Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

DOI 10.1007/s10643-013-0619-0

A Survey Study of Early Childhood Teachers Beliefs

and Confidence about Teaching Early Math
Jie-Qi Chen Jennifer McCray Margaret Adams
Christine Leow

Published online: 2 November 2013

Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract This study reports on results from the Early

Mathematics Beliefs and Confidence Survey, administered
to 346 preschool teachers in a large public school system in
the Midwest. Survey results depict a much more positive
view of teachers beliefs and confidence in early math
teaching than previously reported. Results also suggest that
teacher confidence varies with specific types of math
knowledge and teaching abilities, and assessing math
learning is a specific area where teachers lack confidence.
Examining confidence in their math abilities and in
teaching early math, results indicate that teachers are more
confident teaching math and remain confident in teaching
even when confidence in their abilities is low. Implications
of results for early math professional development are
discussed.
Keywords Early math teaching
Survey study

Professional development
Preschool teachers

J.-Q. Chen (&)
J. McCray

Erikson Institute, 451 North LaSalle Street, Chicago, IL 60654,
USA
e-mail: jchen@erikson.edu
J. McCray
e-mail: jmccray@erikson.edu
M. Adams
Creative Collisions, 122 White Pine Drive, Durham, NC 27705,
USA
e-mail: adams@creativecollisions.com
C. Leow
Research for Action, 100 South Broad Street, Suite 700,
Philadelphia, PA 19110, USA
e-mail: CLeow@researchforaction.org

Introduction
The importance of early mathematics education has drawn
increasing attention in recent years (Duncan et al. 2007;
NRC 2009). While research evidence is clear that young
children have the capacity to learn math and benefit from
doing so (see NRC for a summary report 2009), it is largely
unknown whether this is a belief commonly held by preschool teachers. Similarly, while early childhood teachers
are generally described as lacking confidence in teaching
math (Copley 2004), surprisingly few studies have examined
teacher confidence in relation to teaching tasks such as
planning learning activities or assessing childrens math
understanding. Lastly, while we know that young childrens
performance in mathematics depends on their teachers
mathematical proficiency (Sarama and DiBiase 2004), we
know little about which specific math teaching tasks teachers
feel proficient in. Our limited understanding of teachers
perspectives on early math teaching diminishes our ability to
support teachers in the classroom and makes it difficult to
meet their math professional development (PD) needs.
Responding to these gaps in the research literature, in
this article we report on a survey of preschool teachers
beliefs and confidence designed to address three questions:
(1) What do preschool teachers believe about teaching and
learning math with preschoolers? (2) How confident are
preschool teachers in helping preschoolers learn math? (3)
How confident are preschool teachers about their own math
abilities? Results and their implications for the design of
early math professional development are discussed.
Teacher Beliefs About Early Math Teaching
Though agreement on a single definition of teacher beliefs
has not been reached, investigators have developed

123

368

working definitions (Handal and Herrington 2003; Philipp

2007). Handal and Herrington (2003), for example, liken
beliefs to filters through which new knowledge and experience are interpreted. Philipp (2007) compares beliefs to
lenses that shape the world we see. Whether acting as filters or lenses, the literature suggests that beliefs influence
teachers perceptions and judgments, thereby shaping their
actions in the classroom. Supporting this claim, Wilkins
(2008) found that among the variables of content knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes, teacher beliefs had the strongest correlation with elementary teachers practices.
Influencing instructional practice, beliefs also affect teacher interactions with children and further shape what
children learn (Stipek et al. 2001).
In preschool, teachers beliefs also affect learning priorities. Based on their survey, Kowalski et al. (2001) report
that preschool teachers believed social-emotional skills
were more important for preschoolers to learn than either
literacy or early math. These investigators obtained a
similar pattern of results when surveying teachers in Head
Start programs, public preschools, and special education
preschools. Although these learning areas are not mutually
exclusive, the priority teachers give to social-emotional
development may diminish the likelihood that teachers will
focus on helping children learn early math (NRC 2009).
Studies of teacher beliefs in early education focus primarily on teachers belief in developmentally appropriate
practice (DAP) rather than beliefs related to early math
education per se (White et al. 2004). DAP calls for childinitiated activities with teachers acting as facilitators. The
practice has gained wide acceptance in the early childhood
community (Bowman et al. 2001; Bredekamp and Copple
1987). Based on DAP, the preschool curriculum focuses
on offering children a rich variety of learning opportunities, often taking an opportunistic, rather than an intentional, approach to addressing content. Committed to
DAP, many teachers regard early math instruction as a
developmentally inappropriate push down effect of the
formal school curriculum (Ginsburg and Seo 1999). In an
effort to promote early math education, NAEYC and
NCTM (2002) contend that early math learning needs to
be a priority in preschool curriculum and is consistent
with DAP. If teachers cannot reconcile teaching early
math with their belief in DAP, they are less likely to give
early math the effort and attention it requires (McCray and
Chen 2011).
Teachers Confidence in Helping Preschoolers Learn
Math and in Their Own Abilities
Indicative of its importance, teacher confidence has been
linked to positive effects on learning. In an exemplary
study, Stipek et al. (2001) found that elementary teachers

123

Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

math self-confidence was significantly correlated with

students confidence in themselves as math learners.
Despite its importance, evidence suggests that teacher
confidence in early math teaching is low. In a survey study
conducted by Carpenter and colleagues (Carpenter et al.
1988), for example, both pre- and in-service early childhood teachers expressed great reluctance to teach mathematics. More recently, Copley observes that for early
childhood teachers, mathematics is a difficult subject to
teach and one area that they often ignore except for
counting and simple arithmetic (2004, p. 402).
In addition to low confidence in helping preschoolers
learn math, teachers have varying degrees of confidence in
their own math abilities. This variability can be traced to
their education and training. At most US colleges and
universities, the mathematics requirements for students
majoring in early education are minimal (Copple 2004). As
a result, students can pursue a career as a preschool teacher
without learning much about math. The joint position
statement by NAEYC and NCTM (2002) recognizes this
problem, noting that a general lack of knowledge and
preparation contributes to a lack of confidence among
many early childhood teachers.
Research indicates that teachers confidence in their
personal math abilities exerts a measurable influence on
childrens math attitudes. In a landmark study, Beilock
et al. (2009) measured childrens math anxiety at the
beginning and end of first grade. Girls who had a highly
math-anxious teacher showed increased math anxiety by
the end of the school year. Teacher math anxiety also
affected learning outcomes for girls. The higher a teachers
anxiety, the lower the girls math achievement.
In contrast to the negative effects of math anxiety,
teachers confidence in their math abilities seems to have
positive effects on learning (Stipek et al. 2001). Classroom
observations indicate that teachers who are confident in
their abilities are comfortable learning new math skills
(Yesil-Dagli et al. 2010). In contrast, teachers who lack
confidence in their math ability tend to avoid teaching it
(Chicago Program Evaluation Project 2008).

Methods
Sample
A total of 346 preschool teachers in a large, urban, public
school system in the Midwest completed the survey. Of
these, 88 % (n = 304) taught two half-day preschool classes and the remaining 12 % (n = 42) worked in full-day
programs. The number of years teachers had worked with
preschool children ranged from 1 to 34, with a mean of
approximately 9 years. In the sample, 228 teachers (66 %)

Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

worked with students from low-income family backgrounds

and 109 teachers (32 %) spoke Spanish regularly in their
classrooms. Because they worked in a public school system,
all teachers had teaching certificates. On average, teachers
had completed 3.8 pre-service math and math methods
classes (SD = 6.7), and they had participated in 4.9 h of
in-service math PD over the last 3 years (SD = 7.1).
Measure
Designed specifically for use in this study, the Early Math
Beliefs and Confidence Survey (EM-BCS) consists of 28
questions that assess three aspects of teacher belief and
confidence (see Appendix): (1) teachers beliefs about
preschoolers and math; (2) teachers confidence in helping
preschoolers learn math; and (3) teachers confidence in
their own math abilities. The survey presents a series of
first person statements, such as Most children in my class
are very interested in math. Teachers used a five point
Likert scale to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with each statement. The five points on the
rating scale were labeled strongly agree, agree, neutral,
disagree, or strongly disagree.
Specificity is a key feature of the survey design. Using
specific questions yields more detailed information which
can better inform the design of early math PD. Eliciting
specific information is contrasted with previous reports of
teachers general concerns about the developmental
appropriateness of early math (e.g., Young children are
not ready to learn math.) and their generally low confidence in teaching early math (e.g., Teachers are uncomfortable teaching early math.) (Copley 2004; Ginsburg
et al. 2008). Reporting on general observations obscures
the particulars of teachers beliefs and confidence. In
addition to items about their confidence in teaching early
math, the EM-BCS includes items about teachers confidence in their own math abilities. Measuring both types of
confidence, the survey collects the information needed to
detect a relationship between them.
The construct validity of the EM-BCS was established
through an extensive literature review and consultation
with experts in early math education. Reference to the
curriculum focal points of NCTM for pre-kindergarten
(2010) guided selection of the mathematical content for the
survey. The alpha is .80 for teachers beliefs about preschoolers and math, .90 for teachers confidence in helping
preschoolers learn math, and .84 for teachers confidence in
their own math abilities. To evaluate reliability, the survey
was administered to the same group of teachers twice, with
18 months in between. No significant differences were
found in any of the three areas between the two sets of
results, indicating a high degree of reliability of survey
items over time. The Time 1 data set was used in this study.

369

Procedure
The EM-BCS was administered to all pre-kindergarten
teachers in May, at the conclusion of a system-wide
meeting. A total of 354 teachers attended the meeting.
Teachers were informed that the survey would be used to
help administrators better meet teachers professional
development needs in early math. The survey took teachers
approximately 15 min to complete. Teachers completed the
survey anonymously. Of the 354 surveys distributed, 346
were completed and returned, yielding a response rate of
98 %. With all pre-kindergarten teachers expected to
attend the meeting and time allotted to complete the survey
during the meeting, the response rate was unusually high.

Results
Teachers responded to survey statements by rating their
degree of agreement or disagreement with the statement,
using a five point Likert scale. Results describe the total
percentage of teachers who either agreed or strongly agreed
with each survey statement.
Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test whether
the collected data fit the hypothesized measurement model
based on the researchers assumptions about the nature of
what was measured. As seen in Table 1, survey items
confirmed the researchers assumptions as they loaded
roughly on three factors across survey sections. That is,
Factors 1, 2, and 3 represented teacher beliefs about preschoolers and math, confidence in helping preschoolers
learn math, and teachers confidence in their personal math
abilities, respectively. The results support the hypothesized
model for measurement of constructs in the survey
questionnaire.
Beliefs About Preschoolers and Math
A large majority of teachers expressed the belief that early
math education is appropriate for young children. Specifically, 89.9 % of teachers believed that young children have
the cognitive abilities to learn math. Further, three-fourths
(76.5 %) believed that preschoolers are interested in
learning math. Rating their beliefs about the importance of
early math instruction, 96.8 % of teachers agreed that
preschoolers need to learn math to be ready for kindergarten. Consistent with this belief, 90.3 % indicated that
preschoolers should be helped to learn math in preschool.
Underscoring the need for early math education, 62.1 % of
teachers held that most children in their class entered
preschool with very little math knowledge. Asked how
preschoolers learn math, a large majority (87.6 %) of
teachers responded that young children learn a lot about

123

370

Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

Table 1 Factor loading of the early math beliefs and confidence survey
Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

Teacher beliefs about preschoolers and math

Most children in my class __________.
1. Enter preschool with little math knowledge

0.45234

0.11761

-0.05676

2. Have the cognitive abilities to learn math

0.58756

-0.09127

-0.01615

3. Should be helped to learn math in preschool

0.11617

0.31859

-0.02073

4. Are very interested in learning math

0.42294

-0.20873

-0.04726

5. Need to learn math in preschool to be ready for kindergarten

0.25777

-0.09506

-0.04234

6. Learn a great deal about math through their everyday activities

0.36239

-0.24477

-0.03417

7. Need structured preschool math instruction

0.45896

0.09484

-0.00387

8. Should be helped to learn math using a published math curriculum

0.46987

0.02886

0.09970

1. What the children in my classroom know about math when they enter preschool

-0.05265

0.38878

0.09592

2. Reasonable math goals for preschoolers

-0.18134

0.60404

0.14855

Teacher confidence in helping preschoolers learn math

I am confident in my knowledge of ______

3. The best practices and strategies for helping preschoolers learn math

-0.19586

0.65268

0.18223

4. Local or national math standards for preschoolers

-0.23240

0.54607

0.12434

5. The best ways to assess childrens math knowledge and understanding throughout the year

-0.12097

0.70205

0.18941

-0.03746

0.69480

0.13891

I am confident in my ability to ______

6. Observe what preschoolers know about math
7. incorporate math learning into common preschool situations (such as art or dramatic play)

0.01660

0.72321

0.07503

8. Plan activities to help preschoolers learn math

0.07190

0.75682

0.17571

9. Further preschoolers math knowledge when they make spontaneous math comments/discoveries

0.03209

0.66782

0.08745

10. Make sense of preschoolers confusions when they learn math

-0.03086

0.65534

0.13029

11. Translate assessment results into curriculum plans

-0.10653

0.66645

0.20925

Teachers confidence in their personal math abilities

1. Math was one of my best subjects in school

0.05326

0.07744

0.74035

2. Just the word math can make me feel nervous

3. Im not a math person

-0.09265
-0.06231

-0.00995
-0.02884

0.69580
0.79593

4. I can easily rotate objects in my mind

-0.00164

0.30085

0.45136

0.01452

0.30756

0.54010

5. I like coming up with creative ways to solve math problems

6. I can easily convert fractions into percentages and decimal numbers

-0.04116

0.17147

0.59320

7. I have a bad sense of direction

-0.05867

0.06295

0.37749

8. Im good at looking at numeric data and finding patterns

-0.03649

0.17725

0.57053

0.06714

0.15325

0.42302

9. Im good at estimating how tall something is or the distance between two locations
Bold terms indicate results higher than other loadings in same column

math through everyday experiences. Less than a third of

the teachers (30.5 %) thought preschoolers need structured
math instruction and about a fifth (19.2 %) favored the use
of a published early math curriculum.

Confidence in Helping Preschoolers Learn Math

The survey section on helping preschoolers learn math
included statements about teachers confidence in their
knowledge of teaching early math and confidence in their

123

ability to teach early math (see Fig. 1). Rating confidence in

their knowledge of the specifics of teaching early math, a
majority (85.8 %) of teachers were confident that they knew
reasonable math goals for preschoolers. Well over half felt
confident that they knew the best practices and strategies for
helping preschoolers learn math (68.6 %) and the professional standards for early math learning (68.0 %). Fewer,
but still more than half, of teachers agreed they knew the
best ways to assess childrens math knowledge and understanding (57.4 %) and knew what children in their classroom know about math when they enter preschool (54.8 %).

Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

371

Fig. 1 Percent of teachers who agreed or strongly agreed with statements about teachers confidence in helping preschoolers learn math.
Note: Number of teachers who responded to each of the questions ranged from 333 to 339

Teachers reported greater overall confidence in their

ability to teach preschoolers math than they did in their
knowledge of teaching it. Specifically, more than 80 % of
teachers agreed that they were confident in planning activities to help preschoolers learn math, incorporating math
learning into familiar preschool activities such as dramatic
play, and observing what preschoolers know about math.
More than half of teachers expressed confidence in their
ability to makes sense of preschoolers confusions about
math (66.7 %) and translate assessment results into curriculum plans (57.3 %). (For all survey items, see Fig. 1).

(42.4 %). Teachers were least confident in their ability to

calculate arithmetic facts in their head. Only 22.5 %
expressed confidence in this skill. (For all survey items, see
Fig. 2).
Finally, teachers confidence in helping preschoolers
learn math was compared with their confidence in their
own math abilities. The result indicates that the teachers
confidence in their own math abilities (M = 2.89,
SD = 1.23) was significantly lower than their confidence
in helping preschoolers learn math (M = 3.80, SD = 1.02)
(t(302) = -25.06, p \ .001).

Teachers Confidence in Their Personal Math Abilities

Discussion
In this survey section, teachers were asked to rate their
confidence in their general and specific math abilities (see
Fig. 2). Responding to statements about their general
ability, slightly more than a third of teachers (35.6 %)
agreed that math was one of their best subjects in school.
Approximately the same percentage (37.1 %) indicated
they did not see themselves as a math person. Less than
a fifth of the teachers (19.6 %) indicated that just the word
math can make them nervous.
In terms of specific math abilities, about half of teachers
(54.9 %) reported being confident in coming up with creative ways to solve math problems. Less than half of the
teachers agreed they were good at estimating height or
distance (43.6 %) or at finding patterns in numeric data

Survey studies are based on self-report data. They are

subjective and reflect each individuals understanding of
the survey questions and willingness to be truthful. It is
possible that in-service teachers, surveyed in the workplace, might feel pressure to report more socially
acceptable beliefs, greater confidence, and more positive
math attitudes than they actually possess. In an attempt to
reduce this pressure, teachers were informed of the purpose
of the survey; namely, to help administrators plan early
math PD that better meets their needs. Understanding that
survey results were to be used in planning their math PD
may have elicited more candid responses, potentially
moderating the limitations of self-report data.

123

372

Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

Fig. 2 Percent of teachers who agreed or strongly agreed with statements about teachers confidence in their own math abilities.
Note: Number of teachers who responded to each of the questions ranged from 333 to 338

In the discussion, we focus on four key findings: (1)

positive teacher beliefs and confidence in early math
teaching, (2) teacher confidence in relation to specific
teaching activities, (3) teachers lack of confidence in
assessing math learning, and (4) teachers confidence in
personal and professional math. Discussing the results,
we also consider their implications for early math PD.
Positive Teacher Beliefs and Confidence in Early Math
Teaching
Previous literature has largely focused on early childhood
teachers concerns about the developmental appropriateness of math (Copley 2004; Ginsburg et al. 2008). Further,
preschool teachers are generally portrayed as disliking
math, lacking confidence and the requisite knowledge to
teach early math, being anxious about teaching it, and
trying to avoid teaching it (Ginsburg et al. 2008; NAEYC
and NCTM 2010). Results of this survey describe a strikingly different picture. First, these preschool teachers
believe that early math is developmentally appropriate for
young children and that early math instruction is necessary
to prepare them for kindergarten. They also believe preschoolers have the ability to learn math and want to learn it.
Teachers report confidence in their specific abilities to set
goals and plan math activities, incorporate math learning
into a variety of situations, and observe what preschoolers

123

know about math. Looking at the results in context, all

participants in the present study were certified state pre-K
classroom teachers. Over the years, the school district has
offered them a variety of math-related PD experiences.
Participation in this PD may have prepared these teachers
with a more advanced understanding of early math and thus
contributed to the positive findings reported here.
Teachers expressed a range of positive beliefs and
confidence in this survey. In PD, these beliefs and confidences can serve as bridges to strengthen areas where
teachers experience difficulty. For example, PD can be
designed to link teachers confidence in goal-setting and
planning to the practice of assessing childrens math
learning, an area where teachers are less confident. Making
this connection requires teachers to see that assessment
reveals childrens progress in relation to the goals they
have set. As teachers assess what children are learning,
they can adjust their program goals to fit childrens needs.
Engaging in assessment becomes meaningful and useful to
teachers because it is based on their goals for children. As
teachers apply their developing skills in the assessment of
childrens learning, they can continue to build their
confidence.
In PD, teachers can also be helped to expand teaching
opportunities by drawing on their beliefs. Teachers express
a strong belief that children learn a great deal of math
through everyday experiences. To build on this belief, PD

Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

can be structured to increase teachers awareness of what

these experiences are and when they occur. This type of
learning experience in PD will help teachers think, in
specific terms, about how to use everyday experiences to
mathematize childrens learning and thinking (NRC
2009).
Variability in Teachers Confidence in Math Teaching
and Their Personal Math Ability
Survey results showed that a large majority of teachers felt
confident in their knowledge of what math to teach and
their ability to teach it to young children. Teachers were
less confident in what children know about math at school
entry, the best ways to assess childrens math knowledge,
and their ability to translate assessment results into curriculum plans. This pattern of results indicates that teacher
confidence varies with specific types of math knowledge
and types of teaching ability. Teachers confidence in their
personal math abilities also varied. Asked if they were
confident about doing specific math tasks, such as looking
at numerical data and finding patterns, teacher agreement
ranged from 22.5 to 55.9 %. Feeling confident about a
specific skill did not mean teachers saw themselves as good
at math skills in general.
In both types of teacher confidenceconfidence in
teaching math and in their personal math abilitiesvariability suggests teachers have areas of relative strength and
weakness, a finding with particular relevance to the design
of effective PD. Developing PD content based on generalizations about early childhood math teachers is likely to
miss the target of what is appropriate in relation to a specific group of teachers. As with teaching math to young
children, PD will have limited effects if it is not aligned
with teachers specific needs. Consulting with teachers
when planning PD will help to ensure that experiences are
responsive to the full range of teacher variability.
Confidence in teaching early math is learned. That
learning benefits from PD and classroom support. If a PD
instructor assumes that confidence related to math teaching
is general, it will be difficult for her to identify specific
areas for teachers to focus on. In contrast, understanding
teacher confidence as variable, an instructor can help
teachers identify areas of low confidence and then plan
development of the specific math teaching skills they need
to become more confident. Specific areas of skill are
meaningful and manageable PD targets. They guide
teachers in the process of building their confidence as math
teachers.

373

Teachers Lack of Confidence in Assessing Math

Learning
An area that requires great attention in PD is the assessment of early math knowledge and skills in young children.
Results indicate that, despite their overall confidence in
helping preschoolers learn math, teachers were less confident about how to assess childrens math knowledge and
skills. Specifically, a large number of teachers indicated
they did not feel confident in their knowledge of what
children know about math when they start school. Unclear
about the status of childrens math knowledge and skills,
teachers are also unsure about the best ways to gather such
information. Even when the information is available, they
lack confidence in their ability to translate the assessment
results into curriculum plans.
Interestingly, although a significant portion of the
teachers were uncertain about how to assess childrens math
knowledge and skills, 86 % felt confident in their ability to
observe what preschoolers know about math. Though
observation is a widely used assessment tool in early education, these teachers seemed to discount it and require that
math assessment be a formal procedure, involving specific
tasks and producing a set of scores. Teachers inclination to
exclude observation as a legitimate form of assessment is
understandable. The current emphasis on standardized
assessment can lead teachers to question the value of
informal data collection processes such as classroom
observation. Accurately assessing individual childrens
knowledge and skills is the most important phase of teaching
(Meisels 2007). Helping teachers first regain the view of
observation as assessment and then integrate it with standardized measures may encourage teachers use of the
results of both assessment tools to plan the math curriculum.
This topic needs to be stressed in early math PD for teachers.
Teachers Confidence in Personal
and Professional Math Abilities
The survey results showed that teachers confidence in
their ability to teach preschoolers math is greater than their
confidence in their own math ability. This discrepancy
between professional and personal mathematics suggests that preschool teachers may not feel they are good at
math, but believe they can teach early math fairly well. Of
concern regarding this finding is the possibility that
teachers think early math is simple, easy, and requires little
mathematical knowledge to teach. It is also possible that
greater confidence in helping children learn math comes

123

374

from a long recognized strength of early childhood teachers; namely, knowing children well and feeling comfortable interacting with them.
This finding presents both a challenge and an opportunity to design specific early math PD. The challenge
resides in the misconception that teaching early mathematics is easy since it is about the most basic math. Early
math is basic but not simple; rather it is abstract, complex,
and foundational (McCray and Chen 2011; NRC 2009). Of
critical importance to PD effectiveness is to strengthen
teachers understanding of foundational math, including
big ideasthe key mathematical concepts that lay the
foundation for life-long mathematical learning and thinking in diverse content areasand help them to form strong
connections among these ideas. Such training helps
teachers develop adaptive expertise for teaching foundational mathematics so that they can take advantage of
teachable moments and ground their teaching in those
ideas most central to the development of mathematical
thinking (Sarama and DiBiase 2004).
The challenge offers an opportunity for effective PD as
well. Given that teachers generally feel more confident
helping preschoolers learn math than they do in their own
math ability, connecting PD content to teachers classroom
practice will be of particular importance. When teachers try
new interventions and share childrens excitement in
learning math, they are likely to be motivated to learn more
about foundational math and strengthen their own mathematical competence (Chen and McCray 2012).

Conclusion
Recent studies indicate that early mathematics understanding contributes significantly to school achievement in
later years (Duncan et al. 2007). For children to gain that
understanding, their teachers must feel confident in teaching math and be mathematically proficient (Ginsburg et al.
2008; Sarama and DiBiase 2004). While knowledge and
skills are seen as essential for effective early math teaching, the importance of teachers beliefs and confidence is
not as widely recognized or as explicitly addressed in
teacher training (Chen and McCray 2012).
Previous research indicates that beliefs and confidence
are closely related to teachers knowledge acquisition and
classroom practice (Pajares 1996; Vartuli 2005). Beliefs
and confidence affect teachers thinking, motivation, and
behavior as well as mediate their skill development and
teaching (Pajares 1996). Whether or not teachers are helped
to examine beliefs and develop confidence about early
math, their beliefs and confidence directly influence their
math teaching. Results of the present study show the many

123

Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

forms that influence can take. Professional development

experiences are always filtered through beliefs and affected
by teachers confidence. For this reason, PD that integrates
beliefs and confidence is likely to produce stronger learning outcomes that teachers sustain for longer periods of
time (Handal and Herrington 2003; Wilkins 2008).
Although portrayals of early math teaching in the literature are generally critical, the results of this survey study
find early childhood teachers possess many strengths that
support math teaching. Building on these strengths will
likely increase teachers willingness to learn even outside
of their comfort zone. Building on strengths also adds to
teachers experience of success, which, in turn, increases
teacher confidence. Success and confidence can fuel
teachers participation in PD and reinforce their belief that
they are capable of becoming proficient in teaching early
math. In a joint statement, NAEYC and NCTM (2002)
advise pre-service education programs and in-service PD to
do more to encourage the development of teachers confidence and positive dispositions toward math. Survey
results and their implications for PD are consistent with
this recommendation.
Implications of the study are not limited to the United
States. As early educators around the world work to
increase the quantity and quality of early math learning
experiences for young children, helping teachers prepare to
teach early math has become a top priority (CBMS 2012).
Results of this survey suggest that teacher beliefs and
confidence are basic elements of the preparation process. In
PD programs, focal points for developing teachers beliefs
may include helping teachers become aware of their beliefs
and facilitating reflection on their appropriateness for
young children learning math. While the beliefs deemed
most essential for early math teaching may vary by country, the need to attend to the influence of beliefs will remain
constant.
Acknowledgments The work described here was supported with
grants from the Field Foundation, the Robert R. McCormick Foundation, and CME Group Foundation. The views expressed in the
article are those of the authors. Special thanks go to the state prekindergarten teachers and early childhood administrators in the Chicago Public Schools.

Appendix: Early Math Beliefs and Confidence Survey

Section 1: Beliefs About Preschoolers and Math
Below are some ideas weve heard from preschool teachers
about preschoolers and math. On this page, please indicate
what you think about these ideas.

Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

375

For each of the following statements, rate your agreement by checking the appropriate box

Most children in my class __________

Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly
Agree

1. enter preschool with little math knowledge

2. have the cognitive abilities to learn math
3. should be helped to learn math in preschool
4. are very interested in learning math
5. need to learn math in preschool to be ready
for kindergarten
6. learn a great deal about math through their
everyday activities
7. need structured preschool math instruction
8. should be helped to learn math using a
published math curriculum

Section 2: Confidence in Helping Preschoolers Learn

Math
Some preschool teachers have told us they dont feel
comfortable helping preschoolers learn math. Others feel

confident; still others say they are confident in some

areas of math but not in others. On this page, please
indicate how you feel about helping preschoolers learn
math.

For each of the following statements, rate your agreement by checking the appropriate box

I am confident in my knowledge of ______.

Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly
Agree

1. what the children in my classroom know about

math when they enter preschool
2. reasonable math goals for preschoolers
3. the best practices and strategies for helping
preschoolers learn math
4. local or national math standards for preschoolers
5. the best ways to assess childrens math knowledge
and understanding throughout the year
I am confident in my ability to ______.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree

6. observe what preschoolers know about math

7. incorporate math learning into common preschool
situations (such as art or dramatic play)
8. plan activities to help preschoolers learn math
9. further preschoolers math knowledge when they
make spontaneous math comments/ discoveries
Example: When child says I have four blocks asking child
how many blocks he would have if you gave him one more.

10. make sense of preschoolers confusions when they

learn math
Example: Why child thinks and

arent the same shape.

11. translate assessment results into curriculum plans

123

376

Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

Section 3: Confidence in Your Math Abilities

Some preschool teachers have told us that they just arent good
at math. Others say they love math. Still others say how they
feel depends on the specific area of math. On this page, please
indicate how you feel about math and your math abilities.
Thank you very much for sharing your experiences.
For each of the following statements, rate your agreement by checking the appropriate box
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly
Agree

1. Math was one of my best subjects in school.

2. Just the word math can make me feel nervous.
3. Im not a math person.
4. I can easily rotate objects in my mind
Example: Figuring out how something would look from
another angle.

5. I like coming up with creative ways to solve

math problems.
6. I can easily convert fractions into percentages
and decimal numbers.
7. I have a bad sense of direction.
8. Im good at looking at numeric data and finding
patterns.
9. Im good at estimating how tall something is or
the distance between two locations.

References
Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C.
(2009). Female teachers math anxiety affects girls math
achievement. PNAS Early Edition. Retrieved from www.pnas.
org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0910967107.
Bowman, B. T., Donovan, M. S., & Burns, M. S. (Eds.). (2001).
Eager to learn: Educating our preschoolers. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.
Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1987). Developmentally
appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving
children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Carpenter, T. P., Fennema, E., Peterson, P. L., & Carey, D. A. (1988).
Teachers pedagogical content knowledge of students problemsolving in elementary arithmetic. Journal of Research in
Mathematics Education, 19, 385401.
Chen, J. Q., & McCray, J. (2012). A conceptual framework for
teacher professional development: The whole teacher approach.
NHSA Dialog: A Research-to-Practice Journal for the Early
Intervention Field, 15(1), 823.

123

Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences. (2012). The

mathematical education of teachers II. Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society.
Copley, J. V. (2004). The early childhood mathematics collaborative:
A professional development model to communicate and implement the standards. In D. H. Clements, J. Sarama, & A.-M.
DiBiase (Eds.), Engaging young children in mathematics:
Standards for early mathematics education (pp. 401414).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Copple, C. E. (2004). Mathematics curriculum in the early childhood
context. In D. H. Clements, J. Sarama, & A.-M. DiBiase (Eds.),
Engaging young children in mathematics: Standards for early
childhood mathematics education (pp. 8387). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Duncan, F. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessent, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A.
C., Klebanove, P., et al. (2007). School readiness and later
achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 14281446.
Ginsburg, H. P., Lee, J. S., & Boyd, J. S. (2008). Mathematics education
for young children: What it is and how to promote it. Society for
Research in Child Development, social policy report, vol. 22(1).

Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:367377

Ginsburg, H. P., & Seo, K. H. (1999). The mathematics in childrens
thinking. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 1(2), 113129.
Handal, B., & Herrington, A. (2003). Mathematics teachers beliefs
and curriculum reform. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 15(1), 5969.
Kowalski, K., Pretti-Frontczak, K., & Johnson, L. (2001). Preschool
teachers beliefs concerning the importance of various developmental skills and abilities. Journal of Research in Childhood
Education, 16, 514.
McCray, J., & Chen, J. Q. (2011). Foundational mathematics: A
neglected opportunity. In B. Atweh, M. Graven, W. Secada, & P.
Valero (Eds.), Mapping equity and quality in mathematics
education (pp. 253268). New York, NY: Springer.
Meisels, S. (2007). Foreword. In J. Q. Chen & G. McNamee (Eds.),
Bridging: Assessment for teaching and learning in early
childhood classrooms. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
NAEYC and NCTM. (2002). Early childhood mathematics: Promoting good beginnings. Washington, DC: Authors.
NAEYC and NCTM. (2010). Focus in pre-kindergarten: Teaching
with curriculum focal points. Reston, VA: Authors.
National Research Council. (2009). Mathematics learning in early
childhood: Paths toward excellence and equity. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press.
Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review
of Educational Research, 66(4), 543578.

377
Philipp, R. A. (2007). Mathematics teachers beliefs and affect. In F.
K. Lester (Ed.), Second handbook of research on mathematics
teaching and learning (pp. 257315). Reston, VA: National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Sarama, J., & DiBiase, A.-M. (2004). The professional development
challenge in preschool mathematics. In D. H. Clements, J.
Sarama, & A.-M. DiBiase (Eds.), Engaging young children in
mathematics: Standards for early childhood education (pp.
415446). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum.
Stipek, D. J., Givvin, K. B., Salmon, J. M., & MacGyvers, V. L.
(2001). Teachers beliefs and practices related to mathematics
instruction. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 213226.
Vartuli, S. (2005). Beliefs: The heart of teaching. Young Children,
60(5), 7686.
White, C. S., Deal, D., & Deniz, C. B. (2004). Teachers knowledge,
beliefs, and practices and mathematical and analogical reasoning. In L. D. English (Ed.), Mathematical and analogical
reasoning of young learners (pp. 127152). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Wilkins, J. L. (2008). The relationship among elementary teachers
content knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and practices. Journal of
Mathematics Teacher Education, 11(2), 139164.
Yesil-Dagli, U., Lake, V. E., & Jones, I. (2010). Preservice teachers
beliefs about mathematics and science content and teaching.
Journal of Research in Education, 21(2), 3248.

123