycurrent
loss(We)iscalledcoreloss(Wc)orironloss(Wi).Thenoloadinput
powerisexpressedas

IfweneglectthesmallamountofI0 R1then,noloadinputpower

6.7 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD

Whensomeelectricalloadisconnectedacrossthesecondaryterminals,
powerwillbesuppliedtotheloadfromtheprimarysupplyviathe
magneticcircuit.AcurrentofI2willflowinthesecondarycircuit.The
voltageavailableacrosstheload,V2willbesomewhatlessthanE2.

Whenthetransformerisloaded,thesecondarycurrentI2willcreateflux
inthecoreintheoppositedirectiontothatoftheoriginalcoreflux
whichwasproducedonnoload.Thus,theresultantfluxwillgetreduced
momentarily.ThiswillreducetheinducedEMFE1andE2.AsE1is
reduced,thedifferencebetweenV1andE1willincreaseandduetothis
morecurrentofamountI1willflowfromthesupplymainsthroughthe
primarywinding.Thiscurrentwillproduceanopposingfluxtothat
producedbyI2suchthatI2N2=I1N1.Then,thetwofluxeswillbalance
eachother,andhencetheoriginalflux willremainunchangedinthe
core.Irrespectiveofthemagnitudeoftheloadcurrent,thenetcoreflux
remainspracticallyconstantatallloadconditions.

Figure6.8(a)Transformeronload(b)simplifiedphasordiagramofa
transformeronresistiveinductiveload

Usingampereturnsbalanceequation

ItmaybenotedthatunderloadconditiontheprimarycurrentI1isequal
tothesumofnoloadcurrentI0andI1,whichisKtimesI2.I1isthe
additionalcurrentdrawnbytheprimarywindingduetotheloadingofthe
transformer.

Thephasordiagramrelatingalltheparametersunderloadingcondition
neglectingthevoltagedropduetowindingresistancesandleakage
reactanceshasbeenshowninFig.6.8(b).Thephasordiagramisforsome
resistiveinductiveloadwhentheloadpowerfactorangleis .Thatis
whyI2hasbeenshownlaggingtheloadvoltageV2byanangle

2.I1is

theadditionalprimarycurrentdrawnfromthesupplysourcetocounter
balancethemagnetizingeffectofI2(I2N2=I1N1).


Figure6.9Transformeronload
6.8 TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT PARAMETERS AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Earlier,whileexplainingtransformeronload,wehadneglectedthe
windingresistancesandleakagereactancesofthetransformer.Sincethe
windingsaremadeofcopperwireofcertaincrosssectionalarea,theywill
havesomeresistance.Thinnerthewire,higherwillbetheresistance,fora
particularlengthofthewire.Theresistancesoftheprimaryand
secondarywindingsarecalledR1andR2respectively.Whencurrentflows
throughthewindingstherewillbevoltagedropI1R1andI2R2inthe
primaryandsecondarywindings,respectively.TheresistancesR1andR2
canbeshowncarryingcurrentI1andI2asinFig.6.9.Whenthe
resistanceshavebeenshownseparately,thewindingsareconsidered
madeupofsomenumberofturnsbutwithouthavinganyresistances.In
otherwords,wemaysaythatwhentheresistancesofthewindingshave
beenshownseparately,thewindingswillbeassumedashavingno
resistance.ItmaybenotedthatinputvoltageV1ishigherthanthe
inducedEMFE1(currentflowsfromhigherpotentialV1tolowerpotential
E1).TheinducedEMFE2isgreaterthanloadterminalvoltageV2.
Neglectingreactancesofthewindings,thevoltageequationare

Thepowerlossintheprimaryandsecondarywindingsarerespectively,
2

I 1R1andI 2R2Thesearealsocalledcopperlosses.Notethattheabove
twovoltageequationshavebeenwrittenconsideringonlytheresistances
ofthewindings.Voltagedropduetoreactancesofthewindingshasbeen
neglected.
Inadditiontotheresistanceofthewindings,thewindingswillhave
leakagereactancesduetotheleakagefluxinthecore.Theconceptof
leakagereactanceduetoleakagefluxisexplainedbelow.Fig.6.10showsa
transformeronload.

Figure6.10Leakagefluxandleakagereactanceofatransformer

Figure6.11Transformerapproximateequivalentcircuit


Themainflux iscommontoboththewindings.Thisfluxlinksboththe
primaryandsecondarywindings.Inaddition,somemoreflux,called
leakageflux,

LiscreatedduetocurrentI1andI2flowingthroughthe

twowindings.ThesefluxeswillalsocreatesomeinducedEMFsinthetwo
windings.Since
Similarly,

L1isproportionaltoI1,

L1willbeinphasewithI1.

L2isproportionaltoI2andwillbeinphasewithI2.

induceanEMFEL1,and

L1will

L2willinduceanEMFEL2inthewindings,

respectively.
EL1willlagI1by90andEL2willlagI2by90.Theseinducedvoltagesare
balancedbythereactancevoltagedropinthetwowindings,respectively.
Theprimaryandsecondarywindingleakagereactancesarecalled,
respectively,X1andX2sothatI1X1isconsideredvoltagedropinthe
primarywindingduetoleakagereactanceX1andI2X2isconsidered
voltagedropinsecondarywindingduetoleakagereactanceX2.Itistobe
notedthatEMFsE1andE2areinducedinprimaryandsecondary
windingsduetomainflux whereasEL1andEL2areinducedinthese
windingsduetotheirleakagefluxes

L1and

L2.Theeffectofleakage

fluxandtheresultinginducedEMFinthetwowindingsarerepresented
bytworeactancesX1andX2creatingvoltagedrops.ThereactancesX1and
X2areinfacttwofictitious(imaginary)reactancesconsideredto
representtheeffectofleakageflux.Thecompletetransformercircuitwith
itsparametershasbeenshownasinFig.6.11.Inthiscircuitdiagramwe
havenotconsideredthenoloadcurrent,I0drawnbythetransformer.So,
thecircuitshowninFig.6.11isanapproximateequivalentcircuitofthe
transformer.
TheprimarycircuitimpedanceisZ1andthesecondarywinding
impedanceisZ2.

Notethatthetransformerisacoupledcircuit.Forthesakeofsimplicityin
calculation,wemightliketoconvertitintoasinglecircuitbytransferring
thecircuitparametersoftheprimarycircuittothesecondarycircuitand
viceversa.
Letusseehowthesecondarycircuitparameterscanbetransferredtothe
primaryside.LetR2bethevalueofR2whentransferredtotheprimary
side.Byconsideringthesameamountoflossesintheresistancewhen
transferredfromonecurrentleveltotheother,wecanequatethecopper
lossesas

Figure6.12Transformerapproximateequivalentcircuithaving
transferredthesecondaryparameterstotheprimaryside

ReactanceX=Land
2

Therefore,XN

LetX2,whentransferredfromthesecondarycircuittotheprimarycircuit,
beX2

Bytransferringthecircuitparameterontheprimaryside,the
approximateequivalentcircuitofthetransformercanberepresentedas
showninFig.6.12.
Thiscircuitcanfurtherbesimplifiedbyaddingtheresistancesandthe
reactancesforthesakeofcalculations.
Nowwewillconsiderthenoloadcurrentofthetransformeralongwith
theloadcurrentsI2andI1todrawthecompleteequivalentcircuit.
ItmaybenotedthatI1isthesumofI1andI0.I0hastwocomponents,Im
andIc.ImlagsV1by90whereasIcisinphasewithV1.Imcanbeshownas
acurrentflowingthroughaninductivereactancecalledthemagnetizing
reactanceXmwhereasIccanbeshownasacurrentflowingthrougha
resistanceRcasshown.ThesumofImandIcisI0.SumofI0andI1isI1.
Thecompleteequivalentcircuitrepresentingalltheparametershasbeen
showninFig.6.13.
TheabovecircuitcanbesimplifiedbyneglectingI0whichisaboutthree
tofivepercentoftheratedcurrentofthetransformer.Sobyremovingthe
parallelbranchandaddingtheresistancesandreactanceswedrawthe
approximateequivalentcircuitasshowninFig.6.14.Thus,thecircuit
becomesthesameaswasdrawninFig.6.12earlier.

Figure6.13Exactequivalentcircuitofatransformer

Figure6.14Approximateequivalentcircuitofatransformer

Combiningtheresistancesandreactances,theequivalentresistancesRe
andequivalentreactanceXearerepresentedasZeashasbeenshownin
Fig.6.15.
Thissimplifiedequivalentcircuitofthetransformercanbeusedto
calculatetheperformanceintermsofvoltageregulationofthe
transformerundervariousloadingconditions.
6.9 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A TRANSFORMER

ThecompletephasordiagramofatransformeratalaggingPfloadhas
beenshowninFig.6.16(a).
Procedurefordrawingthephasordiagramisgivenbelow.
Drawthefluxvectorasthereferencevectoralongthexaxis.Thevoltage
inducedinthetwowindings,E1ansE2willlagfluxby90.Ifitisastep
uptransformer,E2willbebiggerinlengththanE1.Otherwise,theycan

alsobeshownasequal.ShowtwophasorsE1andE2laggingflux by90
.DrawE1inoppositedirectiontoE1,ashasbeenshowninFig.6.16.
DrawI2laggingE2byacertainangle.DrawI1oppositetoI1.DrawIo
lagging(E1)byalargeangle.AddI1andIovectoriallytogetI1.Nowwe
havetolocateV1andV2.WeapplyKirchhoffslawintheprimarywinding
circuitandwriteV1I1R1jI1X1E1=0

Similarly,forthesecondarycircuitwewriteE2I2R2jI2X2V2=0

Usingequation(i)developthephasordiagramstepbystep.

Figure6.15Approximateequivalentcircuitofatransformerwith
secondaryparametersreferredtotheprimaryside

Figure6.16(a)Phasordiagramofatransformeronload(b)equivalent
circuit

AddI1R1withE1(E1drawnasE1)vectorially.ThedirectionofI1R1isin
thedirectionofI1.ThenaddjI1X1.Thisvectorwillmake90withthe
directionofI1intheanticlockwisedirection.Theresultantvectorwillbe
V1.TogetV2wehavetosubtractvectoriallyI2R2andjI2X2fromE2.The
noloadcurrent,IoisshownasthevectorsumofImandIc.Imisthe
magnetizingcomponentofthenoloadcurrentwhichproducestheflux
andisphasewiththeflux .
ItmustbeclarifiedherethatE1hasbeentakenasE1andthenthetotal
phasordiagramdrawnonlyforthesakeofclarity.
6.10 CONCEPT OF VOLTAGE REGULATION

Voltageregulationofatransformerisdefinedasthepercentagechangein
terminalvoltagefromfullloadtonoloadconditionandisexpressedas
thepercentageofthefullloadvoltage.

Percentvoltageregulation

Ahighvalueofvoltageregulationmeansthatthereisalargechangein
theterminalvoltagewhenloadisappliedtothetransformer,whichisnot
desirable.
Theexpressionforvoltageregulationintermsofloadcurrent,loadpower
factor,andtransformercircuitparameterscanbefoundfromthe
simplifiedequivalentcircuitofthetransformer.Forconvenience,wewill
considertheapproximateequivalentcircuitofthetransformerwith
primarycircuitparametersreferredtothesecondarysideasshowninFig.
6.17.Thephasordiagramrelatingthevariousquantitieshasalsobeen
shown.ReandXearetheequivalentresistanceandreactance,
respectively,ofthetransformerreferredtothesecondaryside.

Figure6.17(a)Simplifiedequivalentcircuitofatransformer(b)phasor
diagram(c)useofthephasordiagramforcalculationofthevoltagedrop

TheequationrelatingE2andV2is

ThephasordiagramshowninFig.6.17(b)hasbeendrawnusingthe
aboveequation.I2hasbeenshownlaggingthevoltageV2bythepower
factorangle .WeaddI2RewithV2,I2Rebeingtakeninthesame
directionasI2.ThenjI2Xeisaddedwhichisat90anticlockwisewithI2.
ThephasorsumofV2,I2Re,jI2XegivesE2.Theapproximatevalueof
thevoltagedrop,i.e.,thedifferencebetweenE2andV2canbecalculated.
ThephasordiagramshowninFig.6.17(c)willbeusedtodevelopan
expressionforvoltageregulationashasbeendoneinsection6.16.
6.11 CONCEPT OF AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER

ThenoloadcurrentIoisaboutthreetofivepercentoftheratedcurrent,
i.e.,I1orI2.ThevoltagedropduetoIoon(R1+jX1)willthereforebe
small.IfweneglectthissmalleffectofIo,thentheparallelbranchofRc
andXmcanbeshiftedtowardstheleftasshowninFig.6.18.
Fromtheequivalentcircuit,itcanbeobservedthatthecircuitparameters
ofanactualtransformerhasbeenshownseparatelyfromitswindings.
Thus,thetransformerwindingsarenowconsideredwithoutany
resistanceandleakagereactance,andhavingalosslesscore.The
windingsonlycausesachangeinvoltagefromE1toE2.Sucha
transformerisoftencalledanidealtransformer.However,anideal
transformerneverexistsinreality.Anidealtransformerwillhavenoloss

initandhenceefficiencywillbe100percent,whichisnotpossibleto
achieve.Sincetherewillbenovoltagedropinthewindingsdueto
loading,theregulationwillbezerowhichisagainanidealconceptonly.

Figure6.18Anidealtransformer

Anidealtransformerisonewhichhasnocoreloss,nowindinglosses,no
resistanceofitswindings,nowindingleakagereactances,andnovoltage
dropinthewindings.Theefficiencywillbe100percentandvoltage
regulationwillbezero.Suchidealconditionsarenotpossibletoachieve.
6.12 TRANSFORMER TESTS

Theperformanceofatransformerintermsofitsvoltageregulation(i.e.,
percentagechangeinvoltagefromfullloadtonoload)andefficiency
undervariousloadingconditionscanbecalculatedusingtheapproximate
equivalentcircuitexplainedearlier.However,thecircuitparameterslike
ReandXe,RcandXmhavetobeknown.Theseparametersandthelosses
inthetransformercanbedeterminedbyperformingtwotests,vizthe
opencircuittestorthenoloadtest,andtheshortcircuittest.Thesetests
areexplainedasfollows.

6.12.1 Open-circuit Test or No-load Test

Inthistestthetransformerprimarywindingissuppliedwithitsrated
voltagekeepingthesecondarywindingunconnectedtotheload,i.e.,with
noloadonthesecondary.Normally,thesupplyisgiventothelowvoltage
winding.Thehighvoltagewindingiskeptopen.Threemeasuring
instruments,vizawattmeter,avoltmeter,andanammeterareconnected
tothelowvoltagesideasshowninFig.6.19(a).
Theequivalentcircuitofthetransformerhasalsobeenshownunderno
loadconditioninFig.6.19(b).ThewattmeterconnectedontheL.V.side
willrecordtheinputpower,Wotothetransformer.Thesupplyvoltageis
measuredbythevoltmeterandthenoloadlinecurrentismeasuredby
theammeterreading,Io.Theinputpower,Wois

Fromtheequivalentcircuitonnoload[seeFig.6.19(b)]


Figure6.19(a)Transformeronnoload(b)equivalentcircuitonnoload

Sinceonnoloadtheoutputiszero,theinputpowerisutilizedin
supplyingthenoloadlosses.Atnoloadtherewillbenocurrentinthe
secondarywinding,andhencenocopperlosswilltakeplaceinthat
winding.Theprimarywindingcurrentonnoloadissmall.Therewillbe
lossesintheironcorewhichwillhavetwocomponents,vizhysteresisloss
andeddycurrentloss.Thus,thewattmeterreadingonnoloadcanbe
approximatelyequatedtocorelossonly.Fromthenoloadtestdatawe,
willbeabletoknowthecorelossofthetransformer,noloadcurrent,the
noloadpowerfactor,themagnetizingreactance,andtheresistanceRc
correspondingtocoreloss.Notethatcorelosscalculatedonnoloadwill
bethesameasonfullloadoratanyotherload.Thatiswhycorelossofa
transformerisconsideredtobeaconstantlossasitdoesnotdependon
theloadcurrents.Corelossdependsonthesupplyvoltageandits
frequency.

6.12.2 Short-circuit Test

Inthistest,thesecondarywindingisshortcircuitedwithawireanda
reducedvoltageisappliedacrosstheprimarywinding.
Onevoltmeter,onewattmeter,andanammeterareconnectedinthe
primarycircuitforthemeasurementoftheappliedvoltageunderthe
shortcircuitcondition,Vsc,thepowerconsumed,Wscandthecurrent,Isc,
respectively.Itmaybenotedthatforconvenience,thelowvoltage
windingisusuallyshortcircuitedwhichformsthesecondarywinding.
Theinstrumentsareconnectedinthehighvoltagewindingcircuitwhere
theratedcurrentiscomparativelylowerthanthelowvoltageside,ashas
beenshowninFig.6.20(a).Thisisdonebyusinganautotransformer.
Undertheshortcircuitconditiononlyaverysmallpercentageofrated
voltage,sayaboutfivepercent,hastobeappliedtotheprimarywinding
tocirculatethefullloadcurrentthroughthewindings.Currentinthe
primarywinding(H.V.winding)willalsobelowerthanthatofthelow
voltagewinding.Thus,byconductingtheshortcircuittestfromthehigh
voltagewindingsidewiththelowvoltagewindingshortcircuited,wecan
haveanaccuratemeasurement.


Figure6.20Shortcircuittestonatransformer:(a)circuitdiagram(b)
equivalentcircuitundertheshortcircuitcondition

Itmayalsobenotedthatintheshortcircuittestwecreateacondition
whenafullloadratedcurrentwillflowthroughboththeprimaryand
secondarywindings.Therefore,thecopperlossesinthetwowindingswill
beequaltotheamountofcopperlossthatwouldotherwiseoccurwhen
thetransformerisactuallysupplyingfullloadattheratedvoltage.
Creatingthistypeofaloadingconditionofatransformeriscalled
phantomloadingorfictitiousloading.Theactualcircuitdiagramforthe
shortcircuittestandtheequivalentcircuitofthetransformerunderthe
shortcircuitconditionhavebeenshowninFig.6.20.
Fromtheequivalentcircuitshown,itmaybeobservedthatthecoreloss
componentoftheequivalentcircuitaswasshownonthenoloadtesthas
beenneglectedhere.Thisisbecausethevoltageappliedintheshort
circuittestisnotthefullloadratedvoltagebutasmallfractionofit.Since
corelossisproportionaltotheappliedvoltage,forasmallvoltageapplied
undershortcircuit,thecorelosscomponenthasbeenneglected.Thus,we
canequatethewattmeterreadingtocopperlossesinthetwowindings.
Theshortcircuittestreadingsaretakenbyadjustingthevoltageapplied
totheprimarythroughavariac,i.e.,anautotransformersothattherated
currentflows(tobenotedfromthetransformernameplate)throughthe
windings.Fromthereadingsofthethreeinstruments,thefollowing
calculationsaremade.
Wsc=Copperlossesinthetwowindingshavingtheratedcurrentflowing
throughthem.

Fromthedataobtainedfromthenoloadtestandtheshortcircuittest,
theefficiencyandregulationofatransformercanbecalculatedwithout
actuallyloadingthetransformer.
6.13 EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER

Thewholeinputpowertoatransformerisnotavailableattheoutput,
someislostintheironcoreascorelossandsomeislostinthewindings

ascopperloss.Sincethetransformerisastaticdevice,thereisnofriction
andwindageloss(rotationalloss)inthetransformer.

whereWi=ironlossorcoreloss
andWcu=copperlossinprimaryandsecondarywindings
V2=outputvoltage
I2=loadcurrent
cos

2=loadpowerfactor.

Theloadatwhichefficiencywillbemaximum,thatistheconditionfor
maximumefficiency,canbedeterminedbydifferentiatingtheexpression
forefficiencywithrespecttotheloadcurrent,I2.
6.14 CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

Theexpressionforafterdividingthenumeratoranddenominatorofthe
righthandsideoftheexpressionforbyI2caniswrittenas

whereReistheequivalentresistanceofthetransformerwindings
referredtothesecondaryside.Efficiencywillbemaximumifthe
denominatorisminimum.Wecan,therefore,minimizethedenominator
bydifferentiatingitwithrespecttotheloadcurrent,I2andequatingto
zeroas

Whencopperlossataparticularloadequalsthecoreloss,efficiencywill
bemaximumatthatload.Theconditionformaximumefficiencyofa
transformeris
Coreloss=Copperloss
Thevalueoftheloadcurrentatmaximumefficiencyisdeterminedas

Ifwewanttoknowatwhatpercentageoffullload,theefficiencywillbe
maximum,(ieifwewouldliketoknowifefficiencyismaximumat75%of
thefullloadorat80%ofthefullloadorat100%ofthefullload)wecan
determineasfollows.

Determination of load at which efficiency will be maximum

Letusassumethatxisthefractionofthefullloadatwhichtheefficiency
ismaximum.ThecorelossortheironlossWiwillremainconstantatall
loads.Thecopperlosswillvaryasthesquareoftheload.
Thismeansifatfullloadcopperlossis=Wcu

athalfoffullloadcopperloss=

atonethirdoffullloadcopperloss=
2

Thus,atxload,copperloss=x Wcu
satisfyingtheconditionformaximumefficiency

or,
whereWcuisthefullloadcopperlossandxisthefractionofthefullload
atwhichefficiencywillbemaximum.
IfwewanttoknowthekVAofthetransformeratmaximumefficiency,we
woulddetermineitasfollows:
kVAatmax=xFullloadkVA
Therefore,kVAatmaximumefficiency

Efficiencyofatransformerisoftenexpressedintermsofenergyoutputin
24hoursinadaytotheenergyinput.Suchacalculatedefficiencyis
knownasalldayefficiencywhichisexplainedasfollows.
6.15 ALL-DAY EFFICIENCY

Atransformerwhenconnectedtotheloadhastoremainenergizedallthe
timereadytosupplytheloadconnectedtoit.Evenwhenalltheloadsare
switchedoff,i.e.,nooneisutilizinganyelectricity,thetransformerhasto
remainon.Thus,irrespectiveoftheloadonthetransformer,thecoreloss
willoccurforallthe24hoursoftheday.However,thecopperlosswill
dependonthemagnitudeoftheloadcurrent,andwilleventuallyvary
fromtimetotime.Alldayefficiencyiscalculatedbyconsideringthe
energyoutput(powermultipliedbytime,i.e.,energy)in24hourstothe
energyinputin24hoursas

AlldayEfficiency

Bothcommercialefficiencywhichistheratiooftheoutputpowertothe
inputpowerandthealldayefficiencyasstatedabovearecalculatedfor
distributiontransformers.Distributiontransformersareconnectedtothe
loadallthetime.
Alldayefficiencyofsuchtransformerswhicharealwaysconnectedtothe
loadattheoutputsideissomewhatlessthantheircommercialefficiency,
whichiscalculatedonthebasisofoutputpowerandthecorresponding
inputpower.
6.16 CALCULATION OF REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Whenatransformerisnotsupplyinganyload,thevoltageacrossthe
outputterminalsisthesameasthatinducedinthesecondarywinding,
i.e.,E2.Now,whenthetransformerisconnectedtotheload,thevoltage
availableacrosstheoutputterminals,V2becomessomewhatlessthanE2.
Thereductionintheoutputvoltagefromnoloadtoloadisduetothe
voltagedropinthewindingresistanceandleakagereactance.The
studentsaretorefertothephasordiagramasshowninFig.6.17(c)for
determinationofvoltageregulationwhichhasbeenredrawnhere.
InthephasordiagramshowninFig.6.21,wewillconsiderE2,i.e.,length
OFasequaltolengthOCastheangleisactuallyverysmall.This
approximationismadetosimplifythedeterminationofanexpressionfor
voltageregulation.
Thus,

Figure6.21PhasordiagramofatransformerasinFig.6.17(c)

Percentageregulation

Ifthepowerfactorisleading,thenwewillhave
Percentageregulation

Regulationcanalsobecalculatedbytransferringthesecondarycircuit
parameterstotheprimaryside.
6.17 FACTORS AFFECTING LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

Sinceatransformerisastaticdevice,thereisnorotationalpartinit,and
hencethereisnorotationalorfrictionallosses.Duetocurrentflow
2

throughthewindings,therewillbeI Rlossinboththeprimaryand
secondarywindings.Thus,
2

Copperloss=I1 R1+I2 R2
Copperlossisproportionaltothesquareofthecurrent.Withthe
secondarycircuitresistancereferredtotheprimaryside,thetotal

effectiveresistance,
Similarly,theprimarycircuitresistancewhenreferredtothesecondary
side,thetotaleffectiveresistanceofthetransformerwindings

Thecopperloss=I 2Re=I 1Re

Whentheloadcurrentischanged,sayfromfullload,I2tohalfload

thecopperlossbecomesonefourthofitsvalueatfullload.
Thelossesthattakeplaceintheironcoreiscalledironlossorcoreloss.
Ironlossconsistsoftwoparts,vizHysteresislossandeddycurrentloss.
Theseareexplainedindetailasfollows.

(a) Hysteresis loss

Whenalternatingvoltageisappliedtotheprimarywindingofthe
transformer,thecoregetsmagnetized.Themagnetizationofthecore
takesplaceinalternatedirectionseveryhalfcycleofthesupplyvoltage.
Magnetizationinalternatedirectionsbasicallymeansthatthemagnetic
dipolesofthemagneticmaterialchangestheirorientationinopposite
directionseveryhalfcycle.Thisgivesrisetolossofenergywhichis
expressedas

whereWhisthehysteresislossinWatts
2

BmisthemaximumvalueoffluxdensityinWb/m
fisthesupplyfrequency
3

Visthevolumeoftheironcoreinm
isthesteinmetzconstant.

Tokeepthehysteresislosslow,thematerialwithalowervalueof
steinmetzconstant,suchassiliconsteel,ischosenasthecorematerial.

(b) Eddy current loss

Whenthecoreissubjectedtoanalternatemagneticfield,EMFisinduced
inthecorematerialalso.ThisEMFcausescirculatingcurrentinthecore,
andtherebyproducinglossresultinggenerationofheat.Ifthecoregets
heatedup,itproducesanundesirableeffectontheinsulationmaterial
usedinthewindings.Eddycurrentlossisexpressedas

whereWeistheeddycurrentlossinWatts
Bmisthemaximumvalueoffluxdensity
fisthesupplyfrequency
tisthethicknessofthecorematerial.
Eddycurrentlossisminimizedbyusingathinlaminatedsheetsteelas
thecorematerialinsteadofasolidcore.Thelaminatedsteelsheetsare
assembledtogetherandareinsulatedfromeachotherusinginsulating
varnish.Thiscreatesanobstructiontotheflowofeddycurrent,andhence
reducestheeddycurrentloss.
6.18 SOLVED NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Example6.1Atransformerhas1000turnsonitsprimaryand500turns
onthesecondary.Whenavoltage,Voffrequencyfisconnectedacrossthe
3

primarywindingamaximumfluxof210 Wbisproducedinthecore
whichlinksboththewindings.CalculatethevalueoftheEMFinducedin
thetwowindings.
Solution:
LetE1andE2betheEMFsinducedinprimaryandsecondarywindings,
respectively.Here,N1=1000andN2=500.

Example6.2Atransformerhas900turnsonitsprimarywindingand
300turnsonitssecondary.Avoltageof230Vat50Hzisconnected

acrossitsprimarywinding.Thecrosssectionalareaofthecoreis64cm .
CalculatethemagnitudeoftheinducedEMFinthesecondarywinding.
Alsocalculatethevalueofmaximumfluxdensityinthecore.
Solution:

Figure6.22
GivenV1=230V.
TheinducedEMFintheprimarywindingsisE1.E1isslightlylessthanV1
becausetherewillbesomevoltagedropinthewinding.
V1>E1,V1E1=Voltagedropintheprimarywindingduetocurrent,I0
flowingthroughit.
Thenoloadcurrent,I0isverysmallascomparedtothecurrentthat
wouldflowwhensomeelectricalloadisconnectedacrossthesecondary
winding.Here,thetransformerisonnoload,i.e.,noloadhasbeen
connectedtoitssecondarywinding.
Ifweneglectthenoloadvoltagedropinthewinding,wecanwriteV1=
E1.

whenBmisthemaximumfluxdensityandAisthecrosssectionalareaof
thecore.
Substitutingvalues

Example6.3A110V/220Vtransformerissuppliedwith110V,50Hz
supplytoitslowvoltageside.Itisdesiredtohavemaximumvalueofcore
fluxas4.2mWbs.Calculatetherequirednumberofturnsinitsprimary
winding.
Solution:
V1=110V.Neglectingthewindingvoltagedropundernoloadcondition,
V1=E1=110V.
E1=4.44

N1
3

Substitutingvalues,110=4.444.210 50N1


Example6.4A100kVA,1100/220V,50Hztransformerhas100turnson
itssecondarywinding.Calculatethenumberofturnsoftheprimary
windingthecurrentsthatwouldflowinboththewindingswhenfully
loaded,andthemaximumvalueoffluxinthecore.
Solution:
Given,N2=100

Ratingofthetransformeris=100kVA=10010 VA.
Primarycurrent,

Sincevoltampereratingisthesameforthetransformeronboththe
sides,
scondarycurrent,

Forcalculating
E1=4.44

m,wewillusetheEMFequation.

mfN1

Substitutingvalues1100=4.44
or,

m50500

m=9.910

Wb

Example6.5Themaximumfluxdensityinthecoreofa1100/220V,50
2

Hz,100kVAtransformeris3.5Wb/m .Calculatetheareaofcrosssection
ofthecoreandthenumberofturnsoftheprimaryandsecondary
windingsiftheEMFperturnis5.5V.
Solution:
V1=E1=1100V
EMFperturnNo.ofturns=totalinducedEMF
or,5.5N1=E1

Example6.6Thenoloadinputpowertoatransformeris100W.The
noloadcurrentis3Awhentheprimaryappliedvoltageis230Vat50Hz.

Theresistanceoftheprimarywindingin0.5.Calculatethevalueofiron
lossandnoloadpowerfactor.
Solution:
2

Atnoload,theinputpowerislostasasmallamountofI Rlossinthe
windingandascoreloss.
Inanaccircuit,power=VIcos
LetNoloadinputpowerbeW0

Figure6.23

cos

0isthenoloadpowerfactorofthetransformer.Atnoload,

primarywindingcopperlossisequalto

ThewattmeterreadingW0indicatesthepowerlossinthecoreasalsoin
thewinding.
2

Coreloss,orironloss,W0=W0I 0R1

=1004.5

=95.5W

Example6.7A100kVA,2400/240V,50Hztransformerhasanoload
currentof0.64Aandacorelossof700W,whenitshighvoltagesideis
energizedatratedvoltageandfrequency.Calculatethecomponentsofthe
noloadcurrentandnoloadbranchparametersoftheequivalentcircuit.
Solution:
Neglectingthesmallamountofcopperlossatnoload,

Figure6.24

Example6.8A400/200V,50Hztransformerdrawsanoloadcurrent
of6Aat0.2powerfactorlagging.Thetransformersuppliesacurrentof
100Aat200Vtotheload.Theloadpowerfactoris0.8lagging.Whatis
themagnitudeofcurrentdrawnbythetransformerfromthesupply
mains?
Solution:

Figure6.25

Thecircuitdiagramandthephasordiagramshowingthecurrentswith
referencetosupplyvoltage,V1havebeenshowninFig.6.25.Ioistheno
loadcurrentmakinganangleoflag

0withV1wherecos

=78(lagging).Theloadpowerfactor,cos

2=0.8or,

0=0.2or

2=37.I2isthe

loadcurrent.I1istheadditionalcurrentdrawnbytheprimarytobalance
theloadcurrentI2suchthat

substitutingvalues

AsshowninFig.6.25,itisobservedthatthephasorsumofIoandI1is
theprimarycurrentwhenthetransformerisloaded.TheanglebetweenIo
andI1is

2,i.e.,(7837)=41.

Usinglawofparallelogram,

substitutingvalues

Example6.9A400/200V,50Hz,10kVAtransformerhasprimaryand
secondarywindingresistancesof2.5and0.5andwindingleakage
reactancesof5and1,respectively.Calculatetheequivalentresistance
andreactanceofthetransformerreferredtothesecondaryside.What
amountofpowerwillbelostinthewindings?
Solution:

Figure6.26(a)

Figure6.26(b)

ThiscurrentI2ispassingthroughtheequivalentresistance,Re=1.125.

Totalcopperloss=
Example6.10A25kVA,2000/200Vtransformerhasconstantloss,
i.e.,ironlossof350Wandfullloadcopperlosscalledthevariablelossof
400W.Calculatetheefficiencyofthetransformeratfullloadandathalf
load0.8powerfactorlagging.
Solution:

Example6.11A5kVA,1000/200V,50Hzsinglephasetransformerhas
thefollowingnoloadtest,i.e.,theopencircuittestandtheshortcircuit
testdata.
Noloadtestconductedatthelowvoltageside:

Theshortcircuittestconductedatthehighvoltageside:

Calculatetheefficiencyofthetransformeratfullload0.8p.f.lagging.
Whatwillbetheequivalentresistanceofthetransformerwindings
referredtohighvoltageside?
Solution:
Powerconsumedonnoloadtestcanbetakenapproximatelyequaltothe
coreloss,andpowerlossontheshortcircuittestwhentheratedcurrent
flowsthroughthewindingscanbetakenasequaltofullloadcopperloss.

Thus,weseethattheshortcircuittestwasconductedunderthefullload
condition.

Example6.12A20kVA,1000/200V,50Hzhascorelossandcopper
lossas400Wand600W,respectively,underthefullloadcondition.
Calculatetheefficiencyatfullload0.8laggingpowerfactor.Atwhat
percentageoffullloadwilltheefficiencybemaximumandwhatisthe
valueofmaximumefficiency?
Solution:

Nowwehavetodetermineatwhatloadtheefficiencywillbemaximum.

Letxbethefractionoffullloadatwhichtheefficiencywillbemaximum.
Sincecopperlossisproportionaltothesquareoftheload,andat
maximumefficiencycorelossequalscopperloss

Therefore,efficiencywillbemaximumwhentheloadis0.82of20kVA,
i.e.,0.8220=16.4kVA.Atthisload,corelossequalscopperlossand
maximumefficiencyis

Example6.13Efficiencyof400/200V,200kVAtransformeris98.5per
centatfullloadat0.8laggingpowerfactor.Athalfload,0.8powerfactor
laggingtheefficiencyis97.5percent.Calculatethevaluesofcorelossand
fullloadcopperloss.
Solution:
LetWcbethecorelossandWcubethefullloadcopperloss.

Athalfload,WcwillremainthesamebutWcuwillbeonefourthitsfull
loadvalue.Efficiencyathalfloadis

Example6.14Theequivalentcircuitparametersofa300kVA,
2200/200V,50Hzsinglephasetransformerare:primarywinding
resistance,R1=0.1secondarywindingresistance,R2=0.01
primaryleakagereactance,X1=0.4secondaryleakagereactance,X2=
3

0.03resistancerepresentingcoreloss,Rc=610 ,magnetizing
3

reactanceXm=210 .Calculatethevoltageregulationandefficiency
ofthetransformeratfullloadat0.8powerfactorlagging.
Solution:

Figure6.27

WewillconsiderE1=2200VandE2=220V

Bytransferringthesecondaryquantitiestotheprimarysidewewill
calculatetheequivalentresistanceandequivalentreactanceofthe
transformeras

Theequivalentcircuitwiththesecondaryquantitiesreferredtothe
primarysideandthephasordiagramhavebeenshowninFig.6.28.

Figure6.28


Tocalculateefficiency,weneedtocalculatethecopperlossandcoreloss.

Example6.15A10kVA440/220V,50Hzsinglephasetransformer
gavethefollowingtestresultswhenboththefollowingtestswere
conductedonthehighvoltageside:
Opencircuittest:440V,1.0A,100W
Shortcircuittest:20V,22.7A,130W.
Usingthetestdata,calculatetheefficiencyandvoltageregulationat0.8
powerfactorlagging.
Solution:
Fullloadcurrentonthehighvoltageside

Thisshowsthattheshortcircuittesthasbeenconductedonfullload.The
wattmeterreading,therefore,representsthefullloadcopperloss.

Fullloadefficiencyiscalculatedas

Calculationofvoltageregulation

Fromtheshortcircuittestdata,wattmeterreadingcanbetakenasequal
tocopperlossesinthewindings.

Example6.16A440/220Vsinglephasetransformerhaspercentage
resistancedropandreactancedropof1.2percentand6percent,
respectively.Calculatethevoltageregulationofthetransformerat0.8
powerfactorlagging.
Solution:

Example6.17A230/115V,5kVAtransformerhascircuitparametersas
R1=0.2,X1=0.8,R2=0.1,X2=0.2.Calculatetheregulationof
thetransformerat0.8powerfactorlagging.Atwhatvalueofpowerfactor
willtheregulationbezero?Canthevalueofregulationbenegativeforany
powerfactorload?
Solution

Referringallthecircuitparameterstothesecondaryside,


Weknowregulationcanbenegativeonlywhenthepowerfactorisleading
andwhentheexpressionforregulationis

Regulationwillbezerowhenthenumeratoroftheaboveexpressionwill
bezero.Thatis

Thepowerfactoratwhichregulationwillbezeroiscos20.6=0.94
leading
Regulationwillbenegativeifthepowerfactorangleismorethan20.6
leading.Toverify,lettheangleofleadofloadcurrentbehigherthan
20.6.Ifweassumethisangleas37,thepowerfactoris0.8leading.The
regulationat0.8leadingiscalculatedas

Example6.18Calculatethealldayefficiencyofa25kVAdistribution
transformerwhoseloadingpatternisasfollows:
15kWat0.8powerfactorfor6hours
12kWat0.7powerfactorfor6hours
10kWat0.9powerfactorfor8hours
Negligibleloadfor4hours.
Thecorelossis500Wandfullloadcopperlossis800W.
Solution:
Outputofthetransformerin24hoursiscalculatedas


Wehavetocalculatethecorelossandcopperlossfor24hoursatdifferent
loadingconditionsasCorelossremainsconstantatallloads.Therefore,

Copperlossvariesasthesquareoftheload.Theloadsontransformer
havetobecalculatedintermsofkVA.

6.19 REVIEW QUESTIONS

A.ShortAnswerTypeQuestions
1. Explainwithexampleswhytransformersarerequiredin
transmissionanddistributionofelectricalpower.
2. Distinguishbetweenastepuptransformerandastepdown
transformer.
3. Whatistheexpressionforvoltageperturnofatransformer?
4. DerivetheEMFequationofatransformer.
5. Whatarethelossesinatransformerandhowcanthesebekept
low?
6. Whatiseddycurrentlossandhowcanthislossbereduced?
7. Whydoweuselaminatedsheetstobuildthecoreofa
transformerinsteadofusingasolidcore?
8. Distinguishbetweencoretypeandshelltypeconstructionofthe
transformercore.
9. Explainwhythefrequencyofoutputvoltageisthesameasinput
voltageinatransformer.
10. Distinguishbetweenmagnetizingreactanceandleakage
reactanceofatransformer.
11. Drawtheequivalentcircuitofatransformerunderthenoload
condition.
12. Explaintheconceptofanidealtransformer.
13. Whatismeantbyvoltageregulationofatransformer?Isit
desirabletohaveahighvoltageregulationofatransformer?
Justifyyouranswer.

14. Howcanwecalculatetheefficiencyofatransformerbyknowing
itslosses?
15. Drawthenoloadphasordiagramofatransformer.Whatarethe
twocomponentsofanoloadcurrent?
16. Drawthefullloadphasordiagramofatransformerneglecting
thevoltagedropinthewindings.
17. Derivetheconditionformaximumefficiencyofatransformer.
18. Whatisalldayefficiencyofatransformer?Whatisits
significance?
19. Howcanyoudeterminetheefficiencyofatransformerindirectly,
i.e.,withoutactuallyloadingthetransformer?
20. Whatistheexpressionforvoltageregulationofatransformerin
termsofitsequivalentresistance,equivalentreactance,power
factor,andtheoutputvoltage?
21. Howcanyoudeterminetheefficiencyofatransformerofagiven
ratingatanyloadifthevaluesoffullloadlossesareknown?
22. Explainhowtheshortcircuittestonatransformeristobe
conducted.Whatinformationdoyougetfromtheshortcircuit
testdata?
23. Drawandexplaintheexactequivalentcircuitofatransformer.
24. Explainhowinatransformer,theprimarycurrentincreasesas
thesecondarycurrent,i.e.,loadcurrentincreases.
25. Whyisthecoreofatransformermadeofmagneticmaterial?
26. Whatisthedifferencebetweenapracticaltransformerandan
idealtransformer?
27. Whydoweconsidercorelossasaconstantlossandcopperloss
asavariableloss?
28. Distinguishbetweenapowertransformerandadistribution
transformer.
29. Isefficiencyofatransformersameataparticularloadbutat
differentpowerfactors?
30. Isefficiencyofatransformerataparticularloadsameat0.8
powerfactorlaggingand0.8powerfactorlagging?
31. Whatmaybethemainreasonforaconstanthummingnoiseina
transformerwhenitissupplyingsomeload?
32. Whyistheefficiencyofatransformerhigherthananyrotating
electricalmachineofsimilarratings?
33. Howdoesregulationofatransformergetaffectedbyloadpower
factor?
34. Writeshortnotesonthefollowing:(i)magnetizingreactance(ii)
leakagereactance(iii)eddycurrentloss(iv)hysteresisloss(v)
alldayefficiency.

B.NumericalProblems
35.A40kVA3200/400V,singlephase,50Hztransformerhas112
turnsonthesecondarywinding.Calculatethenumberofturnsonthe
primarywinding.Whatisthesecondarycurrentatfullload?What
shouldbethecrosssectionalareaofthecoreforacorefluxdensityof
2

1.2Wb/m ?

[Ans896,100A,01362m ]
36.A400kVAtransformerhasafullloadcorelossof800Wand

copperlossof2500W.Whatwillbethevaluesoftheselossesat
load?

[Ans800W,625W]
37.Asinglephasetransformerisrequiredtostepdownthevoltage
from1100Vto400Vat50Hz.Thecorehasacrosssectionalareaof25
2

cm andthemaximumfluxdensityis5Wb/m .Determinethenumber
ofturnsoftheprimaryandsecondarywindings.

[Ans396,144]
38.Asinglephase40kVAtransformerhasprimaryandsecondary
voltagesof6600Vand230V,respectively.Thenumberofturnsofthe
secondarywindingis30.Calculatethenumberofturnsoftheprimary
winding.Alsocalculatetheprimaryandsecondarywindingcurrents.

[Ans860,6.06A,173.9A]
39.Atransformeronnoloadtakes4.5Aatapowerfactorof0.25
laggingwhenconnectedtoa230V,50Hzsupply.Thenumberofturns
oftheprimarywindingis250.Calculate(a)themagnetizingcurrent,
(b)thecoreloss,and(c)themaximumvalueoffluxinthecore.

[AnsIm=4.35,Pc=259W,

m=4.1410

Wb]

40.A660V/220Vsinglephasetransformertakesanoloadcurrentof
2Aatapowerfactorof0.225lagging.Thetransformersuppliesaload
of30Aatapowerfactorof0.9lagging.Calculatethecurrentdrawnby
theprimaryfromthemainsandprimarypowerfactor.Resistanceand
reactanceofthewindingsmaybeneglected.

[AnsI1=11.38A,cos

1=0.829lag]

41.A100kVAtransformerhas400turnsontheprimaryand80turns
onthesecondary.Theprimaryandsecondaryresistancesare0.3
and0.01
1.1

,respectively,andthecorrespondingleakagereactancesare

and0.035

,respectively.Calculatetheequivalentimpedance

referredtotheprimaryside.

[AnsZe=2.05]
42.A660V/220Vsinglephasetransformertakesanoloadcurrentof
2Aatapowerfactorof0.255lagging.Thetransformersuppliesaload
of30Aatapowerfactorof0.9lagging.Calculatethecurrentdrawnby
theprimaryfromthemainsandprimarypowerfactor.Neglectwinding
resistancesandreactances.

[AnsI1=11.4A,cos

1=0.83lagging]

43.Theprimaryandsecondarywindingsofa500kVAtransformer
haveR1=0.4andR2=0.001,respectively.Theprimaryand
secondaryvoltagesare6600Vand400V,respectively.Theironlossis
3kW.Calculatetheefficiencyonfullloadat0.8powerfactorlagging.

[Ans98.3percent]
44.A5kVA200/400V,50Hzsinglephasetransformergavethe
followingtestdata:
1. L.V.sideopencircuittest220V,0.7A,60W
2. H.V.sideshortcircuittest22V,16A,120W
Calculatetheregulationofthetransformerunderthefullload
condition.

[Ans3percent]
45.Thenoloadcurrentofatransformeris15Aatapowerfactorof0.2
laggingwhenconnectedtoa460V,50Hzsupply.Iftheprimary
windinghas550turns,calculate(i)magnetizingcomponentoftheno
loadcurrent,(ii)theironloss,and(iii)maximumvalueoffluxinthe
core.

[AnsIm=14.67A,780W,2.129mwb]
46.Asinglephase,100kVAdistributiontransformerisloadedas
mentionedduring24hours:
4hours:noload
8hours:50percentloadatpowerfactor=1
6hours:75percentloadatpowerfactor=0.9
6hours:fullloadat0.9powerfactor
Thefullloadcopperlossandcorelossis5kWand2kW,respectively.
Calculatethealldayefficiencyofthetransformer.

[Ans92.5percent]
47.A12kVA,200/400V,50Hzsinglephasetransformergavethe
followingreadingsontheopencircuittestandtheshortcircuittest:
opencircuittest:200V,1.3A,120W
shortcircuittestconductedontheH.V.side:22V,30A,200W
Calculatetheequivalentcircuitparametersasreferredtothelow
voltageside.Alsocalculatethemagnetizingcomponentofthenoload
circuit.

[AnsRc=333,Xm=174,Re=0.055,Xe=0.175,Im=1.15A]

C.MultipleChoiceQuestions
1. Atransformerhavingnumberofturnsintheprimaryand
secondarywindingof1000and500,respectively,issuppliedwith
230Vat50Hz.TheinducedEMFinthesecondarywindingwill
be
1. 460Vat50Hz
2. 115Vat25Hz
3. 115Vat50Hz
4. 500Vat50Hz.
2. Thecoreofthetransformersismadeoflaminatedsteelsheetsso
asto
1. Reducehysteresisloss
2. Reduceeddycurrentloss
3. Increaseoutputvoltage
4. Reducebothhysteresislossandeddycurrentloss.
3. TheEMFinducedinthewindingsofatransformer
1. Lagsthecorefluxby90
2. Leadsthecorefluxby90
3. Isinphasewiththecoreflux
4. Isinoppositiontothecoreflux.
4. Toreducethecorelossesinatransformer
1. Thecoreismadeofsiliconsteellaminations
2. Thecoreisfastenedverytightsothatthecorefluxdonot
flyaway
3. Thecoreismadeofsolidsteel
4. Thecoreismadeofcopperlaminations.
5. Thenoloadcurrentofa10kVA,230V/115Vtransformerwire
willbeabout
1. 5percentofitsratedcurrent
2. 20percentofitsratedcurrent
3. 30percentofitsratedcurrent
4. 0.1percentofitsratedcurrent.
6. Thenoloadcurrentofa15kVA,230/1100Vsinglephase
transformerwillbeabout
1. 15.33A
2. 3A
3. 12A
4. 73.3A.
7. Efficiencyofatransformerishigherthamthatofamotorora
generatorofsimilarratingbecause
1. Thereisnohysteresisandeddycurrentlossinamotoror
agenerator
2. Designsoftransformersaresuperiorthanmotorsand
generators
3. Transformerisastaticdeviceandthereisnorotational
lossinit
4. Transformersareconnectedtohighvoltagetransmission
lineswhereasmotorsandgeneratorsareconnectedto
lowvoltagesupplylines.
8. Whichofthefollowinglossesinatransformervarywithload
1. Hysteresisloss
2. Eddycurrentloss
3. Copperlossesinthewindings
4. Ironloss.
9. Opencircuittestandshortcircuittestonatransformerare
performedtodetermine,respectively,thefollowinglosses
1. Copperlossandcoreloss
2. Corelossandcopperloss
3. Eddycurrentlossandhysteresisloss
4. Hysteresislossandeddycurrentloss.
10. Maximumefficiencyofatransformerisobtainedataloadat
whichits
1. Corelossbecomestheminimum
2. Copperlossbecomestheminimum
3. Copperlossequalscoreloss
4. Corelossbecomesnegligible.
11. Atransformerhas350primaryturnsand1050secondaryturns.
Theprimarywindingisconnectedacrossa230V,50Hzsupply.
TheinducedEMFinthesecondarywillbe
1. 690V,50Hz
2. 690V,100Hz
3. 690V,150Hz
4. 115V,50Hz.
12. Theratingofatransformerisexpressedin
1. kW
2. kVA
3. kWh
4. cos

13. Theampereturnsbalanceequationforatransformeronloadcan
beexpressedas
1. I1N1=I2N2
2. I1N1>>I2N2
3. I1N1=I2N2
4. I1N1<I2N2.
14. Whichofthefollowingcharacteristicassumptionsforanideal

transformeraretrue?
1. Couplingcoefficientbetweenthewindingsisunity
2. Thereareabsolutelynocoreandcopperlosses
3. Thecoreismadeupmaterialhavinginfinitepermeability
4. Allthecharacteristicsasin(a),(b),and(c).
15. TheEMFequationforatransformeris
2

1. E=4.44

fN

2. E=4.44

fN

3. E=4.44

f N

4. E=4.44

nfN.

16. Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueforatransformer?
1. Atransformerisanenergyconversiondevice
2. Atransformerchangesthevoltageandfrequencyfrom
oneleveltotheother
3. Atransformerisastaticvariablefrequencydevice
4. Atransformertransformsorchangesvoltagelevelof
energyutilizationkeepingthefrequencyconstant.
17. Whichofthefollowingeffectswillthesecondaryloadcurrentofa
transformerwillhaveonthemainfluxcreatedbythe
magnetizingcurrent?
1. Magnetization
2. Demagnetization
3. Polarization
4. Noeffect.
18. Onwhichofthefollowingdoesthevoltageregulationofa
transformerdepend?
1. Loadpowerfactor
2. Magnitudeofload
3. Windingresistanceandreactance
4. allfactorasin(a),(b),and(c).
19. Thenoloadcurrentofatransformeris
1. ThealgebraicsumofImandIc
2. PhasorsumofImandIc

3. AlgebraicsumofIoandI1
1

4. PhasorsumofIoandI1 .
20. Thenoloadcurrentofatransformerascomparedtoitsfullload
currentcanbeexpressedas
1. 0to2percent
2. 2to5percent
3. 10to20percent
4. 20to30percent.
21. Powerfactorofatransformerofnoloadislowdueto
1. Largecomponentofmagnitizingcurrent,whichlagsthe
voltageby90
2. Largecomponentoflosscomponentofcurrent
3. Secondaryampereturnsinterferingwiththeprimary
ampereturns
4. Thefactthattheprimaryandsecondarywindingsarenot
firmlycoupled.
22. Thecorelossandcopperlossofatransformeronfullloadare
400Wand600W,respectively.Theirvaluesatonethirdfull
loadwillbe
1. 133.3Wand200W
2. 400Wand66.66W
3. 133.3Wand600W
4. 400Wand200W.
23. Thefullloadcorelossandcopperlossofatransformerare400
Wand600W,respectively.Atapproximatelywhatpercentageof
fullloadwilltheefficiencybemaximum?
1. 81percent
2. 91percent
3. 95percent
4. 99percent.
24. Thefullloadoutputofatransformeratunitypowerfactoris800
W.Itsoutputathalfload0.8powerfactorwillbe
1. 400W
2. 320W
3. 160W
4. 640W.
25. Largecapacitytransformersareplacedintanksfilledwith
transformeroil.Whichofthefollowingarenotvalidforthe
above?
1. Oilprovidesinsulationbetweenthetwowindings.
2. Oilcoolsthetransformer.
3. Oilpreventsmagnetizingfluxfromgettingreducedwith
time.
4. Temperatureriseofthewindingiskeptundercontrol.
26. Thefullloadcopperlossofatransformeris1200W.Athalfload
thecopperlosswillbe
1. 600W
2. 1200W
3. 300W
4. 900W.
27. Thefullloadcorelossofatransformeris1200W.Athalfload

thecorelosswillbe
1. 600W
2. 1200W
3. 300W
4. 900W.
28. Thenoloadcurrentofacertaintransformeris2A.Its
magnetizingcomponentmaybe
1. 1.8A
2. 0.2A
3. 0.4A
4. 0.02A.
29. Whentheprimaryandsecondarywindingsofatransformerare
perfectlymagneticallycoupled
1. Theleakagereactancewillbehighandvoltageregulation
willbehigh(i.e.,poor)
2. Theleakagereactancewillbelowandvoltageregulation
willbelow(i.e.,good)
3. Theleakagereactancewillbelowandvoltageregulation
willbehigh(i.e.,poor)
4. Theleakagereactancewillbehighandvoltageregulation
willbelow(i.e.,good).

AnswerstoMultipleChoiceQuestions
1. (c)
2. (b)
3. (a)
4. (a)
5. (a)
6. (b)
7. (c)
8. (c)
9. (b)
10. (c)
11. (a)
12. (b)
13. (c)
14. (d)
15. (d)
16. (d)
17. (b)
18. (d)
19. (b)
20. (b)
21. (a)
22. (b)
23. (a)
24. (b)
25. (c)
26. (c)
27. (b)
28. (a)
29. (b)

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