Electrostatics

To discuss
New Notations
The Electrostatic Field
Divergence and Curl of Electrostatic Field
Electric Potential
Work and Energy in Electrostatics
Conductors

Electrostatics

Electrostatics

An electrostatic field is produced by a static (or time-invariant)

charge distribution. A field produced by a thunderstorm cloud can
be viewed as an electrostatic field.
Coulombs law deals with the force a point charge exerts on another point
charge. The force F between two charges Q1 and Q2 is
1. Along the line joining Q and Q
1

2. Directly proportional to the product Q Q of the charges

1

3. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between the

charges
F

kQ1Q2
r2

Electrostatics

In the international system of units (SI), Q 1and Q 2are in coulombs (1C is

approximately equivalent to 6x1018 electrons since one electron charge
e = 1.6019 x10 19 C), the distance r is in meters, and the force F is in newtons
so that:
k

1
4 o

o 8.854 x10
or

12

10 9

36 F/m

1
9 x109
4 o

the permittivity
of free space

m/F

Q1Q2
4 o r 2
4

Electrostatics

Electric field intensity (or electric field strength) is defined as the force per unit
charge that a very small stationary test charge experiences when it is placed in
the electric field.
F
N
V
E lim

Qt 0

Qt

In practice, the test charge should be small enough not to disturb the field
distribution of the source.

For a single point charge Q located at the origin

E

F
Q

er
Qt
4 or 2

where er is a unit vector pointing in the radial direction (away from the charge).
o is valid for vacuum and air. For other materials o should be replaced by

r o(typically r 1 100).
5

New Notations

The Electrostatic Field

2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Coulombs Law
2.1.3 The Electric Field
2.1.4 Continuous Charge Distribution

Introduction

R
The fundamental problem for electromagnetic to solve is to
calculate the interaction of charges in a given configuration.
That is, what force do they exert on another charge Q ?
The simplest case is that the source charges are stationary.
Principle of Superposition:
The interaction between any two charges is completely unaffected
by the presence of other charges.

v v v v
F F1 F2 F3 L

v
Fi is the force on Q due to qi

Coulombs Law
The force on a charge Q due to a single point charge q is given
by Coulomb`s law

v
F

1 qQ
R
2
4 0 R

0 8.85 1012

v v v
R rQ rq R R
c2
N m 2
the permittivity of free space

The Electric Field

v v v
F F1 F2
q1Q

q
Q
1
2

2 R1 2 R2

4 0 R
R
2
1

q3
Q q1 q2

2 R1 2 R2 2 R3

4 0 R
R
R
2
3
1

v
v
F QE

v
E ( P)

qi
1
Ri

2
4 0
R
i 1 1

the electric field of the source charge

Continuous Charge Distributions

n
( ) qi
i 1

( ) dl ~ ( ) da ~ ( ) d
volume
surface
line
N

v
E P

qi
1
Ri

2
4 0
i 1 Ri

v
E P

1
4 0

R da
R2
surface

v
E P

1
4 0

R d l
R2
line

v
E P

1
4 0

R d
R2
volume

(2)
Example:
v
p
x, y , z the source point is at x, y, z
the test point is at
v
R x x i y y j z z k
v
1
v
R
2
2
2 2
R x x y y z z
R

v
E x, y , z 1
4 0

v
E ( x, y , z )

volume

x x i y y j z z k
[

2
2
2 32
x x y y z z ]

( x, y, z) dx dy dz

R ( x, y , z )dxdy dz
volume R 2
R
1
R
, y, z )dxdydz

(
x

4 0 volume R 2 R
v
R ( x, y, z )dxdydz
1
4 0 volume R3
1
4 0

2.1.4 (3)
Example 2.1 Find the electric field a distance z above the midpoint
of a straight of length 2L, which carries a uniform line charge
Solution:v
dE 2

v
E

1
dx
( 2 ) cos z
4 0 R
L
1
2 z

4 0 0

2 z

4 0

(1) z>>L

2 3 2

(z x )

z 2

dx
R

z 2 x 2

2 L

4 0 z z 2 L2

v
E

1 2 L
4 0 z 2

(2)

v
E

1 2
4 0 z

Divergence and Curl of Electrostatic Fields

2.2.1 Field Lines and Gausss Law

2.2.2 The Divergence of E

2.2.3 Application of Gausss Law
2.2.4 The Curl of E

2.2.1 Fields lines and Gausss law

A single point charge q, situated at the origin

r r
E (r )

1 q
r
2
4 0 r
2

Because the field falls off like 1 r ,the vectors get shorter as I go
father away from the origin,and they always point radially outward.
This vectors can be connect up the arrows to form the field lines.
The magnitude of the field is indicated by the density of the lines.

strength length of arrow

strength density of field line

2.2.1 (2)
1.Field lines emanate from a point charge symmetrically in all
directions.
2.Field lines originate on positive charges and terminate on
negative ones.
3.They cannot simply stop in midair, though they may extend
out to infinity.
4.Field lines can never cross.

2.2.1 (3)
Since in this model the fields strength is proportional
v vto the
v
number of lines per unit area, the flux of E ( E da ) is
proportional to the the number of field lines passing through
any surface .
The flux of E through a sphere of radius r is:

v v
1
q
1
2

E da 4 0 ( r 2 r) (r sin d d r ) 0 q

The flux through any surface enclosing the charge is q 0

According to the principle of superposition, the total field is
the sum of all the individual fields:

v n v
E Ei
i 1

n
v v n
v v
1

E da (
Ei da ) ( 0 qi )
i 1
i 1

A charge outside the surface would contribute nothing to the

total flux,since its field lines go in one side and out other.

2.2.1 (4)
v v 1
Gausss Law in integral form
E da 0 Qenc
Turn integral form into a differential one , by applying the
divergence theorem

surface

v v
E da

v
( E )d

volume

1
1
Qenc ( )d
0

volume 0
v 1
Gausss law in differential form E
0

Electrostatics

Gauss Law
Essentially, it states that the net electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the
total charge enclosed by that surface. Gauss law provides an easy means of finding E for
symmetrical charge distributions such as a point charge, an infinite line charge, and
infinite cylindrical surface charge, and a spherical distribution of charge.

Let us choose an arbitrary closed surface S. If a vector fieldV is present, we can

construct the surface integral of V over that surface:

V ds
S

The total outward flux of V through S

The divergence of V (a scalar function of position) everywhere inside the surface

S is V
.We can integrate this scalar over the volume enclosed by the surface
S.

Vdv
V

Over the volume enclosed by S

19

Electrostatics

Gauss Law continued

According to the divergence theorem

V ds Vdv
S

We now apply the divergence theorem to the source equation E

integrated over the volume v:

E ds
S

E dv

Qenc

Gaussian
surface

E ds
S

E cos dA

D E

dv

dv Qenc

dA dS

Gauss Law
the angle between E
and the outward
normal to the surface

En - the normal component of E

20

Electrostatics

Gauss Law continued

Example: Find the electric field at a distance r from a point charge q using
Gauss law.

Let the surface S (Gaussian surface) be a sphere of radius r centered on the

o
charge. Then 0 and cos 1. Also E E r(only radial component is present).

E cos dA

E r dA Qenc q

Since E = constant everywhere on the surface, we can write

r

E r dA
S

Er

q
4r 2

4r 2
21

Electrostatics

Gauss Law continued

Example: A uniform sphere of charge with charge density o and radius b is

centered at the origin. Find the electric field at a distance r from
origin for r>b and r<b.

As in previous example the electric field is radial and spherically symmetric.

(1) r > b

4 b 3
4 r E r
o
3
2

sindd

b o
Er
3r 2
3

sin drdd

0 r 0

decreases as1 / r

(2) r < b
Er

r o
3

increases linearly with r

Gauss law can be used for finding E when E is constant on the Gaussian
22
surface.

the

Electrostatics

Gauss Law continued

Example: Determine the electric field intensity of an infinite planar charge with a
uniform surface charge density .

coincides with
the xy-plane

The E field due to a charged sheet of an infinite extent is normal to the sheet.
We choose as the Gaussian surface a rectangular box with top and bottom
faces of an arbitrary area A, equidistant from the planar charge. The sides of the
box are perpendicular to the charged sheet.

E dS

Qenc

23

Electrostatics

Gauss Law continued

On the top face

E dS E z e z dse z E z ds

E dS E z e z dse z E z ds

On the bottom face

There is no contribution from the side faces.

E dS 2E ds 2E
z

The total enclosed charge is Qencl A

A
2E z A

Ez

E z e z ,z 0

E z e z ,z 0

24

The Divergence of E
Calculate the divergence of E directly

v
1
E
4 0

( R 2 ) (r)d ,

v v v
R r r

The r-dependence is contained in R

v
E (r )

From
Thus

1
4 0

v
R 2 (r)d
all space

( 2 ) 4 3 ( R )
R

v
1
1 v
v
3 v v
E
4 (r r ) (r )d (r )

4 0
0

2.2.3 Application of Gausss Law

Example 2.2

Find the field outside a uniformly charged sphere

of radius a

surface

v v 1
E da Qenc
0

v v
v
E da E da

Sol:

(a) E point radially outward ,as does da

surface

(b)E is constant over the Gaussian surface

v
E da E

surface

Thus

v
da E 4 r 2

surface

1
E 4 r q
0
2

v
E

1 q
r
2
4 0 r

2.2.3 (2)
1. Spherical symmetry.

Make your Gaussian surface a

concentric sphere (Fig 2.18)
2. Cylindrical symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a
coaxial cylinder (Fig 2.19)
3. Plane symmetry.
Use a Gaussian surface a coaxial
the surface (Fig 2.20)

2.2.3 (3)
Example 2.3 Find the electric field inside the cylinder which
contains charge density as kr
Solution:

surface

v v 1
E da Qenc
0

The enclosed charge is

2
Qenc d (kr )(r dr d dz ) 2 k l r dr klr 3
0
3
v v
(by symmetry)

E da E da E da E 2 rl
r

thus

1 2
E 2 rl
klr 3
0 3

v 1
E
kr 2 r
3 0

2.2.3 (4)
Example 2.4 An infinite plane carries a uniform surface charge.
Find its electric field.
Solution: Draw a Gaussian pillbox
Apply Gausss law to this surface

surface

v v 1
E da Qenc
0

By symmetry, E points away from the plane

thus, the top and bottom surfaces yields

v v
E da 2 A E

(the sides contribute nothing)

1
2A E A
0

v
E
n
2 0

2.2.3 (5)
Example 2.5 Two infinite parallel planes carry equal but opposite
uniform charge densities .Find the field in
each of the three regions.
Solution:
The field is (/0 ), and points to the right, between the plane
elsewhere it is zero.

2 0

) (

) ( 2 )
2 0
0

) ( 2 ) ( 2 )
2 0
0
0

2.2.4 The Curl of E

A point charge at the origin. If we calculate
the line integral of this field from some point
a to some other point b :
b

v v
E dl

In spherical coordinate

v v
1 q v
E dl
dr
2
4 0 r
rb
v
v
b
1 b q
1 q
1 q q
a E dl 4 0 a r 2 dr 4 0 r 4 0 ra rb
ra

v
dl dr r rd r sin d

This integral is independent of path. It depends on the

two end points

v v

E dl 0

( if ra = rb )

v
Apply by Stokes theorem, E 0

2.2.4
The principle of superposition

v v v
E E1 E2 L

so

v
v v
v
v
E ( E1 E2 L ) ( E1) ( E2 ) L 0
v
E 0
must hold for any static charge distribution whatever.

Electric potential
2.3.1 Introduction to Potential
2.3.2 Comments on Potential
2.3.3 Poissons Equation and Laplaces Equation
2.3.4 The Potential of a Localized Charge Distribution
2.3.5 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions

2.3.1 introduction to potential

Any vector whose curl is zero is equal to the gradient of some
scalar. We define a function:
p v v

V ( p ) E dl

Where is some standard reference point ; V depends only on the

point P. V is called the electric potential.

v v
a v v
V (b) V (a ) E dl E dl

v v

E dl

The fundamental theorem for gradients

V (b) V (a )
so

b
a

v
(V ) dl

v
b v v
(V ) dl E dl
a

r
E V

2.3.2 Comments on potential

(1)The name
Potential is not potential energy

v
v
F qE qV
V : Joule/coulomb

v v
U F X
U : Joule

2.3.2 (2)
(2)Advantage of the potential formulation
V is a scalar function, but E is a vector quantity

V (r )

v
E E x x E y y E z z

v
If you know V, you can easily get E: E V .

E x , E y , E z are not independent functions

v
E 0

so
1

E x 1 E y

,
y
x

E z 2 E y

,
y
z
2

E x 3 E z

z
x

y z E x z y Ex z x E y x z E y x y Ez y x Ez

z Ex x Ez

2.3.2 (3)
(3)The reference point
Changing the reference point amounts to adds a constant to
the potential

V ( p)

v v
v v
p v v
E dl E dl E dl
K
V( p )

(Where K is a constant)
Adding a constant to V will not affect the potential difference
between two point:

V (b) V (a) V (b) V (a)

Since the derivative of a constant is zero: V V

For the different V, the field E remains the same.
Ordinarily we set V () 0

2.3.2 (4)
(4)Potential obeys the superposition principle

v v v
F F1 F2 L

v
v
F QE

Dividing
v through
v v by Q

E E1 E2 L

Integrating from the common reference point to p ,

V V1 V2 L

(5)Unit of potential

F : newton

Volt=Joule/Coulomb

F x : Joule

qV
F qE qV
X
F X
V:
Joule/Coulomb
q

2.3.2 (5)
Example 2.6 Find the potential inside and outside a spherical
shell of radius R, which carries a uniform surface
charge (the total charge is q).
solution:
v

v
q
1
Eout 4 2 r
0 r

Ein 0

for r>R:

v v
v
q
1
V r E d l

4 0 r

_
for r<R:

V R

1 q
4 0 R

q
1

4 0 r

v
V r V R

1 q
4 0 R

v
Ein 0

2.3.3 Poissons Eq. & Laplaces Eq.

v
2
E

0
v
E V
Poissons Eq. 2V

2V 0

Laplaces eq.

2.3.4 The Potential of a Localized Charge Distribution

v
E V

V (r ) 1
4 0

V V Edr

q
1 q

dr

r 2
4 0 r
r

V 0

q
1
4 0 r

Potential for a point charge

q
1
V ( P)
4 0 R

v v
R r rp

Potential for a collection of charge

n

qi
1
V ( P)
4 0 R i
i 1

v v
Ri ri rp

Ri

2.3.4 (2)
Potential of a continuous distribution
for volume charge

q d

1
V ( P)
d

4 0 R

for a line charge

for a surface charge

q dl

q da

V ( P)

dl
1
4 0 R

V ( P)

da
1
4 0 R

1
R
Corresponding electric field
[
]
2
R R
v
v
v
1

r
1
r da
r
1
E
(
P
)

E ( P)

E
(
P
)

d
l
4 0 R 2
4 0 R 2
4 0 R 2

2.3.4 (3)
Example 2.7 Find the potential of a uniformly charged spherical
shell of radius R.
Solution:
1
2
2
2
r

V (r )
da
,

2
Rz
cos

4 0 r
R 2 sin d d
4 V ( z )
R 2 z 2 2 Rz cos

2 R

sin
R 2 z 2 2 Rz cos

1
2
2 R
R 2 z 2 2 Rz cos
Rz

2 R

z
2 R

R 2 z 2 2 Rz R 2 z 2 2 Rz )

( R z )2 ( R z )2

2.3.4 (4)

R
R 2
V ( z)
[( R z ) ( z R)]
, outside
2 0 z
0z
R
R
V ( z)
[( R z ) ( R z )]
, inside
2 0 z
0

2.3.5 Electrostatic Boundary Condition

Electrostatic problem

Superposition
Coulomb law

The above equations are differential or integral.

For a unique solution, we need boundary conditions. (e.q. ,
V()=0 )

2.3.5 (2)
B.C. at surface with charge
:

surface

v v Qenc A
E da
0
0
E above A E below A

E above Ebelow
0
v r

E dl 0

v
Q E 0

E above= E below
v
v
+ Eabove Ebelow n
0

2.3.5 (3)
Potential B.C.

Q Vabove Vbelow

b
a

v v ab 0
E d l

Vabove Vbelow
v
v
Q Eabove Ebelow n
0

n Vabove n Vbelow
0

r
E V

V V n
n

Work and Energy in Electrostatics

2.4.1 The Work Done in Moving a Charge
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge Distribution
2.4.4 Comments on Electrostatic Energy

2.4.1 The Work Done in Moving a charge

v
A test charge Q feels a force Q E (from the stationary source charges).
v
v
To move this test charge, we have to apply a force F QE
conservative
The total work we do is

v v
b v v
W F d l Q E d l Q V b
V a
a
a
b

V b V a W
Q
So, bring a charge from to P, the work we do is

W Q V ( P ) V () QV ( P )
V ( ) 0

2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution

It takes no work to bring in first charges

W1 0

for q1

Work needed to bring in q2 is :

q1
q1
1
1
W2 q2 [
]
q2 (
)
4 0 R12
4 0
R12

Work needed to bring in q3 is :

q1
q2
q1
q2
1
1
1
W3 q3[

]
q3 (

)
4 0 R13 4 0 R23
4 0
R13 R23

Work needed to bring in q4 is :

q3
q1
q2
1
W4
q4 [

]
4 0
R14 R24 R34

2.4.2
Total work
W=W1+ W2+ W3 +W4

q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3 q1q4 q2 q4 q3q4

1

4 0 R12
R13
R23
R14
R24
R34

n n qq
i j
1
4 0
Rij
Rij R ji

i 1 j 1
n

qi q j
1
8 0 Rij
i 1 j 1
j i

W 1 qiV Pi
2
i 1

i 1

q
j
1
4 0 Rij
j 1

j i

1 qi
2

qj
1
V Pi
4 0 Rij
j 1
j i

Dose not include the first charge

2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge Distribution

1
W Vd
2
v
0 E

q d
Volume charge density

v
v
v
EV E V E V

v
0
0
E Vd

2
2

v
v
EV d E
V d

0
(
2
surface

F.T.for
v

v
VE da

v
E

surface

v v
VE da

surface

0
W
2

E 2d )

volume

all space

E 2 d

2.4.3
Example 2.8 Find the energy of a uniformly charged spherical
shell of total charge q and radius R

1 q
Sol.1 q 4 R
V
4 0 R
1
1
1 q 1 q
1 q2
W Vd Vda
da
2
2
2 A 4 0 R
8 0 R
2

v
Sol.2 E

1 q

r
4 0 r 2

E2

q2
(4 0 ) 2 r 4

2
outer
0

q
1 2
2
0
W E d
r
sin

dr
2
2 space (4 o) 2 r 4

q2
2

32 0

2 2 R

dr
2
r
1

1 q2

8 0 R

2.4.4 Comments on Electrostatic Energy

A perplexing inconsistent

0
W
E 2d
2 all space

Energy 0

or

1 n
W qiV ( Pi )
2 i 1

Energy 0 or 0

1 n n qi q j
W

4 0 i 1 j 1 rij
j i

Only for point charge

1
q1 q , q2 q W
4 0

0
q 2
r12

(Q q1 and q2 ) are attractive

2.4.4 (2)
0
W
2

all space

E 2 d

is more complete

the energy of a point charge itself,

2
1
q
2
W
( ) r sin
d d dr
dr

2 4
2
8 0 0 r
2(4 0 )
r

q2

1 n
W qi V Pi
2 i 1
1
W Vd
2

, V ( Pi )

does not include qi

, V ( P)

is the full potential

There is no distinction for a continuous distribution,

because
d 0

(d ) p

2.4.4 (3)
(2)Where is the energy stored? In charge or in field ?
Both are fine in ES. But,it is useful to regard the energy
as being stored in the field at a density

E2
Energy per unit volume
2

(3)The superposition principle,not for ES energy

0
0
2
2
W1
E
d

E
1
2
2 d

2
2
0 v v 2
Wtot ( E1 E2 ) d
2
v v
0
2
2
( E1 E2 2 E1 E2 )d
2
v v
W1 W2 0 ( E1 E2 )d

Conductors
2.5.1 Basic Properties of Conductors
2.5.2 Induced Charges
2.5.3 The Surface Charge on a Conductor;
the Force on a Surface Charge
2.5.4 Capacitors

2.5.1 Basic Properties of Conductors

e

are free to move in a conductor

v
(1) E 0 inside a conductor

v
otherwise, the free charges that produce E
v
will move to make E 0 inside a conductor

(2) = 0 inside a conductor

v
Q E
0

v
E 0

(3) Any net charge resides on the surface

(4) V is constant, throughout a conductor.

V (b) V (a )

V (b) V (a )

v v
E dl 0

2.5.1 (2)
v
(5) E is perpendicular
to the surface, just outside a conductor.
v
v
Otherwise, EP will move the free charge to make EP 0

in terms of energy, free charges staying on the surface have

a minimum energy.
uniform

1 q2
Energy
8 0 R

Ein 0 Win 0
uniform

Ein 0 Win 0

3 q2
Energy
20 0 R

2.5.1 (3)
Example : A point charge q at the center of a spherical conducting
shell. How much induced charge will accumulate there?
Solution :

Q Ein 0

q induced

4 a a q
charge conservation
2

4 b b
Ein 0

4 a 2

Qenc q qinduced 0
qinduecd q

1 q
a
4 a 2
1 q
b
4 b 2

2.5.2 Induced Charge

Example 2.9 Within the cavity is a charge +q.
What is the field outside the sphere?
-q distributes to shield q and to make Ein 0
i.e., Vsurface constant
from charge conservation and symmetry.
+q uniformly distributes at the surface

v
E ( P)

1 q
r
2
4 0 r

v v

E dl 0
b v v
va E dl 0
Eincavity 0

a,b are arbitrary chosen

v
a Faraday cage can shield out stray E

2.5.3 The Surface Charge on a Conductor

v
v

Eabove Ebelow n
0
v
Q Ein 0 or Ebelow 0
v

V Eabove n
0

or

if we know V, we can get

n
0

2.5.3
Force on a surface charge,

v
v
1 v
f Eaverage ( Eabove Ebelow )
2
why the average?

v
v

Eabove Eother
k
2 0

v
v

Ebelow Eother
k
2 0

0 v
v
v
1 v
Eother ( Eabove Ebelow )

Eaverage
2
In case of a conductor

electrostatic pressure

1 v
2
f Eabove
n
2
2 0

2 0 2
P
E
2 0 2

2.5.4 Capacitors
Consider 2 conductors (Fig 2.53)
The potential difference
v v
V V V
E dl

v
E

1
r
d

2
4 0 r

(V is constant.)

uv
double double Q double E double V

Define the ratio between Q and V to be capacitance

Q
C
V

a geometrical quantity

in mks 1 farad(F)= 1 Coulomb / volt

inconveniently large ;

106 F : microfarad
1012 F : picofarad

2.5.4 (2)
Example 2.10 Find the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor?

+Q
d A

Solution:

-Q

Q
E

0 A 0
Q
V E d
d
A 0
A 0
C
d

2.5.4 (3)
Example 2.11 Find capacitance of two concentric spherical shells
with radii a and b .
+Q -Q
Solution:

v
E

1 Q

r
4 0 r 2

v v
Q a 1
Q 1 1
V E dl
dr

2
b
4 0 b r
4 0 a b
a

Q
ab
C 4 0
V
b a

2.5.4 (4)
The work to charge up a capacitor

q
dW Vdq ( )dq
C
W

1 Q2 1
1
q
( )dq
QV CV 2
C
2 C 2
2