1

Coming of Europeans
Portuguese Explorer and Navigator
Vasco da Gama was the first European to reach Calicut, by the sea route on May
20, 1498. He had to face the hostility of Muslim merchants at Calicut. He returned
with the message that sword was a must for the Eastern trade. In 1500, Portuguese
under Cabral attacked Zamorin. When news of his failure reached Portugal, Vasco da
Gama was sent in 1502, to avenge the act. After arriving in Calicut, Vasco da Gama
subdued the inhabitants and forced the ruler to make peace. In 1509, Alfonso d'
Albuquerque came to India as the Portuguese Governor. He captured Goa from Yusuf
Adil Khan of Bijapur in 1510 and developed it as Portuguese capital in India and used
it for expanding their trading interests. For about the first two centuries after
Europeans arrived in India, their activities were restricted to trade and evangelism,
their presence protected by naval forces. During the early Mughal period, European
traders were confined to trading posts along the coast. In the 16th century the
Portuguese navy controlled the sea lanes of the Indian Ocean, protecting the traders
settled in Goa, Daman, and Diu on the Western Coast.

English East India Company

It was established on 31st December 1600 in Britain with objective to trade with
India. It was a joint stock enterprise. Gradually the company grew in size and
benefited from Indian trade. English were allowed to set up a permanent factory at
Surat in 1613 by the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. An English factory had already come
up at Masulipatam on the Eastern Coast in 1611. Keeping in view the profit earned
through Indian trade, King James I of England sent his ambassador Sir Thomas Roe, to
the court of Jahangir in 1615, who requested for permission on behalf of the Company
to open company's factories in India. Subsequently they were allowed to open
factories at several places on the West Coast and Surat became the centre of the
English trading activities. Later Fort St. George was constructed at Madras in 1639.
The factory was opened at Bangalore in 1642. The company got Bombay in 1668 from
Charles II, the King of England, who had received it from Portugal after marrying the
Portuguese Princess Catherine Braganza in 1661 as part of the dowry gift. Similarly, in
1651, a factory at Hoogly and later several factories in Calcutta and Kasimbazar were
established. In 1702, the nomenclature of the East India Company was changed to

Chapter 1 Coming of Europeans

'United Company of Merchants of England Trading in the East Indies'. However, in

common parlance it came to be known as the East India Company. The East India
Company expanded its trade in India and procured privileges and concessions by
establishing good relations with the local kings and Nawabs. For instance by a circular
(firman) issued by Farrukhsiyar in 1717, it obtained several concessions.

From Trading Company to a Political Power

The English East India Company had remained a commercial body for one and a
half centuries. However, the mid-18th century saw the transformation of the English
East India Company from a trading enterprise to a political power. The decline of
Mughal authority obviously provided a great opportunity for expansion of influence.
It was mainly the commercial rivalry between the British and the Bengal Nawabs,
which largely decided the course of events in the 1750s. The personal failure of any
Nawab was not an important decisive factor for this development, as some historians
have tried to establish. However, the degeneration in the administration that started
in the 18th century provided opportunity to the British to play an important role in the
politics. Soon it hijacked and took over the political control of Bengal. Collapse of the
independent Bengal polity was ensured by the British during the period from 1757 to
1765. The beginning of the empire is usually traced to 1757 when the British defeated
the Bengal Nawab at Plassey. The company's need for more revenue from taxation
inclined it towards establishing an empire in India. The company needed money to
maintain its trade and pay its troops therefore, acquisition of territory seemed the best
method of meeting these requirements. The company's interest in conquering Bengal
was two-fold Protection of its trade and Control over Bengal's revenue.
The intention of the Company to remit the surplus revenue of Bengal as tribute
through the channel of investment in Bengal goods, brought about certain changes in
the nature of functioning of the Company. The changing economic condition in
Europe and India like advent of industrial revolution and weakening of political
authority respectively provided the Company the opportunity to transform itself. In
fact the transformation became necessary and could not be procrastinated for long.

Other Trading Companies

Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602. Their activities in India were
centered primarily on the Southern and Eastern Coasts and in the Bengal region.
However they gave more attention to the spice trade with Indonesia and South East
Asia and shifted their focus to that region.
Danish East India Company arrived in India in 1616 to gain a share of the East
India trade. Its principal Indian possessions being Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu and
Serampore in Bengal. It enjoyed great prosperity in India until the advance of British
power there in the late 18th century.
French East India Company was established in 1664. The company founded its
first trading post at Surat in 1675. The following year it set up its principal Indian base
at Pondicherry, on the Coromandel Coast. The company prospered in India under
governorship of Dumas and Dupleix. However due to weak fundamentals, inadequate
support from home etc. they were tamed and vanquish in India by their superior
opponent in India ie English East India Company.

Relation between the European Companies

The European companies in India were competing with each other. Therefore the
relationship they enjoyed amongst themselves was far from being cordial. Moreover,
it was highly influenced by the events in Europe. For instance the Dutch displaced the

Chapter 1 Coming of Europeans

Portuguese as masters of the seas around India in the 17th century. It supplanted the
Portuguese in most of present-day Indonesia and in the Malay Peninsula etc. During
this period it was also successful in driving English rivals from the Malay
Archipelago. In 1632, the Dutch killed the English factors, or agents, in Amboina.
After the massacre the English East India Company conceded to the Dutch the area
that became known as the Netherlands East Indies. Its armed merchantmen, however,
continued sea warfare with Dutch, French, and Portuguese competitors.
Similarly Dupleix directed the unsuccessful French struggles against the British
to ensure control over India. But the capture of Arcot in 1751 by the British under
Robert Clive limited French control to Southern India, where it remained supreme
until 1761, when the British captured Pondicherry.
The victories of Robert Clive at Plassey in 1757 made the company the dominant
power in India. All formidable European rivalry vanished with the defeat of the
French at Pondicherry in 1761. As a consequence of the destruction of Danish naval
power in the war between Britain and Denmark in 1801, the power of the Danish
company was broken. Its principal Indian possessions, Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu
and Serampore in Bengal, were purchased by Britain in 1845.
The struggle for supremacy for trade in India was finally settled with the
establishment of British rule in India, whose foundation was laid after dealing
decisively with all the challenges that arose due to stiff resistance from native rulers
and the traditional competitors from Europe.

Impact of the European Settlement on India

Initially during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the settlement of European
companies in India resulted into interaction between people associated with different
socio-economic, political, cultural and religious paradigm. Therefore it was but
natural that settlement of Europeans in India influenced the socio-economic and
religious life of the people falling under the area of their influence. For instance we
find that the general understanding about different cultures became more apparent
and it evolved due to interaction between the people from different countries. India
also witnessed advent of new art, architecture and culture during the period.
During the early period of settlement of European companies in India and
establishment of trade links between India and Europe proved highly beneficial for
India. As a result of these contacts European markets were thrown open to Indian
goods. India made huge profits through export of Indian goods to Europe. Wealth
began to flow from Europe to India which greatly contributed to the prosperity of the
country. However, in later period the nature of the European companies in India
witnessed change and their sphere of influence increased. In fact they started to
influence the balance of power in the sub-continent. In order to benefit from the
eastern trade most of the companies involved themselves in activities that were not
ethical and moral by any standard. They drove wedge amongst the native rulers and
did not shy away in prodding, provoking and instigating them to fight amongst
themselves. Moreover the loyalty of the European companies was towards their
interest and it fluctuated and changed according to their interest. It would not be an
exaggeration to say that European companies added to the level of hatred and feud
amongst the Indian elements. They had an added advantage of disciplined and well
organized modern army equipped with advanced weaponry. In fact they used their
military strength in India to acquire political concessions and powers during the
period. This had immense impact on the military system of India. The Indian rulers
adopted the new system and employed many Europeans in their army.

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By the last quarter of the 18th century the English had vanquished all others and
established themselves as the dominant power in India. Once the British had
consolidated their power, commercial exploitation of the natural resources and native
labour became ruthless. The period of economic exploitation adversely affected
Indian culture and social life. The prevalent Mughal administrative, legal, revenue
and military structures were dismantled and a long period of unhappiness, poverty
and exploitation began. In fact it lead to drain of wealth from India to England and
added to poverty and overall backwardness of India.

Anglo-French Conflicts in India and their Outcome

Owing to the unstable political situation in India during mid-18th century the
rivalry between the European companies left two important rivals in India in the form
of English and the French East India Companies. Their rivalry in India did not remain
confined only to trade but it assumed political overtones as well. Madras and
Pondicherry were the chief trading centres for the English and French respectively on
the Coromandel Coast. The relations between both the companies were tense. The
Carnatic region was totally disturbed politically. It was but natural for English and
French to support different groups/parties in the region and take opposite stand on
various issues.
The Anglo-French struggle in India began in the coastal areas north and south of
Madras then known as the Carnatic. The Anglo-French rivalry unfolded in the form of
three Carnatic Wars between 1740 and 1763 in Southern India.

First Carnatic War

The First Carnatic War (1746-48) was largely an extension of Anglo-French
rivalries in Europe and America. In Europe, the Austrian war of succession broke out
in 1740. France and Britain wanted to place their candidate on the Austrian throne.
Moreover, in the wake of the declining Mughal authority in India both English and
French East India Companies wanted to have control over the Indian trade. This
technically gave rise to conflict and pushed the two companies in the state of war in
India. In the course of the First Carnatic War the French besieged Madras both by sea
and land. A large British army was sent from England under Rear Admiral
Boscawen in June 1748 to avenge the capture of Madras. But by October the War
of Austrian Succession had been concluded and under the treaty of
Aix-La-Chapelle and termination of hostilities in Europe, the war in India came to an
end. Madras was restored to British and there was an exchange of each other's
prisoners and territories.

Second Carnatic War

The Second Carnatic War (1749-54) broke out due to conflicting ambitions
between the two powers who supported rival claimants to the disputed thrones of
Hyderabad and Carnatic. The French sided with Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib
while the English supported the claims of Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-Din. The
combined forces of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib and the French defeated and killed
Anwar-ud-Din at the battle of Ambur near Vellore in 1749. The Carnatic came under
the control of Chanda Sahib who rewarded the French with a grant of 80 villages
around Pondicherry. French were also successful in Hyderabad. Nasir Jang was killed
and Muzaffar Jang became the Viceroy or Nizam of the Deccan. When Muzaffar Jang
was accidentally killed in 1751, the French placed Salamat Jang on the throne who in
return gave the area known as the Northern Sarkars to the French. The French power
in South India was now at its height.

7
To offset French influence, the British allied with Nasir Jang and Muhammad Ali
(Anwar-ud-Din's son). In order to help Muhammad Ali, who was besieged by French
forces at Trichinapalli, Robert Clive attacked Arcot, the capital of Carnatic. This
compelled the French to raise the siege of Trichinappalli and led to their defeat.
Chanda Sahib was soon captured and killed. The French fortunes were at the lowest
ebb and French Government initiated peace negotiations. By the Treaty of
Pondicherry the hostilities ended for a while. The English and the French decided not
to the quarrels for the native princes and took possession of the territories, which were
actually occupied by them before the war.

Third Carnatic War

The Third Carnatic War (1758-63) which broke out after the Seven Years War
started (1756) in Europe. In the beginning of the war, the British acquired Bengal
which turned the scales decisively in favour of the British. The final blow was dealt in
1760 when the British General Sir Eyre Coote defeated the French army in the Battle
of Wandiwash and took Bussy as prisoner. By the 1763, Treaty of Paris, though the
French factories were restored, they could not be fortified or even garrisoned with
troops. They could only serve as centres of trade. The battle of Wandiwash ended
almost a century old conflict between British and the French and finally established
the supremacy of the English in India.

Battle of Plassey
Background
The weak central authority and rivalry between the regional kingdoms during
18th century provided the Europeans the opportunity to play important role in Indian
politics. The political condition in Bengal, presented to the East India Company an
opportunity for political interference.
Death of Nawab Alivardi Khan of Bengal in 1756 led to a power struggle between
three contenders. The succession of Siraj-ud-Daulah was opposed by his aunt Ghasiti
Begum and his cousin Shaukat Jang who was the governor of Purnea. There was a
dominant group in the Nawab's court comprising Jagat Seth, Umichand, Raj Ballabh,
Mir Jafar and other who were also opposed to Siraj.
Besides internal dissension within the Nawab's court, another serious threat to
Nawab's position was the growing commercial activities of the English Company. The
conflict between the Nawab and the English Company over trade privileges was
nothing new. But during Siraj-ud-Daulah's reign certain other factors further strained
the relations between the two. This included fortification around Calcutta by the
English Company without the permission of the Nawab, the misuse of the Company's
trade privilege by its officials for their private trade.
The English Company at Calcutta had given shelter to Krishna Das son of Raj
Ballabh who had fled with immense treasures, against the Nawab's will.
The Company officials suspected that the Nawab would cut down the privilege of
the Company in alliance with the French in Bengal.
The issue of fortification of the Fort William at Calcutta without the Nawab's
permission worsened the relationship between the Nawab and the Company. The
Nawab saw this as sheer disobedience and moved in person against the English.
On 20th June 1756, Siraj attacked and took over Fort William. He destroyed the
fortification and left Calcutta in the hands of his officers. Many of the English
prisoners, who were imprisoned during this attack died in a small room often referred
to as the Black Hole tragedy.

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Meanwhile the English waited for the reinforcement from Madras.
The troops from Madras led by Robert Clive and Admiral Watson retook Calcutta
on 2nd January, 1757. The treaty of Alinagar was signed between the Nawab and the
Company.
Clive's troops captured the French settlement of Chandernagore.
Clive tempted Siraj's general Mir Jafar to ally with him in exchange for the
Nawab's position.

Outcome
On 23rd June, 1757, the Company troops marched against Siraj. Betrayed by his
own men Siraj was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, which is said to have lasted only a
few hours, causing limited causalities on both the sides.
The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated, captured and executed at
his capital Murshidabad.
It provided the British with immense political power in India and established the
indirect British rule in India.
Victory of the English in the Battle of Plassey was significant not only for the
Company but was important for the whole of British Empire. The conquest of Bengal
instilled in them a kind of greed for the unfathomed wealth of Bengal and its
subsequent plunder.
Siraj-ud-Daulah was replaced by Mir Jafar as Nawab of Bengal. The new Nawab
was a stooge of the Company and had no independent power or existence.
The English also registered territorial and commercial gains in post Plassey
period. They got the territory of twenty-four Paraganas in Bengal from the new
Nawab. This made the settlement of Calcutta more prosperous. Their trade also
received impetus. The trade and privilege so far enjoyed by them not only increased
but also became more secure.
The English Company utilized this opportunity and dispatched their agents to
re-establish subordinate trading factories in the interior parts of Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa.
Moreover, the Battle of Plassey enhanced the overall prestige of the Company. It
placed them at a very advantageous position. They had now at their disposal
resources that could be used in struggle against the French both within (in the
Carnatic Wars) and without India (in Europe).They were no more dependent on the
supply of resources from Britain which in turn helped the home country in
channelising its resources against the French power in Europe and America.
The Battle of Plassey, therefore, was a turning point in the history not only of
Bengal but in the history of the whole of India. It paved the way for the establishment
of the British supremacy in India. It has been rightly remarked that the Battle of
Plassey marked the end of one epoch and the beginning of a new one. It in fact
heralded the modern period of Indian history.

Battle of Buxar
Background
Strong and commanding position of English East India Company in Bengal was
the most significant outcome of the Battle of Plassey.
The English were not satisfied with Mir Jafar and replaced him by his son-in-law
Mir Kasim. The latter rewarded British with land as well as money.
Kasim was comparatively more able, efficient and strong ruler. He tried to remove
corruption from revenue administration and to raise a modern and disciplined army

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along European lines. In order to weaken the influence and interference of the
Company on day-to-day affairs of his court and to assert his power and position he
shifted his capital to Munger in Bihar. This further displeased the British.
There was rise of differences between the Nawab and the English over various
issues. The new Nawab was determined to free himself from foreign control and in
fact soon emerged as a threat to their positions in Bengal. Nawab's attempts to check
the misuse of the dastaks which deprived the Nawab of an important source of
revenue added fuel to the fire.
Conflict broke out when Mir Kasim abolished all the duties on internal trade so as
to provide a level playing ground to all the traders in his province. Since abolition of
duties automatically checked the use of dastak ,which otherwise allowed the British
to trade without paying taxes/duties in the province of Bengal, the increase in the level
of tension between the Nawab and the British was nothing unusual. This led to use of
force by both the parties. The Nawab was defeated in a series of battles in 1763 and
fled to Awadh.

Outcome
Mir Kasim formed a confederacy with Shuja-ud-Dualah, the Nawab of Awadh
and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam in a final bid to oust the English from Bengal.
The combined armies of the three powers numbering between 40,000 to 60,000
met an English army of 7,072 troops under Major Hector Munro at the battlefield of
Buxar on 22 October, 1764. The English won the day.
The Battle of Buxar was a battle in strictest terms and is therefore, rightly
considered as the most decisive battles of Indian history. The Battle of Buxar was a
closely contested battle in which the losses of the English numbered 847 killed and
wounded, while on the side of the Indian powers more than 2,000 officers and
soldiers were killed.
The battle demonstrated the superiority of English arms over the combined army
of two of the major Indian powers.
Buxar confirmed the decisions of Plassey. As a result of this triumph, in 1765,
Robert Clive signed two treaties at Allahabad popularly known as Treaty of Allahabad
with the Mughal emperor and Nawab of Awadh respectively.
The treaty effectively legalized the British East India Company's control over the
whole of Bengal since Shah Alam II gave the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the
British. They also managed to get the right of Nizamat from Mir Jaffar, the
re-nominated Nawab of Bengal. In fact the Battle of Buxar firmly established the
British as masters of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and placed Awadh at their mercy. Now
English power in Northern India became unchallengeable.

Third Battle of Panipat

The expansion of the Maratha power in northern India brought them into direct
conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Afghan ruler who staked claim over Punjab.
The two sides finally met in January 1761 at the famous Battle of Panipat. The rising
tensions between the Afghans and the Marathas had its genesis in the invasions of
Nadir Shah in 1739 and its outcome. Ahmad Shah Abdali who ascended the throne
after the murder of Nadir Shah was tempted to invade India keeping in view, the
success of the latter. Unlike Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah Abdali focused on acquiring
territories in India and managed to occupy Qandhar, Ghazni, Kabul and Peshawar.
His political ambition brought him in direct conflict with Marathas who were at the
zenith of their power and were trying to expand their territories relentlessly with the
objective to establish a great Maratha Empire covering the entire Northern India.

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Reasons for the Defeat of Marathas
Disaster at Panipat was net outcome of poor military organization, lack of
coordination, over-confidence of Maratha leaders, absence of allies, poor utilization
of available resources, the blunders committed by Maratha leaders, superior
adversary etc.
1. Lack of Maratha sympathizers The Marathas who were expanding rapidly
in North India confronted and ill-treated many local Rajput rulers of Rajasthan and
Northern India. In fact Marathas hardly had any friend or sympathizer or ally when
they were planning to meet the Afghans at Panipat. For instance Sadashiv Rao Bhau
failed in his diplomacy and did not get support from any Rajput ruler. He even lost the
support of Suraj Mal, the Jat ruler of Bharatpur who had once agreed to support him.
2. Military weaknesses and failure The Maratha fighting force consisted of
only 45,000 soldiers while Abadali had 60,000 soldiers with him. Marathas had a
large number of women and slaves at their camp which were a liability to them in
battle. They failed to maintain their line of communication and did not get supplies.
When the Marathas were in short supply of everything, they were forced to fight on
January 14, 1761. In fact they fought the battle when they did not have sufficient
food to eat and no proper fodder for their horses for the last two months. The
geographical distance of Panipat from Deccan, the home of the Marathas acted as an
impediment as far as replenishment of men and supply of material is concerned. The
Peshwa failed to keep contact with Bhau and send him the required reinforcement
and supplies. The situation further worsened in absence of any North Indian friend or
ally of Maratha.
3. Failures of the Maratha leadership Bhau failed as a military strategist and
lost three months at Panipat facing Abdali. The choice of location for camping of
Maratha troops and lack of coordination between Maratha Generals were also
important factors for their defeat at Panipat.
4. Superior adversary Abdali and his soldiers were definitely superior in
arms, organization and fighting tactics. The superior military skills, planning and
strategy adopted by the Afghans under the extraordinary generalship of Abdali
decided the fate of the battle.

Outcome
The Marathas faced a very serious defeat at Panipat. They lost their best leaders.
Bhau and Vishwas Rao alongwith many others who lost their lives in the battle.
Peshwa Balaji Rao could not tolerate the shock of the defeat of Panipat and died on
June 23, 1761.
The debacle at Panipat reduced the power and prestige of the Peshwa. This
ultimately, resulted in the disruption of the unity of the Marathas and led to the
creation of the confederacy of the rival Maratha chiefs.
The Marathas lost their hold on the politics of the North and took time to recover
from the reverses of this battle which made way for the capture of Bengal and Mysore
by the English and Haidar Ali respectively.
Apart from the Marathas the battle exercised tremendous influence on the
fortunes the Mughal Empire which further weakened both politically as well as
economically. Moreover, the prestige of the Mughal ruler further dwindled. Abdali
annexed Punjab and Sindh to his dominions. Before his departure he recognised Shah
Alam as the Emperor, Imad as the Wazir and Najib-ud-Daulah as the Mir Bakshi. After
Abdali's departure, Najib-ud-Daulah held authority at Delhi and denied Shah Alam
the right of admission into the capital.

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Rajputs and Jats became completely independent and the provincial governors
became more defiant and disrespectful.
Therefore, it is generally accepted that third Battle of Panipat was a turning point
in the history of India in general and that of the Marathas in particular. Though the
Maratha power was not destroyed by this battle, it was weakened permanently.

Conflict between the English and the Marathas

1. Marathas were the most formidable power in India during the 18th century
and had the strength to acquire a central political position in the country.
Therefore, the conflict between the Marathas and the British was just a
matter of time.
2. Meanwhile, the rout of Marathas in third Battle of Panipat (1761) and
subsequent developments like the death of Peshwa Narayan Rao, weakened
the Maratha power.
3. In fact the period witnessed intense power struggle between the supporters
of the infant Peshwa Madha Rao II led by Nana Phadnavis and Raghunath
Rao (uncle of Narayan Rao). Raghunath Rao solicited English help and almost
invited British to interfere in the power struggle.
4. The British officials in Bombay decided to intervene on behalf of Raghunath
Rao.
5. The Bombay Council signed the Treaty of Surat with Raghunath Rao
whereby in return for their help they acquired Bassein, Salsette and a sum of
1.5 lakh rupees to maintain a subsidiary force. This involved them in a long
war against the Marathas, popularly known as First Anglo-Maratha War
(1775 to 1782).
6. Meanwhile, the Calcutta Council did not approve of the Treaty of Surat and
signed the Treaty of Purandar in March 1776 with Nana Phadnavis by which
Madhav Rao II was accepted as the new Peshwa.
7. In fact, neither the Company agreed to the Treaty of Purandar nor did the
Marathas endorse it and the war continued.
8. A British force sent by Bombay Government heading towards the Western
Ghats suffered a defeat and signed the humiliating Convention of Wadgaon
in 1779 by which the Company was required to give up all the advantages
acquired by the Treaty of Purandar.
9. Later in May 1782 the Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings
and Mahadji Scindia whereby Salsette and Bassein were given to the British.
Raghunath Rao was pensioned off and Madhav Rao II was accepted as the
Peshwa.
10. The treaty gave the Company twenty years of peace in the North. The British
used this interval to conquer Mysore. However, the Marathas spent the time
quarrelling among themselves. The Treaty established the British influence
in Maratha politics.
11. The stage for next phase of Anglo-Maratha conflict was set after the death of
Madhav Rao II in 1795. Baji Rao II became the new Peshwa. Meanwhile in
1798 Lord Wellesley expanded the dragnet of his subsidiary alliances but the
Marathas tried to keep away from this alliance. In 1800, immediately after the
death of Nana Phadnavis the inefficiency of Baji Rao II began to surface.
12. The mutual conflicts amongst the Marathas gained momentum and a civil
war like situation arose amongst the Maratha confederates.
13. In 1802, Holkar fought against the combined forces of Peshwa and Scindia.
Dismayed, the new Peshwa Baji Rao II fled to British protection and sought

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14.

15.

16.
17.

18.

19.

their assistance. He signed the subsidiary treaty at Bassein in 1802, ceding

territory for the maintenance of a subsidiary force, and agreeing to treat with
no other power. He was re-installed at Poona by the English, without
opposition, on 13 May, 1803.
Later the British forces won a series of victories over the members of
Marathas confederacy. Both Sindhia and Bhonsle concluded subsidiary
alliances with the company, apart from surrendering some territories. The
Peshwa himself became a puppet of the British Raj. In the final stages,
Wellesley turned against Holkar. The army of Holkar proved to be powerful
and the British armies were brought to a stand still. The Raja of Bharatpur,
a rally of Holkar frustrated the attempts of Lord Lake to capture his fort. Once
again Scindia was itching to fight the British.
The Company made peace with Holkar in 1806 and gave back most of his
territories. As a result of the Second Anglo-Maratha War Scindia and Bhonsle
became subsidiary allies of the Company. The British gained control over the
Orissa Coast and the territories between the Ganga and Yamuna. Indeed,
Wellesley's ambition was not completed, but the Company definitely became
the paramount power of India.
There was a pause of eight years before the next phase of conflict between
British and Marathas started in India.
The Peshwa took the lead in uniting the chiefs, but the Marathas would not
evolve a good strategy. They made a last desperate attempt to regain their
independence in 1817 and the lead in this was taken by the Peshwa. He
attacked Poona, the Nagpur chief attacked Nagpur, and Holkar made
preparations for war.
Lord Hastings retaliated very quickly. He forced Scindia to accept British
supremacy and defeated the three armies of the Peshwa, Bhonsle and Holkar.
The Peshwa was deposed and pensioned off and sent to Bithur near Kanpur.
All his territories were annexed. Holkar and Bhonsle accepted subsidiary
forces; All the Maratha chiefs gave away some of their territories to the
Company. A small kingdom was given to a descendant of Chatrapati Shivaji
who was nothing but a puppet in the hands of British.
From 1818 the British were free to reach out for the natural frontiers for their
empire in India.

Reasons for the Victory of British

There were several reasons for the defeat of the Marathas in the Anglo-Maratha
Wars some of them being:
1. Lack of capable leadership The beginning of the 19th century lacked
capable leadership. Peshwa was reduced to a nominal entity. The ability of the other
Maratha chiefs was also not better.
The main reason was the lack of capable leadership like of Shivaji and the first
three Peshwas had provided to the Marathas. Indeed there were other dynamic and
great leaders like Mahadji Scindia, Madhav Rao Peshwa, Rani Ahalyabai Holkar,
Tukoji Holkar and Nana Phadnavis.
2. Military reasons The military weakness of the Marathas was also
responsible for their defeat. The English army was trained on the European pattern
and was armed with modern arms and ammunitions. The British artillery and navy
also proved to be decisive. The abandonment of the policy of guerrilla warfare by
Marathas also proved fatal because it weakened the striking capacity. In fact guerrilla
warfare suited the geographical conditions of the Western Ghats and was the basis for
initial success of the traditional Marathas .

13
3. Rivalry between Maratha chiefs Maratha confederacy started acting as
rivals and there was a continuous power struggle amongst them. This led to rise of
mutual bitterness and jealousy amongst them and any chance of cooperation amongst
them became a distant dream. They fought against each other over petty issues.
Moreover, the Maratha Confederacy was a loosely knit confederation and for the
fulfilment of their objectives they resorted to mutual conspiracies. This element of
enmity amongst the Marathas increased especially after the Third Battle of Panipat.
4. Economic reasons The Maratha economic structure and administration
lacked a sound system of economy. They did not have any set provision for the proper
collection of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi and therefore the income of the State varied.
It in fact depended on the efficiency of the ruler. No doubt, such a defective system
affected the vitals of their state. Their economic system relied heavily on the use of
force rather than on any definite policy. There was hardly any reliable source that
could be used in the moment of crises and an overall absence of contingency fund
made things all the more worse.
5. Other reasons There were certain mistakes committed by the Marathas for
instance, initially by taking the assistance of the Pindaris who always had intentions
to loot and plunder after the end of the battle/war they relied on unreliable lot.
Moreover, the Pindaris were not even steadfastly loyal to their own leaders. They
could easily ditch their allegiance to another band for money.
The Marathas failed to leave any positive impact on the vanquished, since they
were usually cruel to the people of the conquered territory. The latter generally
preferred to view them as villains rather than as heroes. In fact they failed to win the
confidence of any such people by undertaking public welfare activities etc. The
approach of the Marathas towards other contemporary rulers did not leave sufficient
scope for any kind of cordial relations with other Princes and Nawabs of India.
Furthermore, the Marathas failed to estimate correctly the political and
diplomatic strength and potential of the British and ignored their early achievements
in Eastern and Northern India. Above all they failed to seize the opportunity to strike
at the enemy when they were involved in struggle, conflict and war with other powers
in India and Europe.

Anglo-Mysore Wars
The second half of the 18th century was a period of great confusion in Indian
history, which witnessed the rise of a colonial power. The only state that offered stiff
resistance to their expansion was Mysore, which fought not one but four wars. The
military confrontations between the British and the rulers of Mysore are popularly
known as Anglo-Mysore wars. Apart from the struggle on the battlefield which of
course required military skills and strategies, the outcome of these wars were also
influenced by the political permutations and combinations during the period.
Moreover, the period witnessed new groups and allies who came together for short
term gain without realizing the far reaching ill effects and impact on the overall
political condition of India.
The first two wars involved Haider Ali who was not just an efficient military
commander but a man known for diplomatic and tactful skills. It was the growing
power of Haider Ali in the south that made British suspicious about the intentions of
ruler of Mysore. The primary objective of the English was to check the rising influence
of Mysore in South India and consolidate its position in the region.

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767- 69)

In 1766 the British, the Marathas, and the Nizam of Hyderabad entered into a
triple alliance against Haider. The British attacked Mysore simultaneously from

14
Bombay and Madras in 1767 and thus started the First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69).
British acquired South-Eastern Mysore. However, Haider soon bought off the
Marathas. The Nizam abandoned the war in 1768, leaving the British to face Haider
Ali alone. The latter attacked Arcot and reached the outskirts of Madras. He dictated
peace on the basis of the status quo. The English also agreed to help Haider Ali against
any third party invasion in future.

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)

The British did not honour their promise when the Marathas invaded territories
under the control of Haider Ali, in 1771. Offended by this, Haider Ali decided to
strengthen his army with the help of French and European soldiers and joined in a
confederacy with the Nizam and the Marathas against the British, who had further
provoked him by capturing the French settlement of Mah, which was within Hyder's
territories. In 1780, he warred on the Carnatic, and destroyed a British detachment of
2,800 men, and seized Arcot. The British then succeeded in detaching the Nizam and
the Marathas from Haider and defeated him three times successively in 1781 at the
battles of Porto Novo, Pollilur, and Sholinghur.
In 1782, Haider Ali inflicted a severe defeat on the English compelling them to
flee Madras. But he died shortly afterwards and the war was carried on by his son,
Tipu Sultan. Since neither side was capable of overpowering the other, the war came
to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore. Under this treaty both sides
restored all conquests and promised to release each other's prisoners of war.

Third Anglo-Mysore War [1790-92]

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) was an extension of the earlier inconclusive
wars. Governor-General Lord Cornwallis dropped Tipu's name from the list of the
Company's friends. Meanwhile Tipu Sultan acquired Travancore in 1790, the
English extended help to the Raja of Travancore and attacked Mysore. In this conflict,
Coorg, Cochin and Malabar sided with the British. The war came to an end by the
treaty of Seringapattanam. Under the terms of the treaty, Tipu had to pay a war
indemnity of over three crore rupees and send his two sons as hostages to the English.
He also ceded half of his territories to the English.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War [1799]

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) was an outcome of tense relation of British and
French in Europe. Apprehensive of the increasing political activities of Tipu Sultan
and the designs of the French in India, the British asked Tipu Sultan to sign the
subsidiary alliance. His refusal led to war and the British supported by the Nizam of
Hyderabad and the Marathas attacked Mysore from three sides. Tipu died while
defending his capital, Seringapattam. Nearly half of Tipu's dominions were divided
between the British and their ally, the Nizam. The reduced Kingdom of Mysore was
restored to the descendants of the original Wodeyer Dynasty and he was forced to sign
the subsidiary alliance. Mysore was thus made a complete dependency of the
Company.

Anglo-Sikh Relations (Including Wars)

The friendship between the British and the Sikh could be traced back to 1809
when the two sides signed treaty of Amritsar popularly known as treaty of friendship.
The friendship continued even after the death of Ranjit Singh (1839) but the ambition
of the British to expand its frontiers led to deterioration of the relation between two
powers.

15
The death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, was followed by political instability
in Punjab. Selfish and corrupt leaders came to power. The disorder that prevailed at
Lahore provided the British a good opportunity to play important role in the province.
Lord Auckland and Lord Ellenborough were keen to acquire Punjab.
However, things had to wait till the news of rapid march of the Governor-General
towards the frontier in November 1845 and the report of Sir Charles Napier's speech
in the Delhi Gazette saying that the British were going to war with the Sikhs reached
Lahore and filled it with rumours of invasion.
By now the power in the province actually fell into the hands of the patriotic but
undisciplined army popularly known as army Panchayats. The emergence of a new
centre of power that had now assumed the role of the Khalsa perturbed the British
authority termed it as unholy alliance between the republican army and the Darbar.
Undoubtedly the Sikh army had witnessed transformation and was ready for any
struggle that may take place to fulfil the hidden agenda of the British policy of
expansion through annexation.
The rising suspension and tension between British and the Sikh led to the
collapse of diplomatic relations between two powers. Meanwhile, the Sikh army
began to cross the Sutlej on 11th December, 1845 to forestall the movement of the
British army. The crossing of the Sutlej by Sikhs was made a pretext by the British for
opening hostilities and on 13th December Governor-General Lord Hardinge issued a
proclamation announcing war on the Sikhs. Lahore was captured and a treaty with
Maharaja (the Treaty of Lahore) was signed on 9 March,1846. According to the treaty
the territories lying to the south of the river Sutlej i.e. Jalandhar Doab were
surrendered to the Company. The Sikhs committed to pay 1.5 crore rupees to the
Company as war indemnity. The vanquished were to reduce their army to 20,000
infantry and 12,000 cavalry, hand over all the guns used in the war and relinquish
control of both banks of the Sutlej to the British. The Darbar/Court was unable to pay
the full war indemnity. 50 lakh rupees were paid in cash and the remaining amount
was adjusted by ceding territories between the Beas and the Indus. A further
condition was added two days later on 11th March according to which the posting of a
British unit in Lahore till the end of the year on payment of expenses was added.
According to the peace settlement of March 1846, at the end of First Anglo-Sikh
war, the British force in Lahore was to be withdrawn at the end of the year, but a
severer treaty was imposed on the Sikhs before the expiry of that date. The
Governor-General had his Agent persuade the Lahore Darbar to request the British for
the continuance of the troops in Lahore. According to the treaty, which was
consequently signed at Bharoval on 16th December, 1846, Henry Lawrence was
appointed Resident with full authority to direct and control all matters in every
department of the State.
Treaties were used as an instrument through which British got time to cripple the
Sikh kingdom and wait for its natural death. The time for the final blow arrived soon
after the coming of the new Governor-General. The first issue which caught the
attention of Lord Dalhousie on his arrival in India in January 1848, was Punjab.
When Mulraj, Governor of Multan revolted against the Company, Lord Dalhousie
got a chance to interfere in the affairs of Punjab. The English raised its demand from
Mulraj and imposed certain restrictions on him and asked him to abide by certain
conditions. Mulraj refused to pay the amount of money demanded by the Company
and resigned from Governorship in 1847. In March 1848, the British appointed Kahan
Singh as the new Governor of Multan. However, the people of Multan revolted against
the decision and the manner in which the change of governor took place. Soon severe
revolt against the Company took the whole of Punjab in its grip.

16
Lord Dalhousie decided to suppress the revolt of the Sikhs and used it as pretext
for the annexation of the Punjab in the British Empire. On 16th November, 1848, the
English army crossed the river Ravi and made a fierce attack on the Sikhs. There were
encounters at Ram Nagar, Chillianwala and Gujarat. The battle at Gujarat under the
command of Sir Charles Napier was decisive. The English caused huge losses to the
rebel Khalsa forces. On 29 March, 1849, Lord Dalhousie claimed the annexation of
Punjab with the British Empire.
Annexation of Punjab was of amount importance for the English border of the
British Dominion reached the last limit of the North-West. For the annexation of
Punjab, Lord Dalhousie was severely criticised. It was called morally and legally
unjustifiable. It was blatant breach of trust. Therefore, Annexation of Punjab was not
an annexation but a treachery.

Important Terminology
Allowance
Black Hole tradegy

Dastak

Diwani
Doctrine of Lapse

Dual Government

Dupleix, Joseph Franois

Indemnity

Amount given to officials in addition to salary.

According to a contemporary British account, the nawab
of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah attacked Fort William of the
English East India Company in Calcutta on June 20,
1756 and imprisoned 146 British officials into airless
dungeon, measuring about 4.6 5.5 m (about 15 18 ft)
at the fort . Next morning only 23 were alive. This has
been termed as Black Hole tradegy Indian scholars doubt
the varacity of the incident
Passes given to the East India Company by dint of firman
issued by Mughal Emperor in 1717, to enable them to
trade in Bengal without paying custom duties.
The right to collect revenue.
The policy introduced by Lord Dalhousie whereby any
protected state (a state which had signed the Subsidiary
Alliance) whose ruler died without a natural heir or an
legal heir approved by the Company would be annexed
by the British.
The form of government introduced by Robert Clive in
Bengal whereby Bengal was governed by two
independent authorities The Nawab and Nizamat:
The police, judicial and administrative powers were
given to the British , by the Nawab of Bengal after the
Battle of Buxar.
French leader in India during the Anglo-French conflicts
of the 18th century. He was Governor-General of French
possessions in India from 1742 to 1754. He tried to
establish French hegemony over southern India by
intervening in the quarrels of native kingdoms, but was
successfully opposed by the British under Robert Clive.
Qterally it means compensation for damages. In our
context it refers to the damages claimed by the East India
Company from a country defeated In war.

17
Marathas confederacy

Nawab
Nizam
Pindaris

Robert Clive

Subsidiary Alliance
System

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
(signed on October
18, 1748)
Vasco da Gama

Zamorin

The five big chiefs- the Peshwa at Poona, the Gaikwad at

Baroda, the Scindia at Gwalior, the Holkar at Indore, and
th Bhonsle at Nagpur-were together formed Marathas
confederacy
Governor of a semi-autonomous province during the
time of the Mughal empire.
Title of the hereditary ruler of Hyderabad.
They were militias of Rajputana and the Central
Provinces regions. They served the Maratha army
without any payment but instead were allowed to
plunder. The origin of Pindaris is lost in obscurity. They
did not belong to any particular caste or creed. It is worth
mentioning here that they never helped the British. Lord
Hastings wanted to suppress the Pindaris and defeat the
Marathas therefore, he himself took command of the
force from the north to suppress them and succeeded in
doing so.
British governor of Bengal, who was one of the founders
of British rule in India. Displaying conspicuous military
ability, Clive distinguished himself as one of the greatest
British Empire builders. He was governor of Fort Saint
David in 1756 when Siraj-ud-Daulah captured Calcutta
from the British. In January of the following year, Clive
recaptured Calcutta, and made peace with the Nawab .
On June 23, 1757, he defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah at Plassey.
Seven Years' War- worldwide series of conflicts fought
from 1756 to 1763 for the control of Germany and for
supremacy in colonial North America and India. It
involved most of the major powers of Europe. The Indian
phase is known as the Third Carnatic War. It finally
established British domination in India.
A system of alliances introduced by Lord Wellesly to
increase British influence in the Indian states without
actually annexing them. Such states virtually lost the
right to self defence of maintaining diplomatic relations,
of employing foreign experts and of settling disputes
with their neighbours.
It ended the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48). It
restored Madras occupied by French to the British.
Portuguese explorer and navigator, who was the first
European to reach India by the sea route.He sailed from
Lisbon on July 9, 1497 and rounded the Cape of Good
Hope to reach Calicut on May 20, 1498. He returned to
Portugal in 1499. He was given the title of admiral of
India. Da Gama reached India in 1524 on his third
assingment, however, he died in Cochin only three
months after his arrival.
The Hindu king of Calicut.

18
Points to Remember
Important Wars/ Battles

First Carnatic War - (1746-48) mentiined on p. 4

Second Carnatic War-1749-54
Third CarnaticWar - 1758-63
Battle of Plassey : 1757
Battle of Buxar - 1764
First Anglo-Mysore War : 1767-69
Second Anglo-Mysore War -1780-84
Third Anglo-Mysore War : 1790-92
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War : 1799
First Anglo-Maratha War : 1775-1782
Second Anglo-Maratha War : 1803-05
Third Anglo-Maratha War : 1817-18
First Anglo-Sikh War - 1843-46
Second Anglo-Sikh War : 1848-49
First Afghan War - 1839-42
Second Afghan War 1878-80
First Burmese War : 1824-26
Second Burmese War : 1852
Third Burmese War : 1885 Lord dufferin
Anglo-Nepalese War : (1814-16)

Question-Answer
(2 Markers/20 Words)
Question 1. Write about the overall condition of India while Lord
Wellesley was appointed Governor-General of Bengal.

Answer Lord Wellesley was appointed Governor-General of Bengal in 1797 at a

time when the position of the East India Company was precarious. The hostility of the
Marathas and Nawab of Awadh was a matter of concern, at the same time increasing
proximity of the rulers of Mysore and Hyderabad with France did not augur well for
the British rule.
Question 2. Mention the policies adopted by Lord Wellesley.

Answer Lord Wellesley, Governor-General of Bengal, favoured a policy of

active intervention. He adopted three methods to expand British power namely the
system of 'Subsidiary Alliances', war and the assumption of the territories of
previously subordinated rulers.
Question 3. Define the term Dastak.

Answer The passes given to the East India Company by dint of Circular
(firman) issued by Mughal Emperor, Farrukhsiyar in 1717, to enable them to trade in
Bengal without paying custom duties is known as Dastak.
Question 4. What are Diwani rights?

Answer The right to collect revenues, especially the land revenue by the State
was known as Diwani Rights.
Question 5. What do you know about Doctrine of Lapse?

Answer The policy whereby any protected state (a state which had signed the
Subsidiary Alliance) whose ruler died without a natural heir or an legal heir approved
by the Company would be annexed by the British was known as Doctrine of Lapse. It
was ruthlessly used by Lord Dalhousie.
Question 6. Define Dual Government vis--vis Bengal during 18th century.

Answer The form of government introduced by Robert Clive in Bengal

whereby, Bengal was governed by two independent authorities : The Nawab and
Nizamat. The police, judicial and administrative powers were given to the British , by
the Nawab of Bengal after the Battle of Buxar has been termed as Dual Government.
Question 7. What do you know about Marathas Confederacy?

Answer The five big chiefs, the Peshwa at Poona, the Gaikwad at Baroda, the
Scindia at Gwalior, the Holkar at Indore, and the Bhonsle at Nagpur; were together
formed in Marathas Confederacy.
Question 8. Define Subsidiary Alliance System ?

Answer Subsidiary Alliance was a system of alliances introduced by Lord

Wellesley to increase British influence in the Indian states without actually annexing
them. Such states virtually lost the right to self-defence of maintaining diplomatic
relations of employing foreign experts and of settling disputes with their neighbours.
Question 9. What do you understand by Black Hole tradegy

Answer According to a contemporary British account, the Nawab of Bengal,

Siraj-ud-Daulah attacked Fort William of the English East India Company in Calcutta

20
on June 20, 1756 and imprisoned 146 British officials into airless dungeon, measuring
about 4.6 5.5 m (about 15 18 ft) at the fort. Next morning only 23 were alive. This
has been termed as Black Hole tragedy. Indian scholars doubt the veracity of the
incident .

Question 10. Who was Dupleix ?

Answer Joseph Franois Dupleix was Governor-General of French possessions

in India from 1742 to 1754. He tried to establish French hegemony over Southern
India by intervening in the quarrels of native kingdoms, but was successfully opposed
by the British under Robert Clive.
Question 11. What do you know about Robert Clive?

Answer Robert Clive was British governor of Bengal. He was one of the
founders of British rule in India. Displaying conspicuous military ability, Clive
distinguished himself as one of the greatest British Empire builders. He was governor
of Fort Saint David in 1756 when Siraj-ud-Daulah captured Calcutta from the British.
In January of the following year, Clive recaptured Calcutta, and made peace with the
Nawab. On June 23, 1757, he defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah at Plassey.
Question 12. How was Seven Years' War connected to India?

Answer Seven Years War was the worldwide series of conflicts fought from
1756 to 1763 for the control of Germany and for supremacy in colonial North America
and India. It involved most of the major powers of Europe. The Indian phase is known
as the Third Carnatic War. It finally established British domination in India.
Question 13. Write about the important contents of Treaty of
Aix-la-Chapelle related to India.

Answer Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (signed on October 18, 1748) ended the war
of the Austrian Succession (1740-48). It restored Madras occupied by French to the
British.
Question 14. What do you know about Vasco da Gama?

Answer Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer and navigator. He was the
first European to reach India by the sea route. He sailed from Lisbon on July 9, 1497
and rounded the Cape of Good Hope to reach Calicut on May 20, 1498. He returned to
Portugal in 1499. He was given the title of admiral of India. Gama reached India in
1524 on his third assingment, however, he died in Cochin only three months after his
arrival.

(5 Markers/50-75 Words)
Question 15. Write a short note on Treaty of Amritsar.

Answer Treaty of Amritsar or treaty of friendship was signed on April 25, 1809
between Charles T. Metcalfe, representing the British East India Company, and
Maharaja Ranjit Singh, head of the Sikh kingdom of Punjab. It settled Indo-Sikh
relation for a generation. The immediate occasion was the French threat to
North-Western India, following Napoleon's Treaty of Tilsit with Russia (1807) and
Ranjit's attempt to bring the Cis-Sutlej states under his control. The British wanted a
defensive treaty against the French and control of Punjab to the Sutlej river. Although
this was not a defensive treaty, it fixed the frontier with Sikh broadly along the line of
the Sutlej river. They therefore decided not to cross swords with each other.
Question 16. Is it correct to call the Battle of Plassey as the first revolution?

Answer The immediate outcome of the Battle of Plassey was pre-decided and
an outcome of conspiracy. It was just a formality through which the so called victors
(conspirators) wanted to justify their act and establish their authority in Bengal. They

21
termed the change of power as first revolution but it may rightly be termed as first
major betrayal in the modern Indian history. The victory was not the result of military
superiority but it easily paved the path for foundation of the British rule in India.

Question 17. Control over Bengal was an asset for political consolidation
of British in India. Comment.

Answer English became the masters of India and managed to conquer and
control the vast territory in the sub-continent because they had at their disposal the
vast resources at Bengal which was first to fall under their political control. From
there, they were able to defeat the French, the Marathas, and Haider Ali and his son,
Tipu Sultan. Moreover, the establishment of British control over Bengal made it
possible for the English to conquer Northern India. It played a decisive role in
enabling the British to defeat Nawab Mir Qasim, Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah and the
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam at the Battle of Buxar in 1764.
The Battle of Plassey, therefore, was a turning point in the history not only of
Bengal but in the history of the whole of India. It paved the way for the establishment
of the British supremacy in India. It has been rightly remarked that the Battle of
Plassey marked the end of one epoch and the beginning of a new one. It in fact
heralded the modern period of Indian history.

(15 Markers/150-200 Words)

Question 18. Discuss about the important characteristics of Early
European Settlements in India.

Answer The Early European Settlements were utilitarian in nature. Keeping in

view their socio-religious, economic needs and cultural background the settlers
planned the settlements in India and modified the settlement pattern of India.
However, the local style and technique was not altogether ignored. The important
characteristics of the early European settlement are given below :
Port facility was prerequisite as the Europeans vigorously traded in goods.
A walled fort was built near the port as structure of defence. This fort not only
served as a military outpost but also served as the nucleus of the colonial exchange,
for example, the fort also collected trading goods that included raw materials/ finished
goods etc. The area was exclusively meant for Europeans.
An open space (Maidan)-Around the fort an open space was left vacant for a field
of fire and for other security reasons.
Offices-administrative quarters were developed adjacent to the fort.
Spacious bungalows/ houses, planned streets, trees on both sides, streets, clubs
for recreation, churches and gardens, graveyards were planned.
Beyond the open space (Maidan) a settlement for native people-'native/ Black
town' was developed.
Between the native town' and European town' the Anglo-Indians were settled.
Question 19. Write a short note on the Treaty of Salbai (1782).

Answer The Treaty of Salbai was signed between the Marathas and the British
in 1782 ending the first Anglo-Maratha war. British were quick to realise the fact that
Carnatic model could not be replicated in Maharashtra with ease and may prove to be
counter productive. The treaty clearly demonstrated the Maratha strength and its
potential and acted as a deterrent for any intervention of the British in Maratha
politics at least for the time being.
The treaty provided for mutual restitution of territories. The English had to give
back many captured territories including Bassein to the Marathas. They also gave up
the cause of Raghunath Rao and to recognise Madhav Rao Narayan as the Peshwa. All

22
this was done by the Calcutta Council of East India Company with the objective of
buying time for the British. It is therefore rightly said that Treaty of Salbai (1782) was
neither honourable nor advantageous to them.
The provisions of the treaty were not favourable to the immediate interests of
British. However in long run it proved vital since it gave the Company much needed
peace with Marathas for almost two decades, the time in which the British tamed
other regional powers like Mysore.

Question 20. Treaty of Mangalore was an important document in the

history of India. Comment.

Answer Treaty of Mangalore concluded the Second Anglo-Mysore War. It was

signed on 11th March 1784, between Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore and the British
at Mangalore. It is considered as one of the most important document in the history of
India. It was the last occasion when an Indian power dictated terms to the English,
who were made to play the role of humble supplicants for peace. Warren Hastings
called it a humiliating pacification, and appealed to the king and parliament to punish
the Madras government for the faith and honour of the British nation have been
equally violated.
Tipu honourably concluded a long-drawn war by the treaty and frustrated the
Maratha designs to seize his northern possessions. The march of the commissioners
all the way from Madras to Mangalore seeking peace had great psychological
advantage, since it exposed the British to unforeseen indignities. The treaty was a
bright spot in Tipu's contest with the English.
However, the treaty of Mangalore carried the seeds of strife with the Marathas,
because of the latter's inability to recover area north of Mysore. Moreover, the
enhanced prestige of Tipu excited the jealousy of the Marathas and the Nizam and
threw them into the arms of British. The triple alliance finally proved fatal to Mysore.
Question 21. Discuss the methods adopted by Lord Wellesley to expand
British Rule in India.

Answer Lord Wellesley was appointed Governor-General of India in 1797. He

favoured of a policy of active intervention. He adopted three methods to expand
British power namely the system of 'Subsidiary Alliances', war and the assumption of
the territories of previously subordinated rulers. In fact the Nizam of Hyderabad and
the Nawab of Awadh were forced to sign the Subsidiary Alliance.
The ruler of Mysore, was defeated and subsequently half of its dominions were
divided between the British and their ally, the Nizam. The reduced kingdom of
Mysore was restored to the descendants of the original Wodeyar dynasty who signed
the subsidiary alliance.
The Marathas were vanquished and subdued during the Second Maratha War
(1803-05). Scindia and Bhonsle were made subsidiary allies of the Company. The
British gained control over the Orissa Coast and the territories between the Ganga and
Yamuna. The regions of Tanjore, Surat, and the Carnatic were made subsidiary to the
British Government.
Therefore, Wellesley engineered policies that firmly safeguarded the interest of
England in India. He relentlessly worked to reduce India into a militarily dependent
State.
Question 22.The Treaty of Bassein, by its direct and indirect operations,
gave the Company the Empire of India. Comment.

Answer The struggle amongst the members of the Maratha confederacy

reached climax during the reign of the new Peshwa, Baji Rao II when Holkars rebelled
and defeated the combined armies of Scindias and the Peshwas at Poona.

23
Subsequently the helpless Peshwa took refuge in Bassein and sought British
assistance and signed the subsidiary treaty on December 31, 1802.
The Treaty of Bassein provided British an opportunity to further push their
political ambition and interest in India. As per the terms of the treaty the Peshwa
agreed to receive from the company a regular army to be stationed in his territories. In
return Peshwa had to surrender territories yielding 26 lakhs of rupees apart from
surrendering Surat, the most flourishing commercial centre for maritime trade of the
period. The Peshwa also agreed to accept the company's arbitration in all the
differences between him and other powers. Further he agreed neither to commence
nor to pursue in future any negotiations with any power without giving previous
notice and consultation with the East India Company. Thus, the Treaty of Bassein
established paramount British influence at Poona.
Thus, the Treaty of Bassein strengthened the British militarily and gave them a
lawful right to interfere in Peshwa's authority. It was an important landmark in the
history of British supremacy in India. This led to expansion of the sway and influence
of the East India Company over the Indian subcontinent.

Question 23. The Battle of San Thome fought by the French against a
native ruler was a turning point in the thinking of the Europeans. Comment.

Answer During First Carnatic War the Nawab of Carnatic Anwar-ud-Din

ordered the European Companies to desist from commencing hostilities within his
territories so that the peace of the country was not disturbed. Dupleix had, however,
pacified the Nawab by promising him to surrender Madras after its capture. However,
after reduction of Madras in 1746 Dupleix showed no signs of keeping his promise.
Now the Nawab asked for British protection of his territories but could not get it.
The Nawab sent an army of 10,000 Indian soldiers under Mahfut Khan to enforce
his demand. However a small French army consisting of 230 Europeans and 700
Indian soldiers under Capt. Paradise defeated the Nawab's army at San Thome.
The Battle of San Thome was a turning point in the thinking of the Europeans. It
amply demonstrated the superiority of disciplined and organized European troops
against the loose Indian troops. The battle revealed for the first time that a small
contingent of western trained forces could easily defeat a very large native army. It
added to the prestige of European army and placed French in advantageous position to
check the rising British power in India. Moreover, in the long run, such tactics were
adopted by the British as they expanded their territories.
Question 24. Write a short note on the Carnatic Wars and their
significances.

Answer Anglo-French conflicts in India during the 18th century have been
popularly termed as Carnatic Wars. It was the war of the Austrian succession that
induced the First Carnatic War. Dupleix, captured Madras, but it was returned to the
British by the peace treaty. The war demonstrated the superiority of European
technology and discipline over larger native armies.
The Second Carnatic War was fought when there was peace between the two
powers in Europe. Dupleix wanted to exploit the confused political condition in
South India and entered into a series of alliances with native rulers so as to enhance
French power and prestige. However, this was checked by Robert Clive who defeated
the French-backed claimant to the throne of the Carnatic. Meanwhile Dupleix was
recalled to France in 1754 and the second phase of Anglo-French struggle in India
ended.
The Third Carnatic War started when the Seven Years' war broke out in Europe in
1756. This time the war passed beyond the limits of South India. The English
captured the French possession of Chandernagore in 1757. The most decisive battle of

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the war was fought at Wandiwash. Pondicherry fell into British hands in 1761. The
war ended in 1763 with the Peace of Paris, and so too ended the French pursuit of
empire in India.

Question 25. Discuss the causes of British success in India during the 18th
century vis--vis French.

Answer There were various reasons for the final success of British in India
specially the victory over French. The naval superiority of the British and adequate
support from their home government was a major cause of their success. The English
controlled the sea route to India which facilitated their swift movement to and from
India. There was minimum interference of the British Government in the affairs of the
Company. In contrast to this the French East India Company was heavily dependent
on the French government for grants, subsidies and loans. Moreover the French
Government was decadent, bound by traditions, corrupt and inefficient. It lacked the
vision of creating an empire in India and focused more on America. It failed to supply
adequate resources to the Company and did not meet the timely demands of the
French troops fighting in India.
After conquest of Bengal the financial position of the British East India Company
strengthened. Other areas like Bombay and Madras controlled by the British proved to
be extremely useful not only for trade purposes but also from the strategic point of
view. The French on the other hand, only had small settlements like Pondicherry,
Mahe and Chandernagore under its control that were not lucrative.
There was lack of coordination between the policy of Dupleix and the French
Government. Dupleix wanted to establish a French state in India but the French
Government was apparently not aware of it. Above all, it was also not proper on the
part of the French Government to recall Dupleix all of a sudden. The timing and the
manner in which Dupleix was recalled was a blunder committed by the French. The
inexperienced French officers were forced to face more experienced and capable
British generals. Moreover, Lally committed the greatest blunder by recalling Bussy
from Hyderabad. This reduced the influence of the French Government in the South.
Apart from the above elements, good leadership, efficient Generalship and
command, greater cooperation amongst the English officials and minimum
interference of the English Government in the affairs of the Company were greatly
responsible for the success of the British in the Anglo-French conflict in India. The
outcome of the conflict made the East India Company the master of Indian affairs till
1858.
Question 26. The Battle of Plassey was not a great battle but a great
betrayal . Elaborate

Answer The hostile relation between the Nawab of Bengal and the English East
India Company precipitated the Battle of Plassey. In fact, the Company had
anticipated the direct confrontation and it easily located the disgruntled and
ambitious element at Nawabs Court. The Company entered into secret alliances with
the conspirators in the Nawab's camp and plotted the mechanism to oust him.
Therefore the immediate outcome of the Battle of Plassey was known beforehand or
pre-decided. It was not the superiority of the military power but the conspiracy of the
Nawab's officials and the mastermind of Robert Clive that helped the English in
winning the battle.
Mir Jafar the Commander-in-Chief of Bengal army, Rai Durlabh, the treasurer of
the Nawab, Jagat Seth, the richest banker of Bengal were few important Indian
conspirators. Robert Clive who played a vital role in the planning and execution of the
plot had joined the conspiracy through a rich Bengali merchant named Amin Chand.
Most of the terms were well settled amongst the conspirators.

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It was agreed that Clive would march to Plassey against the Nawab of Bengal and
Mir Jafar would join with all the forces at his command. In return Mir Jafar would be
made Nawab and then he would confirm all the privileges to the Company. It was the
treachery of the Commander-in-Chief of Nawab that ensured that the Bengal troops
were not properly brought into action.
The battle was a mere eye-wash as all cards were placed well in advance.

Question 27. Analyse the importance/significance of the Battle of Plassey.

Answer The Battle of Plassey fought on 23rd June 1757 and the Victory of the
English in the Battle of Plassey had multidimensional significance. The Nawab of
Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated captured and executed. Therefore the outcome
of the Battle of Plassey was immediate since it provided the British with immense
political power in India and established the indirect British rule in India.
The dormant imperial ambition of the British was aroused during these wars and
they started thinking in terms of an All-India Empire. The conquest of Bengal instilled
in them a kind of greed for the unfathomed wealth of Bengal and its subsequent
plunder.
The English also registered territorial and commercial gains in post Plassey
period. They got the territory of twenty-four Paraganas in Bengal from the new Nawab
(Mir Jafar). This made the settlement of Calcutta more prosperous. Their trade also
received impetus. The trade and privilege so far enjoyed by them not only increased
but also became more secure. The Nawab passed orders for the freedom of the
Company's trade throughout the Subah. The English Company utilized this
opportunity and dispatched their agents to re-establish subordinate trading factories
in the interior parts of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
Moreover the Battle of Plassey enhanced the overall prestige of the Company.
Starting merely as traders the English now became the King-makers in Bengal and
played crucial role in its administration by controlling the appointments of important
officials/functionaries in the province. Establishment of English control over Bengal
placed them at a very advantageous position. They had now at their disposal
resources that could be used in struggle against the French both within (in the
Carnatic Wars) and without India (in Europe).They were no more dependent on the
supply of resources from Britain which in turn helped the home country in
channelizing its resources against the French power in Europe and America.
Question 28. The verdict at Plassey was confirmed by the English
victory at Buxar . Comment.
Answer The Battle of Plassey was a turning point in the history of India and
had multidimensional significance. It gave vent to the dormant imperial ambition of
the British and paved the way for the establishment of indirect British rule in India.
They now played the role of kingmaker in Bengal.
Although victory at Plassey enhanced the overall prestige of the Company, it was
considered no battle, since conspiracy, alliances, diplomacy and betrayal played vital
role in the outcome of the battle. Moreover, the British position in Bengal was not as
comfortable and as they desired. The Indian elements had a hope of doing away with
the foreigners in case of real battle/war on the basis of numerical strength. This hope
acted as the background for resistance offered by Mir Kasim to the British and the
subsequent confrontation that took place between them in 1763. A confederation of
Indian rulers was formed to oust British from India. However the victory at Buxar
ended all speculation and apprehension and proved the overall superiority of British
in battlefield. The victory at Plassey played a decisive role in enabling the British to
defeat Nawab Mir Kasim, Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah and the Mughal Emperor Shah

26
Alam at the Battle of Buxar in 1764. Plassey gave the ignition, the Buxar confirmed it.
Therefore, Battle of Buxar was complementary to the Plassey. After Battle of Buxar the
English power in north India became unchallengeable.

Question 29. The outcome Battle of Wandiwash was huge blow to the
colonial ambition of French East India Company . Comment

Answer The power struggle between British and French in India during 18th
century culminated into three Carnatic Wars. The decisive battle of the third Carnatic
War was fought at Wandiwash on 22nd January 1760. General Eyre Cootes army,
routed the French army under Lally. As a result the French were left with no
possessions in the Carnatic except Jinje and Pondicherry. Meanwhile, in May 1760,
the English laid siege to Pondicherry. After more than six months of encirclement
French unconditionally surrendered Pondicherry on 16 January, 1761. The city was
completely destroyed by the victors. Shortly thereafter Jinje and Mahe also
surrendered, to the English leaving the French without even a toehold in India.
The Peace Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years War in Europe. As per its terms
French factories in India were restored to the French company but the French East
India Company formally ended its career in 1769. Thereafter the French Crown
maintained the French factories in India for the benefit of private traders. In fact they
confined themselves, to country trade depended on the English both in Europe and
in India for their business transactions vis--vis India. Therefore, it would not be an
exaggeration to say that the outcome Battle of Wandiwash was huge blow to the
colonial ambition of French East India Company.
Question 30. Weakness and short sightedness of the neighbours of
Mysore was fully exploited by the English. Comment.

Answer During 18th and 19th centuries the two important neighbours and
competitors of the Kingdom of Mysore were Marathas on the north and Nizam of
Hyderabad in the East. The rivalries between these neighbours were best understood
and utilized by the British to achieve their ambition of founding an Empire of India.
British used their shrewd political tools and acumen to manage an alliance with
Marathas and Nizam against Mysore. In all four Mysore wars the Marathas and the
Nizam were willing to support the English rather than either Haider or Tipu. In the
Third Mysore War all three formed a powerful confederacy against Tipu, and in the
fourth Mysore War the Nizam was an ally of the English. It was the short sightedness
of Marathas, the Nizam and the feudatories who came together to check Tipu's policy
of establishment of a strong central authority which would serve the people better. In
fact they feared the possible loss of power, had Tipu succeeded and therefore, joined
hands with British in haste, to finally loose or forfeit almost everything to the latter. By
the time the Indian rulers realized the detrimental impact of continuous fight amongst
themselves and the exact motive of the British friendship with them, irreparable
damage had already been done.
Question 31. Write a short note on Tipu Sultan.

Answer Tipu Sultan, popularly known as the tiger of Mysore was a

multifaceted personality endowed with courage, strength and wisdom. He is said to
have understood military strategy, religion, economy and socio-cultural linkages of
the period with similar ease. He was one of the most popular rulers of his period. Tipu
participated in all the four Anglo-Mysore wars, both as a prince and a ruler. In fact
Tipu's rule started in the midst of a war against the English and ended in the midst of
war against them. He learnt the western technique of warfare and used the same
against his enemies. He was bold, dashing, and a person of undaunted adventurous
spirit. Under his leadership Mysore army 'proved a school of military science' to
Indian princes. Tipu's infliction of serious blows on the English in the first and second

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Mysore wars damaged their reputation as an invincible power. In fact he dictated the
terms of the Treaty of Mangalore to the British and this is considered as an important
landmark in the history of modern India. Tipu was a far-sighted ruler, who discerned
the danger to the freedom of the land by the colonial expansion, which necessitated
continuous warfare. Apart from this he had his own agenda to assert his own
authority over the neighbours, the Marathas and the Nizam, who were not reconciled
to the rise and growth of Mysore as an independent powerful state.

Question 32. Lord Hastings contributed to British Paramountcy in India.

Comment.

Answer Lord Hastings was appointed Governor-General of Bengal and

Commander-in-Chief of the forces in India and assumed the office in October 1813.
He expanded the aggressive and imperialist policies of Lord Wellesley and paved the
way for the expansion of the British Empire. His forward policy in India established
the British Paramountcy through the Anglo-Nepalese war (1814-16), suppression of
the Pindaris (1817) and extinction of the Maratha confederacy after Third
Anglo-Maratha War(1818).
British desire to extend their Indian empire to its natural geographical frontier
brought them into conflict with Nepal. In 1814, a border clash between the border
police of the two countries led to an open war. The British who were far superior in
men, money and materials defeated Nepal and acquired territories by the 1816 Treaty
of Saguali.
Lord Hastings successfully tackled the Pindari menace by organizing his army
and moving for action in person and by 1818, the Pindaris were completely
suppressed. Further, he shattered the power of the Maratha in India and finally
liquidated the Maratha confederacy. He compelled Scindia to accept British
suzerainty and annexed the Peshwa's territories. Moreover, many Rajput princes
accepted British supremacy. By 1818 Hastings had established British sovereignty
over the whole of India East of the Sutlej River and Sindh and contributed in
establishment of British Paramountcy in India.
Question 33. The advent of Europeans in India during 16th and 17th
centuries indicate their objectives. Comment.

Answer The method and mechanism of advent of Europeans in India during

16th and 17th centuries indicate their objectives. The prime objective/interest of all
the Europeans who arrived during the period, was development of trade opportunities
with India and to earn profit. This desire of the Europeans becomes apparent from the
accounts of the contemporary scholars and travellers as also from the study of literary
works of the period. It was one of the important reasons for which Vasco da Gama, a
Portuguese royal navigator and explorer, was funded for his expedition to India. In
May, 1498 he arrived at Calicut, opening a new era of Indian history. In 1502, Vasco
da Gama once again came back to India and reached the Malabar Coast with the
objective to trade and earn profit. For about the first two centuries after Europeans
arrived in India, their activities were restricted to trade and evangelism, their presence
protected by naval forces.
Question 34. Dalhousie was an annexationist. Comment.

Answer Dalhousie [1848-56] modified the annexation policy of the East India
Company and a new policy popularly known as the Doctrine of Lapse was introduced
as deadly weapon for expansion of the territorial limits of the British Empire in India.
Under this Doctrine, when a ruler of a protected state died without a natural heir, his
state was not to pass to an adopted heir but would be annexed by the British. By
Doctrine of Lapse Policy the province of Satara was annexed in 1848 followed by
Sambhalpur in 1849, Jhansi in 1853 and Nagpur in 1854.

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The traditional system of annexation through conflicts and wars were not given
up and it further added many new territories to the British Empire. The state of Punjab
was annexed in 1849 after the Second Anglo-Sikh War. The state of Burma was
annexed in 1852 and the territory of Berar was added in 1853 to satisfy Britain's
growing demand for raw cotton. Dalhousie then turned his attention to Awadh.
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was accused of having misgoverned his state and of
refusing to introduce reforms. On the charge of mal-administration, Awadh was
annexed in 1856.
Dalhousie also refused to recognise the titles of many ex-rulers or to pay their
pensions. Thus the titles of the Nawabs of Carnatic, Surat and the Raja of Tanjore
were extinguished. He also stopped the pension of Nana Sahib because he was an
adopted son of exiled Peshwa Baji Rao II.

Question 35. Write a short note on development policies of Dalhousie.

Answer Dalhousie's energy extended beyond the mere acquisition of

territories. He was a successful and efficient administrator known for introducing
modern means of communications and creation of adequate infrastructure. His
greatest achievement being his relentless effort to create a modern centralized state in
India. He focused on development of a communication and transportation system in
India and gave adequate attention to the introduction of the railways in India. In fact
he laid the foundation of future railway development in India in a systematic and
planned manner. He instituted a network of electric telegraph lines, promoted the
completion of the Grand Trunk Road between Calcutta and Delhi and its extension
into the Punjab, and instituted a centralized postal system. He also constructed
irrigation systems, improved public education system, and made attempts to improve
the condition of the civil services in India.
His social reforms included strong support for the suppression of female
infanticide in the Punjab and in the north west, the suppression of human sacrifice
among the hill tribes of Orissa and legalization of widow re-marriage. Besides
encouraging the use of the vernacular languages in schools, he gave particular
encouragement to the education of girls. Lord Dalhousie was also associated with
reforms in the military. Moreover, he transferred the Bengal Artillery from Calcutta to
Meerut. Therefore the controversies aroused by Dalhousie's policies overshadow his
achievements.