Nervous System

Divided functionally into:

Afferent:
Transmission of impulses to the CNS. Sensory input travels from the sensory receptors via
afferent peripheral fibres and ascending pathways to the CNS. They can be somatic (interacting
with the external environment) or visceral (relating to the internal environment); conscious or
unconscious.
Efferent:
Transmission of impulses away from the CNS. Information travels via efferent peripheral nerves
and descending pathways in the CNS to the neuromuscular junctions. They can be somatic or
visceral. The effector organ performs the reaction or response to the stimuli.
Integrative:
Processing and linking information in the CNS
Memory:
Storage and recall, predominately in the cerebral cortex
Parts of the nervous system:
Central nervous system:
Communicates with other tissues via the peripheral nerves. Support structures are called the meninges
(CT membranes) and the ventricular system (cavities within the brain lined by ependymal cells and
containing CSF). Consists of the brian and spinal cord.
The brain has grey matter made up of nerve cell bodies and located on the surface of the cerebrum and
cerebellum and called cerebral and cerebellar cortex respectively and white matter made up of nerve
cell processes and located deep in the cortex and divided into tracts made up of functionally related
nerve fibres which have a similar origin and destination. Grey matter is external to white matter. There
is three main gross anatomical divisions:
Cerebrum- contains the left and right cerebral hemispheres
Cerebellum- lies caudal to the cerebrum and dorsal to the brain stem
Brain stem- the remainder of the brain after the cerebrum and cerebellum have been removed
Spinal cord
Bilateral symmetrical continuation of the medulla oblongata (the caudal part of the brain stem) located
in the bony vertebral canal. Functionally divided into segments that broadly correspond to the
vertebrae. Paired dorsal and ventral nerve roots rise from each segment. Contains a central canal that
consists of CSF and is part of the ventricular system. White matter is external to grey matter
Grey matter
White matter
Divided into horns (columns)
Divided into funiculi
Dorsal- contains afferent neurons;
Dorsal- has ascending fibres
Ventral- contains somatic efferent
Ventral- has descending fibres
neurons
Intermediate- has both ascending and
Intermediate- contains preganglionic
descending fibres
autonomic neurons.
Peripheral Nervous System:
Consists of cranial and spinal nerves which lie outside of the CNS
Includes nerve roots and peripheral glands in association with the nerves and receptors
A nerve is a grossly visible collection of thousands of nerve fibres (axons) myelinated by
neurolemmocytes and organized in fascicles (small bundles) and surrounded by connective
tissue
Spinal nerves are paired and originate as dorsal and ventral roots from the spinal cord
The dorsal root enters the dorsal portion of the spinal cord and contains mainly afferent fibres
carrying afferent impulses from the periphery towards the spinal cord
The ventral root emerges from the ventral horn and contains efferent fibres carrying efferent
impulses from the spinal cord to the effector organs
Autonomical nervous system:
Consists of the nerves and ganglia associated with the smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and the
glandular epithelium of the viscera
It is concerned with the involuntary control of organ function, facilitates the maintaince of
homeostasis, and has the ability to adapt to environmental changes and stress
The afferent pathway has receptors in the effector organs, the viscera and blood vessels. The
afferents carrying these impulses travel within a conveniently located nerve trunk. The
hypothalamus is the major integration centre of the ANS

The efferent pathway in the ANS is a two neuron pathway with a preganglionic neuron (cell body
in the CNS), a synapse and a post ganglion neuron
The two major divisions of the ANS are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Cells of the nervous system:

Neurons
Highly specialised cells arranged as communication networks. Actively involved in maintaining their
structural integrity and in the synthesis, transport and release of secretory products. There are three
categories of neurons:
Sensory- coveys impulses from receptors to CNS
Motor- convey impulses from CNS or ganglia to effector cells
Interneurons- form a network between sensory and motor neurons; the majority of neurons are
interneurons
Neurons are generally elongated cells that vary in size and shape depending on their function. They
have four functional regions:
Cell body
Large dilated region of the cell containing the nucleus, surrounding cytoplasm and the plasma
membrane. Functions as the input region of multipolar neurons and also acts to nurture the
neuron. The material synthesized in the cell body is distributed to the axon by axonal transport,
which is bidirectional and can vary in speed.
Dendrites
Short, unmyelinated processes. They are the input regions of the neuron where excitation is
initially received; dendrites conduct impulses towards the cell body. Receive stimuli from other
neurons or from report organs and transmit this information through the neuron to the axon,
which then conducts the information to the dendrite of another neuron, or to an effector cell.
Axon
Relatively long, cylindrical processes; one per neuron, surrounded by a myelin sheath. Recurrent
and collateral branches can leave the axon but branching only occurs at the vicinity of their
target cells and enables an axon to contact and stimulate these cells. Axons conduct excitation
between dendritic and telodendritic zones; that is they carry the impulses away from the cell
body.
Telodendritic zone
Highly branched terminal end of the axon; synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters are
concentrated here. It is the output region of the neuron where excitation is transmitted to other
cells. Each terminal branch ends in a localised expansion called the terminal synaptic bouton,
which functions as a packing, storage and release site for neurotransmitter molecules.
Anatomically classified as:
Unipolar- Neurons have a cell body, and an axon, which divides close to the cell body into a central and
peripheral branch. Sensory neurons are unipolar.
Bipolar- Neurons have a cell body, and an axon and dendrite located on each side of the cell body.
Vestibulocochlear afferent neurons and bipolar cells of the neuron are bipolar.
Multipolar- Neurons have a cell body with an axon plus two or more dendrites, which join to the cell
body at various locations. Most neurons are multipolar.
Synapses:
Specialised junctions in which nerves communicate via neurotransmitters, with each other and with
effector cells (muscle or gland cells). An axon can establish synapses with a dendrite; a neuron cell
body or the axon of another neurons. An axon generally makes several contacts with a receptor neuron
or target cell. Synapses can be chemical or electrical. In an interneuronal chemical synapse the impulse
conducted along the presynaptic axon stimulates the release of a neurotransmitter, which diffuses
across the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter binds briefly to a receptor on the postsynaptic
membrane and initiates membrane depolarization and excitation or has a blocking/inhibitory effect on
impulse conduction.
The synaptic cleft is a narrow gap (20-30nm) between the cell membranes of the adjacent neurons.
A neuromuscular synapse is a chemical synapse between the axon of a somatic motor neuron and
individual muscle fibres, which result in contraction of the muscle fibres. Consists of:
Presynaptic neuronal motor end plates: which are formed by the branching of the terminal
branch end of a somatic efferent neuron within a circumscribed zone or plate. The end plate is
covered by neurolemmocytes.
Synaptic cleft: separates the motor end plate and muscle sole plate. It is 40-50nm wide; folding
of the sarcolemma increases this distance.

Postsynaptic muscle sole plate: a depression on the surface of the muscle cell at the mid-region
of the muscle fibre.

Neuroglia
Non-neural and non-conducting cells that act as functional and structural support cells. They make up
90% of the cells in the nervous system. Neurons communicate with glial cells- relatively small,
metabolically active cells. Supportive functions include:
Nourishment
Maintenance of the extracellular
environment
Physical support for neural processes
Phagocytosis
Electrical insulation (myelin)
Neurolemmocytes are the support cells of the PNS that either myelate axons (Schwann cells) or
surround cell bodies in the ganglia. Satellite cells provide a protective environment for the PNS neurons
and can proliferate and become phagocytic when nerve damage occurs. Myelin is an electrically
insulating lipid, which increases the conduction velocity of an impulse. Myelin imparts a white colour to
a group of nerve cells. In the PNS Schwann cells surround neurons in two ways:
Small axons sink into grooves on the surface of the Schwann cell either singly or in groups- nonmyelinated axon
The neurolemmocytes wraps layers of neurolemmocytes plasma membrane around an
individual axon-myelinated axon
After a Schwann cell surrounds an axon that is destined for myelination, the Schwann cell processes
elongate and slide past each other to produce a multi-layered, concentric wrapping around the axon.
Schwann cell cytoplasm is squeezed out from the gap between the adjacent layers so that only the
myelin sheath remains. The thickness of the myelin sheath depends on the number of times the
Schwann cell layers wrap around the axon. The myelin sheath is interrupted at the junctions between
adjacent Schwann cell wrappings forming uninsulated areas called nodes of ranvier. A wave of
depolarization jumps from node to node and this jumping process is called saltatory conduction
Satellite cells are neurolemmocytes found in peripheral ganglia that do not make up myelin. They
surround neural cell bodies in the ganglia and function to maintain the microenvironment around the
neuronal cell body, provide electrical insulation and act as a method of metabolite exchange.
Support cells of the CNS- Neuroglial cells
Oligodendrocytes
Small cells with few processes that myelinate several axons. Each oligodendrocyte process
either wraps around a portion of an axon at several sites or several axons to from a myelin
sheath composed of concentric layers of oligodendrocyte plasma membrane.
Microglial cells
Transform into macrophages where there is damage or disease in the CNS, functions as both
antigen-presenting cells and in phagocytosis. They are small cells with short, twisted processes.
Astrocytes
Largest and most prominent glial cell. They provide physical and metabolic support for the CNS
neurons. The processes extend between neurons and blood vessels; these processes terminate
in expansion called end feet, which cover the blood vessels in the CNS. End feet regulate the
formation of the capillary endothelial tight junctions of the CNS, forming the basis of the bloodbrain barrier, which regulates movement of material from the bloodstream to the neurons.
Provide structural support and provides a source or energy. They also have roles in the
movement of metabolites and wastes to and from neurons, the insulating of synapses, the
uptake of neurotransmitter substances and in immune function. Two types:
o Protoplasmic- more prevalent in grey mater, short highly branched cytoplasmic processes
o Fibrous- more prevalent in white matter, long moderately branched cytoplasmic
processes
Ependymal cells
Columnar or cuboidal epithelial like cells with motile cilia that line ventricles of brain and the
central canal of spinal cord. Serve as an important barrier to protect neural tissue from
potentially harmful substances and to regulate the movement of ions, small molecules and
water between the CSF and neutrophils.
Afferent receptors
Specialised structures located at the peripheral axon branch of afferent neurons that initiate a nerve
impulse in response to a stimuli. Classified by location in the body:
Exteroreceptors- react to stimuli from the external environment; found at the surfaces of the
body

Enteroreceptors- react to stimuli from within the body found in the viscera
Proprioceptors- reacts to stimuli from within the body with respect to body position, muscle tone
and movement, found in musculoskeletal structures.
Can also be classified by the type of stimuli they react to (mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors,
thermoreceptors). Can be:
Non-encapsulated
The terminal branches of non-myelinated or thinly myelinated axons. They have no connective
tissue capsule or Schwann cell coverings. Detect pain, warmth, cold and touch.
Encapsulated endings
Large ovoid structures consisting of a myelinated sensory nerve ending surrounded by a
connective tissue capsule. Found in skin, connective tissue, joints, the periosteum and internal
organs.
Neurosensory olfactory cells
Located in the mucosa lining the olfactory region of the respiratory system. They are bipolar
neurons whose cell bodies lie in the basal portion of the epithelium. Their dendrites extend to
the lumen of the nasal cavities; the axons of each neuron converge underneath the epithelium
to form bundles of nerve fibres passing to the brain.
Neuroepithelial cells in taste buds
Elongated cells with microvilli that extend from the basal lamina of the taste bud to the taste
bud opening.